Total Built in 1881 Population per MileGermany 21,313 331 2,154Great Britain 18,157 164 1,939France 17,134 895 2,170Austria-Hungary 11,880 262 3,200Italy 5,450 109 5,321Spain 4,869 176 3,492Sweden & Norway 4,616 273 1,408Belgium 2,561 48 2,203Switzerland 1,557 22 1,831Holland 1,426 83 2,885Denmark 1,053 25 1,919Roumania 916 56 5,860Turkey 866 - 2,891Portugal 757 8 5,870Greece 6 - 28,000------- ----- ------Total 107,306 2,455 3,168United States 104,813 9,358 502
It appears from this that the United States mileage was only 2,493 less than the total of all Europe, and at the present time it exceeds it, as the former country has built about 6,000 miles this year, whereas Europe has not exceeded 1,500. The difference in the number of persons per mile in the two cases is also very great, Europe taking six times as many persons to support a mile of railway as the States, and can only be accounted for by the fact that American railways are constructed much cheaper than the European ones.
AT 9 A.M. on Wednesday, September 13, the correspondent of a press agency dispatched a telegram to London with the intimation that the great battle at Tel-el-Kebir was practically over. It may possibly astonish not a few of our readers (says a writer in theEcho), to learn that this message reached the metropolis between 7 and 8 o'clock on the same morning; and, in fact, had an unbroken telegraphic wire extended from Kassassin to London, Sir Garnet Wolseley's great victory might have been known here at 6:52 A.M., or (seemingly) at a time when the fight was raging and our success far from complete. Nay, had the telegram been flashed straight to Washington in the United States, it would have reached there something like 1 h. 44 m. after the local midnight of September 12. Paradoxical as this sounds the explanation of it is of the most simple possible character. The rate at which electricity travels has been very variously estimated. Fizeau asserted that its velocity in copper wire was 111,780 miles a second; Walker that it only travels 18,400 miles through that medium during the same interval; while the experiments made in the United States during the determination of the longitudes of various stations there still further reduced the rate of motion to some 16,000 miles a second. Whichever of these values we adopt, however, we may take it for our present purpose, that the transmission of a message by the electric telegraph is practically instantaneous. But be it here noted, there is no such a thing as ahora mundior common time for the whole world. What is familiarly known as longitude is really the difference in time, east or west, from a line passing through the north and south poles of the earth; and the middle of the great transit circle is the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. If in the latitude of London (51° 30' N.), we proceed 10 miles and 1,383 yards either in an easterly or westerly direction, we find that the local time is respectively either one minute faster or one minute slower than it was at our initial point. Let us try to understand the reason of this. If we fix a tube rigidly at any station on the earth's surface, pointing to that part of the sky in which any bright star is situated when such star is due south (or, as it is technically called, "on the meridian"), and note by a good clock the hour, minute, and second at which it crosses a wire stretched vertically across the tube, then after a lapse of 23 h. 56 m. 4.09 s., will that star be again threaded on the wire. If the earth were stationary--or, rather, if she had no motion but that round her axis--this would be the length of our day. But, as is well known, she is revolving round the sun from left to right; and, as a necessary consequence, the sun seems to be revolving round her from right to left; so that if we suppose the sun and our star to be both on the wire together to-day, to-morrow the sun will appear to have traveled to the left of the star in the sky; and the earth will have that piece more to turn upon her axis before our tube comes up with him again. This apparent motion of the sun in the sky is not an equable one. Sometimes it is faster, sometimes slower; sometimes more slanting, sometimes more horizontal. Thus it comes to pass that solar days, or the intervals elapsing between one return of the sun to the meridian and another, are by no means equal. So a mean of their lengths is taken by adding them up for a year, and dividing by 365; and the quantity to be divided to or subtracted from the instant of "apparent noon" (when the sun dial shows 12 o'clock), is set down in the almanac under the heading of "The Equation of Time." We may, however, here conceive that it is noon everywhere in the northern hemisphere when the sun is due south. Now the earth turns on her axis from west to east, and occupies 24 h. in doing so. As all circles are conceived to be divided into 360°, it is obvious that in one hour 15° must pass beneath the sun or a star; 30° in two hours, and so on. The longitude of Kassassin is, roughly speaking, 32° east, so that when the sun is due south there, or it is noon, the earth must go on turning for two hours and eight minutes before Greenwich comes under the sun, or it is noon there, which is only another way of saying that at noon at Kassassin it is 9 h. 52 m. A.M. at Greenwich. It is this purely local character of time which gives rise to the seeming paradox of our being able to receive news of an event before (by our clocks) it has happened at all.
