Fig. 15.—Controller for Water Tanks (Lartigue System).Fig. 15.—Controller for Water Tanks (Lartigue System).
1.The Lartigue Controller(Fig. 15).—This apparatus consists of a long lever, A, which carries at one of its extremities a funnel, E, having a very narrow orifice and which is placed under the overflow pipe of the tank. The lever is kept normally in a horizontal position by a counterpoise; but, as soon as the overflow runs into the funnel, the weight of the water tilts the lever, and the mercurial commutator, F, closes the circuit of a pile, which actuates an alarm-bell located near the pump and engine. The two stops,aanda', limit the play of the lever.
Fig. 16.—Controller for Water Tanks (Vérité System).Fig. 16.—Controller for Water Tanks (Vérité System).
2.The Vérité Controller(Fig. 16).—This apparatus consists of a float, F, provided with a catch, C, calculated in such a way as to act only when the float has reached a certain definite height. At that moment it lifts the extremity of the weighted lever, E, which in falling back acts upon the extremity,a, of another lever, N, pivoted at the point, O. The piece, P, which is normally in contact with the magnet, A, being suddenly detached by this movement of the lever, N, the induced current which is then produced causes the display, near the pump, of a disk, Q, upon which is inscribed the word "Full." This is a signal to stop pumping.
Telephonic communication between the Opera and the Exhibition of Electricity is obtained by means of twenty conducting wires, which are divided between two halls hung with carpets to deaden external noises. We represent in the accompanying engraving one of these halls, and the one which is lighted by the Lane-Fox system of lamps. As may be seen, there are affixed against the hangings, all around the room, long mahogany boards, to which are fastened about twenty small tablets provided with hooks, from which are suspended the telephones. The latter are connected with the underground conductors by extensible wires which project from the wooden wainscot of which we have just spoken, so that it is very easy for the auditors to put the telephones to their ears.
ONE OF THE TELEPHONIC HALLS AT THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.ONE OF THE TELEPHONIC HALLS AT THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.
As the telephones are connected in series of eight with the same couple of microphone transmitters, and as each of these transmitting couples occupies a different position on the stage, it results that the effects are not the same at different points of each hall. Those telephones, for example, which correspond with the foot-lights of the theater are more affected by the sounds of the large instnuments of the orchestra than those which occupy the middle of the foot-lights; but, as an offset to this, the latter are affected by the voice of the prompter. In order to equalize the effects as much as possible, Mr. Ader has arranged it so that the two transmitters of each series shall be placed under conditions that are diametrically opposite. Thus, the transmitter at the end of the foot-lights, on the left side, corresponds with the transmitter of the series to the right, nearest to the middle of the stage; and the arrangement is the same, but in an inverse direction, for the transmitter at the end of the foot-lights to the right. But the series which produces the best effects is, as may be readily comprehended, that which corresponds with the transmitters occupying the middle of the right and left rows. These considerations easily explain the different opinions expressed by certain auditors in relation to the predominant sounds that they have heard, and why it is that some of them who have listened in different parts of the same hall have not had the same impressions. Naturally, the fault has beeen laid to the telephones; but, although these may vary in quality, it is more particularly to the arrangement of the transmitters on the stage that are to be attributed the differences that are noted.
As the Opera does not give representations every day, Mr. Ader has had the idea of occupying the attention of the public on Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday with the telephonic effects of flourishes of trumpets, which imitate pretty well the effects of French horns. These experiments have taken place in the hall in which is installed the little theater, and we must really say that in the effects produced French horns count for nothing.—La Lumiere Electrique.
When the voltaic arc plays between two metallic rheophores, of copper for instance, each formed of a U-tube traversed by a rapid current of cold water, and placed horizontally opposite each other, the following facts are observed: The luminous power of the arc is considerably weakened; it is reduced to a mere luminous point even when a current of 50 to 75 Bunsen elements of the large pattern is employed. The arc is very unstable and the least breath is sufficient to extinguish it. If a leaf of paper is placed above the arc at the distance of 0.004 to 0.005 meter a black point is produced in a few moments, which spreads and becomes a perforation, but the paper does not ignite. The arc consists of a luminous globule, moving between the two rheophores up and down and back again. The form of this globule, as well as its extreme mobility, causes it to resemble a drop of water in a spheroidal state. If we approach to the voltaic arc the south pole of a magnet the arc is attracted to such a degree that it leaves the rheophores and is extinguished. The same facts are observed in an intense form on presenting the north pole of a magnet to the arc. The quantity of ozone seems greater than when the arc is not refrigerated. It is to be noted that notwithstanding the refrigeration of the rheophores the flame of the arc is slightly green, proving that a portion of the copper is burning. It becomes a question whether the arc would be produced on taking as rheophores two tubes of platinum in which is caused to circulate,e.g., alcohol cooled to -30°.—D. Tommasi.