This new instrument has excited considerable interest among telegraph and telephone men by its exceeding sensitiveness. It is so sensitive to the passage of an electric current that a battery formed with an ordinary pin for one electrode and a piece of zinc wire for the other, immersed in a single drop of water, will give sufficient current to operate the relay. In practice it has successfully worked as a telephonic call on the Eastern Railroad Company's line between Nancy and Paris, a distance of 212 miles, requiring but two cups of ordinary Leclanché battery.
The instrument consists of two permanent horseshoe magnets, fixed parallel with each other and an inch apart. A very thin spool or bobbin of insulated wire is suspended, like the pendulum of a clock, between these permanent magnets, in such a manner that the bobbin hangs just in front of the four poles. A counterpoise is fixed at the top of the pendulum bar, which permits the adjusting of the antagonistic forces represented by the action of the swinging bobbin, and two springs, which are insulated from the mass, and which form one electrode of the local or annunciator circuit, while the pendulum bar forms the other.
It will be easily understood that as the bobbin hangs freely in the center of a very strong magnetic field (formed by the four poles of the two permanent magnets), the slightest current sent through the bobbin will cause the bobbin to be attracted from one direction, while it will be repelled from the other, according to the polarity of the current transmitted.
As the relay has a very low resistance, it is evident that it will become an acceptable auxiliary in our central office, particularly when used as a "calling off" signal, as by its use the ground deviation, so objectionable and yet so universally used for "calling off" purposes, can be entirely avoided, and the relay left directly in the circuit, as is being done here in Paris. R. G. BROWN.
Paris, September 12, 1882.
The following description of the apparatus used for the determination of high temperatures, up nearly to the melting point of platinum, is offered in answer to several inquiries on the subject:
The object to be attained is a convenient and reasonably accurate application of the method of mixtures to the determination of temperatures above the range of mercurial thermometers, say 500° F., up to any point not above the melting point of the most refractory metal available for the purpose, platinum.
A first requisite is a cup or vessel of convenient form, capable of holding a suitable quantity of water, say about two pounds avoirdupois. Berthelot decidedly prefers a simple can of platinum, very thin, with a light cover of the same metal, to be fastened on by a bayonet hitch. For strictly laboratory work this may be the best form; but for the hasty manipulation and rough usage of practical boiler testing something more robust, but, if possible, equally sensitive, is required. The vessel I have used is represented in section in the accompanying cut, Fig. 1.
The inner cell, or true containing vessel, is 4.25 inches in diameter; and of the same height on the side, with a bottom in the form of a spherical segment, of 4.25 inches radius. It is formed of sheet brass 0.01 inch thick, nickel-plated and polished outside and inside. The outer case is 8 inches diameter and 8.5 inches deep, of 16-ounce copper, nickel-plated and polished inside, but plain outside. There are two handles on opposite sides, for convenience of rapid manipulation. The top, of the same copper as the sides and bottom, is depressed conically. like a hopper, and wired at its outer edge, forming a lip all around for pouring out of. The central cell is connected with the outer case only by three rings of hard rubber (vulcanite), each 0.25 inch thick, the middle ring completely insulating the cell from its continuation upward, and from the outer case. A narrow flange is turned outward at the upper edge of the cell, and a similar flange is also turned outward at the lower edge of the cylindrical continuation of the walls of the cell upward. Between these two flanges, the middle ring of hard rubber is interposed, and the two parts, the cell and its upward continuation, are clamped together by the upper and lower rings of hard rubber, which embrace the flanges and are held together by screws. The joints between the flanges and the middle ring of hard rubber, which might otherwise leak a little, are made tight with asphaltum varnish.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
Fig 1 shows two partitions, dividing the space between the cell and the case into three compartments, and a concave false bottom. The cover is also seen to be divided into three compartments, by two partitions, and each compartment of the vessel and of its cover is provided with a small tube for inserting a thermometer. This construction was adopted in the first instruments made, for the purpose of observing the rate of heat transmission through the successive compartments, but these parts are without importance with respect