We herewith illustrate an exceedingly simple form of detecter, to show if the night watchmen perform their visits regularly and punctually. In the case, C, is a clockwork apparatus driving the axle, S, at the end of which is a worm which gears into the wheel of the drum, D. The rotation of D, thus obtained unrolls a strip of paper from the other drum, D. This paper passes over the poles of as many electro-magnets as there are points to be visited, and underneath the armatures of these electro-magnets. Each armature has a sharp point fixed on its under side, and when a current passing through the coils causes the attraction of the armature, this point perforates the paper. The places to be visited are connected electrically with the binding screws shown, and the watchman has merely to press a button to make the electric circuit complete. It has been found in practice that plain paper answers every purpose, as the clock giving an almost uniform motion enables the reader, after having seen the perforated slips once or twice, to determine fairly well the time which elapses between each pressure of the button.—The Engineer.
WATCHMAN'S DETECTERWATCHMAN'S DETECTER
At a recent meeting of the London Physical Society, Mr. C. Vernon Boys read a paper on "Integrating Apparatus." After referring to his original "cart" machine for integrating, described at a former meeting of the society, he showed how he had been led to construct the new machine exhibited, in which a cylinder is caused to reciprocate longitudinally in contact with a disk, and give the integral by its rotation. Integrators were of three kinds: (1) radius machines; (2) cosine machines; (3) tangent machines. Sliding friction and inertia render the first two kinds unsuitable where there are delicate forces or rapid variation in the function to be integrated. Tangent machines depend on pure rolling, and the inertia and friction are inappreciable. They are, therefore, more practical than the other sort. It is to this class that Mr. Boys' machines belong. The author then described a theoretical tangent integrator depending on the mutual rolling of two smoke rings, and showed how the steering of a bicycle or wheelbarrow could be applied to integrate directly with a cylinder either the quotient or product of two functions. If the tangent wheel is turned through a right angle at starting, the machine will integrate reciprocals, or it can be made to integrate functions by an inverse process. If instead of a cylinder some other surface of evolution is employed as an integrating surface, then special integrations can be effected. He showed a polar planimeter in which the integrating surface is a sphere. A special use of these integrators is for finding the total work done by a fluid pressure reciprocating engine. The difference of pressure on the two sides of the piston determines the tangent of the inclination of the tangent wheel which runs on the integrating cylinder; while the motion of the latter is made to keep time with that of the piston. In this case the number of evolutions of the cylinder measures the total amount of work done by the engine. The disk cylinder integrator may also be applied to find the total amount of work transmitted by shafting or belting from one part of a factory to another. An electric current meter may be made by giving inclination to the disk, which is for this purpose made exceedingly small and delicate, by means of a heavy magnetic needle deflected by the current. This, like Edison's, is a direction meter; but a meter in which no regard is paid to the direction of the current can be made by help of an iron armature of such a shape that the force with which it is attracted to fill the space between the poles of an electro-magnet is inversely as its displacement. Then by resisting this motion by a spring or pendulum the movement is proportional to the current, and a tangent wheel actuated by this movement causes the reciprocating cylinder on which it runs to integrate the current strength. Mr. Boys exhibited two such electric energy meters, that is, machines which integrate the product of the current strength by the difference of potential between two points with respect to time. In these the main current is made to pass through a pair of concentric solenoids, and in the annular space between these is hung a solenoid, the upper half of which is wound in the opposite direction to the lower half. By the use of what Mr. Boys calls "induction traps" of iron, the magnetic force is confined to a small portion of the suspended solenoid, and by this means the force is independent of the position. The solenoid is hung to one end of a beam, and its motion is resisted by a pendulum weight, by which the energy meters may be regulated like clocks to give standard measure. The beam carries the tangent wheels, and the rotation of the cylinder gives the energy expanded in foot-pounds or other measures. The use of an equal number of turns in opposite directions on the movable solenoid causes the instrument to be uninfluenced by external magnetic forces. Mr. Boys showed on the screen an image of an electric arc, and by its side was a spot of light, whose position indicated the energy, and showed every flicker of the light and fluctuation of current in the arc. He showed on the screen that if the poles are brought too near the energy expended is less, though the current is stronger, and that if the poles are too far apart, though the electromotive force is greater the energy is less; so that the apparatus may be made to find the distance at which the greatest energy, and so the greatest heat and light, may be produced.
At the conclusion of the paper, Prof. W.G. Adams and Prof. G.C. Foster could not refrain from expressing their high admiration of the ingenious and able manner in which Mr. Boys had developed the subject.
A novelty in canal boats lies in Charles River, near the foot of Chestnut street, which is calculated to attract considerable attention. It is called a pneumatic canal boat and was built at Wiscasset, Me., as devised by the owner, Mr. R.H. Tucker, of Boston, who claims to hold patents for its design in England and the United States. The specimen shown on Charles River, which is designed to be used on canals without injuring the banks, is a simple structure, measuring sixty-two feet long and twenty wide. It is three feet in depth and draws seventeen inches of water. It is driven entirely by air, Root's blower No. 4 being used, the latter operated by an eight-horse-power engine. The air is forced down a central shaft to the bottom, where it is deflected, and, being confined between keels, passes backward and upward, escaping at the stern through an orifice nineteen feet wide, so as to form a sort of air wedge between the boat and the surface of the water. The force with which the air strikes the water is what propels it. The boat has a speed of four miles an hour, but requires a thirty-five-horsepower engine to develop its full capabilities. The patentee claims a great advantage in doing away with the heavy machinery of screws and side-wheels, and believes that the contrivance gives full results, in proportion to the power employed. It is also contrived for backing and steering by air propulsion. Owing to the slight disturbance which it causes to the water, it is thought to be very well adapted for work on canals without injury to the sides.—Boston Journal.
The veneer ceilings are considered as much superior to cloth as cloth was to the roof-ceiling. They are remarkably chaste, and so solid and substantial that but little decoration is necessary to produce a pleasing effect. The agreeable contrast between the natural grain of the wood and the deeper shade of the bands and mouldings is all that is necessary to harmonize with the other parts of the interiors of certain classes of cars—smoking and dining cars, for example. But in the case of parlor and dining-room cars, the decorations of these ceilings should be in keeping with the style of the cars, by giving such a character to the lines, curves, and colors, as will be suggestive of cheerfulness and life. While these head linings are deserving of the highest commendation as an important improvement upon previous ones, they are still open to some objections. One barrier to their general adoption is their increased cost. It is true that superior quality implies higher prices, but when the prices exceed so much those of cloth linings, it is difficult to induce road managers to increase expenses by introducing the new linings, when the great object is to reduce expenses. Another objection to wood linings is their liability to injury from heat and moisture, a liability which results from the way in which they are put together. A heated roof or a leak swells the veneering, and in many cases takes it off in strips. To obviate these objections, I have, during the past eighteen months, been experimenting with some materials that would be less affected by these causes, and at the same time make a handsome ceiling. About a year ago I fitted up one car in this way, and it has proved a success. The material used is heavy tar-board pressed into the form of the roof and strengthened by burlaps. It is then grained and decorated in the usual manner, and when finished has the same appearance as the veneers, will wear as well, and can be finished at much less cost.—D.D. Robertson.
The engravings herewith illustrate a new form of mixing or pugging machine for making mortar or any other similar material. It has been designed by Mr. R.R. Gubbins, more especially for mixing emery with agglutinating material for making emery wheels; and a machine is at work on this material in the manufactory of the Standard Emery Wheel Company, Greek Street, Soho. The machine is shown in perspective in Fig. 1 with the side door of the mixing box let down as it is when the box is being emptied; and in Fig. 2 it is shown in transverse section. The principle of the machine is the employment of disks fixed at an angle of about 45 deg. on shafts revolving in a mixing box, to which a slow reciprocating movement of short range is given.
Figs. 1.Fig. 1Fig. 2.Fig. 2—IMPROVED MORTAR MIXING MACHINE.
In our illustrations, C is a knife-edge rail, upon which run grooved wheels supporting the pugging box. To the axle of one grooved wheel a connecting rod from crank arm, F is attached to effect the to-and-fro motion of the mixing box, B. G is the door of the box, B, hinged at H, and secured by hinged pins carrying fly nuts. A cover and hopper and also a trap may be supplied to the box, B, for continuously feeding and discharging the material operated upon. L, L, are the pugging blades or discs on shafts, M. The shafts, M, pass through a slot in the box, B, and the packing of these shafts is effected by the face plate sliding and bearing against the face on the standard of the machine. P is a guide piece on the standard, against which bears and slides the piece, Q, bolted on to box, B, to support and guide the box, B, in its movement. The forked ends of a yoke engage with the collars, S, on the shafts, M, this yoke being set by a screw so that the shafts may be easily removed. The machine is driven from the pulleys and shaft, T, through gearing, T2 and T3, and by the Ewart's chain on the wheel and pinion, V and U.—The Engineer.
[Continued fromSupplement, No. 311, page 4960.]
Previously, I described the method of tinning the bit, etc., with resin; but before this work on joints can be considered complete, I find it necessary to speak of tinning the ends of iron pipes, etc., which have within the last fifty years been much used in conjunction with leaden pipes. This is done as follows: Take some spirits of salts (otherwise known as hydrochloric acid, muriatic acid, hydrogen chloride, HCl), in a gallipot, and put as much sheet-zinc in it as the spirit will dissolve; you have then obtained chloride of zinc (ZnCl). A little care is required when making this, as the acid is decomposed and is spread about by the discharged hydrogen, and will rust anything made of iron or steel, such as tools, etc. It also readily absorbs ammoniacal gas, so that, in fact, sal ammoniac may also be dissolved in it, or sal ammoniac dissolved in water will answer the purpose of the chloride of zinc.
Having the killed spirits, as it is sometimes called, ready, file the end of your iron or bit and plunge this part into the spirits, then touch your dipped end with some fine solder, and dip it again and again into the spirits until you have a good tinned face upon your iron, etc.; next you require a spirit-brush.
You can make this by cutting a few bristles out of a broom or brush, push them into a short piece of compo tube, say ¼ in., and hammer up the end to hold the bristles; next cut the ends of the bristles to about 3/8 in. long, and the brush is ready for use.
Suppose you want to make a joint round a lead and iron pipe. First file the end of your iron pipe as far up as you would shave it if it were lead, and be sure to file it quite bright and free from grease; heat your soldering-iron; then, with your spirit-brush, paint the prepared end of your iron, and with your bit, rub over the pipe plenty of solder, until the pipe is properly tinned, not forgetting to use plenty of spirits; this done, you can put your joint together, and wipe in the usual manner. Caution.—Do not put too much heat on your iron pipe, either when tinning or making the joint, or the solder will not take or stand.
FIGS. 38. and 38b.FIGS. 38. and 38b.
Figs. 38 and 38b. This tool I had better describe before proceeding to the method of bending. To make it take a piece of, say, ½ in. iron pipe, 3 ft. long, or the length required, bent a little at one end, as shown at A B in Fig. 38 and Fig. 38b. Tin the end about 2 in. up, make a hole with a small plumbing-iron in some sand, and place the tinned end of the iron pipe, B, into this hole; fill the hole up with good hot lead, and the dummy, after it has been rasped up a little, is ready for use. It will be found handy to have three or four different lengths, and bent to different angles, to suit your work. A straight one (Fig. 38b.) made to screw into an iron socket or length of gas-pipe, will be found very handy for getting dents out of long lengths of soil-pipe.
Before you begin bending solid pressed pipes always put the thickest part of your pipeat the back. Lead, in a good plumber's hands, may be twisted into every conceivable shape; but, as in all other trades, there is a right and a wrong way of doing everything, and there are many different methods, each having a right and wrong way, which I shall describe. I shall be pleased if my readers will adopt the style most suitable for their particular kind of work; of course I shall say which is the best for the class of work required.
For small pipes, such as from ½ in. to 1 in. "stoutpipe," you may pull them round without trouble or danger; but for larger sizes, say, from 1¼ in. to 2 in., some little care is necessary, even in stout pipes.
Fig. 37 illustrates a badly made bend, and also shows how it comes together at the throat, X, and back, E; L is the enlarged section of X E, looking at the pipe endways. The cause of this contraction is pulling the bend too quickly, and too much at a time, without dressing in the sides at B B as follows: After you have pulled the pipe round until it just begins to flatten, take a soft dresser, or a piece of soft wood, and a hammer, and turn the pipe on its side as at Fig. 37; then strike the bulged part of the pipe from X B toward E, until it appears round like section K. Now pull your pipe round again as before, and keep working it until finished. If you find that it becomes smaller at the bend, take a long bolt and work the throat part out until you have it as required.
FIG. 37.FIG. 37.
Fig. 39. This style of bending is much in use abroad, but not much practiced in London, though a splendid method of work.
FIG. 39.FIG. 39.
It is a well known fact that, practically speaking, for such work, water is incompressible, but may be turned and twisted about to any shape, provided it is inclosed in a solid case—Fig. 39 is that case. The end, A, is stopped, and the stopcock, B, soldered into the other end. Now fill up this pipe quite full with warm water and shut the cock, take the end, A, and pull round the pipe, at the same time dressing the molecules of lead from the throat, C, toward D E, which will flow if properly worked.
You can hammer away as much as you please, but be quick about it, so that the water does not cool down, thereby contracting; in fact, you should open the cock now and then, and recharge it to make sure of this.
This is a very old method of bending lead pipes, and answers every purpose for long, easy bends. Proceed in this way: The length of the pipe to be 5 ft., fill and well ram this pipe solid with sand 2 ft. up, then have ready a metal-pot of very hot sand to fill the pipe one foot up, next fill the pipe up with more cold sand, ramming it as firmly as possible, stop the end and work it round as you did the water bend, but do not strike it too hard in one place, or you will find it give way and require to be dummied out again, or if you cannot get the dent out with the dummy send a ball through (see "Bending with Balls").
This style of work is much practiced on small pipes, such as 2 in. to 3 in., especially by London plumbers. Method: Suppose your pipe to be 2 in., then you require your ball or bobbin about 1/16 in. less than the pipe, so that it will run through the pipe freely. Now pull the pipe round until it just begins to flatten, as at Fig. 37, put the ball into the pipe, and with some short pieces of wood (say, 2 in. long by 1½ in. diameter) force the ball through the dented part of the pipe, or you may use several different-sized balls, as at A B C, Fig. 40, and ram them through the pipe with a short mandrel, as at D M. You will require to proceed very carefully about this ramming, or otherwise you will most likely drive the bobbins through the back at L K J. You must also watch the throat part, G H I, to keep it from kinking or buckling-up; dress this part from the throat toward the back, in order to get rid of the surplus in the throat.
FIG. 40.FIG. 40.
Fig. 41 shows a method of bending with three balls, one of lead being used as a driver attached to a piece of twine. This is a country method, and very good, because the two balls are kept constantly to the work. First, put the two balls just where you require the bend, then pull the pipe slightly round; take the leaden ball and drop it on the ball, B, then turn the pipe the other end up and drop it on A, and do so until your bend is the required shape. You must be careful not to let your leaden ball touch the back of the pipe. Some use a piece of smaller leaden pipe run full of lead for the ball, C, and I do not think it at all a bad method, as you can get a much greater weight for giving the desired blow to yourboxwoodballs.
FIG. 41.FIG. 41.
This is an excellent method of bending small pipes. Fig. 42 will almost describe itself. A is a brass or gun metal ball having a copper or wire rope running through it, and pulled through the flattened part of the pipe as shown. It will be quite as well to tack the bend down to the bench, as at B, when pulling the ball through; well dress the lead from front to back to thicken the back. I have seen some plumbers put an extra thickness of lead on the back before beginning to bend. Notice: nearly all solid pressed pipes are thicker on one side than the other (as before remarked), always place the thickest part at the back.
FIG. 42.FIG. 42.
Fig 43. This is my own method of pipe-bending, and is very useful when properly handled with plenty of force, but requires great care and practice. You must have a union sweated on the end, A, Fig. 43, and the ball, B, to fit the pipe. The cup-leather, E, should have a plate fixed on the front to press the ball forward. Pull up the pipe as you please, and pump the ball through; it will take all the dents out, and that too very quickly.
FIG. 43.FIG. 43.
This method of bending is much practiced in the provinces, and, for anything I know to the contrary, is one of the best methods in use, as by it you are likely to get a good substance of metal on the back of the bend whether the plumber be a good or a bad workman. Proceed as follows: Cut the pipe down the center to suit the length of your bend, as shown at A B, Fig. 44. It will be quite as well if you first set out this bend on the bench, then you may measure round the back, as from C to L, to obtain the distance of the cut, which should always be three or four inches longer than the bend. You may also in this way obtain the correct length for the throat, G H I; here you will see that you have a quantity of lead to spare,i.e., from A to E, all of which has to be got rid of in uncut bends—some plumbers shift from front to back, but how many? Not one in twenty. After you have cut the pipe, open the throat part, bend out the sides, and pull this part round a little at a time, then with a dummy, Fig. 38, work the internal part of the throat outward to as nearly the shape as you can. Go carefully to work, and do not attempt to work up the sides, A D B, until your throat is nearly to the proper shape, after which you may do so with a small boxwood dresser or bossing-stick (It is not necessary to explain minutely what a bosser or dressing-stick is, as they can be bought at almost any lead-merchants—the dresser is shown at E, Fig. 1; the bossing-stick is somewhat similar, the only difference being that it has a rounded face instead of flat.) Keep the dummy up against the sides when truing it. If you have proceeded properly with this throat part, you will not require to work up the sides or edges, as in working the throat back the sides will come up by themselves. Next take the back, pull it round a little at a time, the dummy being held inside, with your dresser work the two edges and sides slowly round, and the back will follow. Never strike the back from the underside with the dummy. After you have made a dozen or two you will be able to make them as fast as you please, but do not hurry them at first, as the greater part of this work is only to be learned by patient application, perseverance, and practice.
FIG. 44.FIG. 44.
After you have made the bend it will require to be soldered, but before you can do this you must have the joint quite perfect and the edges true one with the other. A good bender will not require to touch his edges at all, but a novice will have to rasp and trim them up so that they come together. Having your edges true, soil them, take a gauge-hook, which may be described as a shave-hook with a gauge attached, and shave it about 1/8 in. each side; now solder it to look like the solder A, Fig. 45, which is done as follows: With some fine solder tack the joint at A D B, Fig. 44, put on some resin, and with a well-heated copper-bit drop some solder roughly on the point from B to A, then draw the bit over it again to float the solder, being especially careful not to let the joint open when coming off at A. Some plumbers think fit to begin here, but that is a matter of no importance. Do not forget that if your joint is not properly prepared, that is to say, true and even, it is sure to be a failure, and will have a "higgledy-piggledy" appearance. Some difference of opinion exists as to the best method of making these joints: one workman will make a good joint by drawing it while, on the other hand, another one will do it equally well by wiping it. Drawing will be fully explained in a part on pipe making. It may, however, be here mentioned that it is a method of making the joint by floating the solder along the joint with the ladle and plumbing-iron.
FIG. 45.FIG. 45.
It is not uncommon for plumbers to make their bends with only one joint on the back.
In London, it is the favorite plan to make bends without cutting them. Fig. 46. It is done by taking a length of pipe, and, just where you require the bend, lay it (with the seam at the side) upon a pillow, made by tightly filling a sack with sand, wood shavings, or sawdust; have some shavings ready to hand and a good lath, also a short length of mandrel about 3 ft. long and about ½ in. smaller than the pipe, and a dummy as shown at A B, Fig. 56. Now, all being ready, put a few burning shavings into the throat of the bend, just to get heat enough to make it fizz, which you can judge by spitting on it. When this heat is acquired withdraw the fire, and let the laborer quickly place the end of the mandrel into the pipe, and pull the pipe up while you place a sack or anything else convenient across the throat of the bend, then pull the pipe up a little, just sufficient to dent it across the throat. Now, with ahotdummy, dummy out the dent, until it is round like the other part of the pipe. Keep at this until your bend is made, occasionally turning the pipe or its side and giving it a sharp blow on the side with the soft or hornbeam dresser; this is when the sides run out as in Fig. 37. Never strike the back part of the bend from inside with the dummy, but work the lead from the throat to the back with a view to thickening the back.
FIG. 46.FIG. 46.
A set-off is nothing more than a double bend, as shown at Fig. 47, and made in much the same manner. D is the long end of the pipe. Always make this bend first and pull it up quite square, as it will be found to go a little back when pulling up the other bend; if you can make the two together so much the better, as you can then work the stuff from the throat of one bend into the back of the other. The different shaped dummies are also here shown: F a round-nosed dummy, G a double bent dummy, H a single bent, I straight, J hand-dummy, ABN a long bent dummy shown at Fig. 38.
FIG. 47.FIG. 47.
These can always be detected by examining them in their backs, as at Fig. 48; take a small dresser and tap the pipe a few times round ABD to test for the thickness. Strike it hard enough to just dent it; next strike the back part of the pipe, E,with the same force, and if it dents much more it is not an equally-made bend. I have seen some of these much-praised London-made bends that could be easily squeezed together by the pressure of the thumb and finger. N.B.—Care must be taken not to reduce or enlarge the size of the bore at the bend.
FIG. 48.FIG. 48.
The fall given in bending lead pipes should be considered of quite as much importance as making the bends of equal thickness especially for pipes, as shown in Fig. 49. In this Fig. you have a drawing of a bad bend. From A to B there is no fall whatever, as also from B to C; such bending is frequently done and fixed in and about London, which is not only more work for the plumber, but next to useless for soil-pipes. Fig. 50 shows how this bend should be made with a good fall from A to J, also from M to N; the method of making these bends requires no further explanation. R, P, and K are the turnpins for opening the ends, the method of which will be explained in a future paragraph on "Preparing for Fixing."
FIG. 49.FIG. 49.
FIG. 50.FIG. 50.
It will sometimes be found requisite to retard the flow of water when running through soil or other pipes, or to direct it to another course, or even to form a trap in the length of pipe. This has been done in many ways, but Figs. 51 and 52 represent the method that I, after mature consideration, think most preferable. There is nothing new about this style of bending, as it has been long in vogue with provincial plumbers, but more especially in Kent. For many years it has had a run as a sink and slop closet-trap. Mr. Baldwin Latham, in his "Sanitary Engineering," says it was introduced and has been used for the Surrey and Kent sewers from about 1848.
FIG. 51.FIG. 51.
FIG. 52.FIG. 52.
I have also noticed many of these traps in the Sanitary Exhibition at South Kensington, made by Graham and Fleming, plumbers, who deserve a medal for their perseverance and skill, not only for the excellence of their bends, but also for some other branches of the trade, such as joint-wiping, etc., which is unquestionably the best work sent into this Exhibition—in fact, quite equal to that which was shown at the Exhibition of 1862. I shall treat further of these bends in an article on Fixing, in a future part.
This is an American method of making lead bends. Fig. 53 shows a dummy made upon a bent steel rod, fixed into the bench. The method of working it is by first pulling up the bend, and to get out the dents, strike the rod of the snarling dummy, as shown at A, and the reaction gives a blow within the bend, throwing out the bend to any shape required. This method of working the dummy is also taken advantage of in working up embossed vases, etc.
FIG. 53.FIG. 53.
(To be continued)
[1]
From the LondonBuilding News.
From the LondonBuilding News.
The manufacture of fabrics having woofs of different colors requires the use of several shuttles and boxes containing the different colors at the extremity of the driver's travel, in which these boxes are adjusted alternately either by a rectilinear motion, or by a rotary one when the boxes are arranged upon a cylinder. The controlling mechanism of the shuttles by means of draught and tie machines constitutes, at present, the most perfect apparatus of this nature, because they allow of a choice of any shuttles whatever.
THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.
The apparatus constructed by the Grossenhainer Webstuhl und Maschinen Fabrik, of Grossenhain, and represented in the accompanying cut, is new as regards its general arrangement, although in its details it more or less resembles the analogous machines of Schönherr, Crompton, and Hartmann. The lifting of the shuttles is effected by two sectors,a1,a2, arranged on the two sides of the loom, and the rotary motion of which acts upon the box,c, by means of the lever,b, the box being caused to descend again by the spring,d. Parallel with the breast beam there is mounted an axle,e, and upon one of the extremities of this is fixed the sector,a1, while the other extremity carries two fixed disks,f1,f2, two loose disks,f3,f4, and the sector,a2, which is connected with the latter. The disks are kept in position by a brake,g. The pawls,h1andh2, are supported on a lever,i, on a level with the disks, and are connected with the cam,l, by the spring,k. This cam revolves with the axle of the loom and thrusts the pawls against the disk. A draught and tie machine controls the action of the pawls on the disks in such a way that, by the revolution of the sectors,a1anda2, the shuttle-boxes, I., II., III., are brought at the desired moment in the way of the driver. The pawls,h, are connected by wires with the bent levers,m, of the draught machine, which carry also the pawls,n. The upper position of the pawls,h, is limited by the direct resting of the levers,m, on the tappet,o, and the lower position by the resting of the pawls,n. The plates,p, held by the pattern, M, are set in motion horizontally by means of the eccentric,q, the crank,r, and the bent lever,s. The raised plates abut against the corresponding levers,m, and thus bring about the descent of the pawls,h, which are suspended from these levers. This position is maintained by the resting of the pawls,n, upon the tappet,o, until the lowering of the corresponding plate has set the pawl,n, free. The lever,m, then gives way to the action of the spring,t, and the pawl,h, rises again. The rotation of the cylinder which supports the design, M, is effected by the motion of the bent lever,s.
A meeting of ladies was held in this city recently to consider the possibilities of industrial art in furnishing occupation for women.
Mrs. Florence E. Cory, Principal of the Woman's Institute of Technical Design, which was recently established in this city, advanced the proposition that whatever could be done by man in decorative art could be done as well by women, and she made an earnest plea to her own sex to fit themselves by proper training to engage in remunerative industrial work. Mrs. Cory enjoys the distinction of being the first woman who ever attempted to make designs for carpets in this country. She said that four years ago, when she came to this city, there was no school at which was taught any kind of design as applied to industrial purposes, except at Cooper Union, where design was taught theoretically but not practically. During the past year or two, however, in many branches of industrial design women have been pressing to the front, and last year eighteen ladies were graduated from the Boston Institute of Technology. Most of these ladies are now working as designers for various manufacturers, eight are in print factories, designing for chintz and calico, two have become designers for oil-cloths, one is designing for a carpet company, and one for a china factory. Carpet designing, said Mrs. Cory, is especially fitted for women's work. It opens a wide field to them that is light, pleasant, and remunerative. The demand for good carpet designs far exceeds the supply, and American manufactures are sending to Europe, particularly England and France, for hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of designs yearly. If the same quality of designs could be made in this country the manufacturers would gladly patronize home talent. One carpet firm alone pays $100,000 a year for its designing department, and of this sum several thousands of dollars go to foreign markets. More technical knowledge is required for carpet designing than for any other industrial design. It is necessary to have a fair knowledge of the looms, runnings of color, and manner of weaving. Hitherto this knowledge has been very difficult, if not impossible, for women to obtain. But now there are a few places where competent instruction in this branch of industrial art is given.
There are several kinds of work connected with this business that may be done at home by those who wish, and at very fair prices. The price of copying an ingrain design is from $3 to $6 per sheet. The price for an original design of the same size is from $10 to $20. For Brussels or tapestry sketches, which may be made at home, provided they are as good as the average sketch, the artists receive from $15 to $30. For moquettes, Axminsters, and the higher grades of carpets some artists are paid as high as $200. The average price, however, is from $25 to $100. These designs may all be made at home, carried to the manufacturer, submitted to his judgment, and if approved, will be purchased. After the purchase, if the manufacturer desires the artist to put the design upon the lines and the artist chooses to do so, the work may still be done at home, and the pay will range from $20 to $75 extra for each design so finished. The average length of time for making a design is, for ingrains, two per week; Brussels sketch, three per week; Brussels on the lines, one in two weeks; moquettes and Axminsters, one in two or three weeks, depending of course upon the elaborateness and size of the pattern. When the work is done at the designing-rooms, and the artist is required to give his or her time from 9 o'clock in the morning until 5 in the afternoon, the salaries run about as follows: For a good original ingrain designer, from $2,000 to $3,000 per year. A good Brussels and tapestry designer from $1,500 to $6,000 per year. Copyists and shaders, from $3 to $10 per week.
Mrs. R.A. Morse advocated the establishment of schools of industrial art, in which there would be special departments so that young girls might be trained to follow some practical calling. Mrs. Dr. French said that unskilled labor and incompetent workmen were the bane and disgrace of this country, and she thought that the field of industrial art was very inviting to women. She disparaged the custom of decorating chinaware and little fancy articles, and said that if the time thus wasted by women was applied to the study of practical designing those who persevered in the latter branch of industrial art might earn liberal wages. Miss Requa, of the Public School Department, explained that elementary lessons in drawing were taught in the public schools. Mme. Roch, who is thoroughly familiar with industrial and high art in both this country and in Europe, said that if the American people would apply themselves more carefully to the study of designing they could easily produce as good work as came from abroad. The beauties to be seen in American nature alone surpassed anything that she had ever witnessed in the old countries.
One of the most extensive establishments for the purpose is that of Messrs. Winter, in Vienna. They say to photographers in general: If you will send us a portrait, either negative or positive, we will produce you an enlargement on canvas worked up in monochrome. The success of their undertaking lies in the circumstance that they do not produce colored work—or, at any rate, it is exceptional on their part to do so—but devote their efforts to the production of an artistic portrait in brown or sepia. In this way they can make full use of the dark brown photograph itself; there is less necessity for tampering with the enlarged image, and natural blemishes in the model itself maybe softened and modified, without interfering much with the true lines of face and features. The monotone enlargements of Messrs. Winter, again, exquisitely as most of them are finished, do not appear to provoke the opposition of the painter; they do not cross his path, and hence he is more willing to do them justice. Many a would-be purchaser has been frightened out of his intention to buy an enlargement by the scornful utterance of an artist friend about "painted photographs," and in these days of cheap club portraits there is certainly much risk of good work falling into disrepute. But a well-finished portrait in monotone disarms the painter, and he is willing to concede that the picture has merit.
"We cannot use English canvas, or 'shirting,' as you call it," said one of our hosts; "it seems to contain so much fatty matter." The German material, on the other hand, would appear to be fit for photography as soon as it had been thoroughly worked in hot water and rinsed. Here, in this apartment, paved with red brick, we see several pieces of canvas drying. It is a large room, very clean, here and there a washing trough, and in one corner two or three large horizontal baths. The appearance is that of a wash-house, except that all the assistants are men, and not washerwomen; there is plenty of water everywhere, and the floor is well drained to allow of its running off. We are to be favored with a sight of the whole process, and this is the first operation.
Into one of the horizontal baths, measuring about 5 by 4 feet, is put the salting solution. It is a bath that can be rocked, or inclined in any direction, for its center rests upon a ball-and-socket joint. It is ofpapier mâché, the inside covered with white enamel. Formerly, only bromine salts were employed, but now the following formula is adopted: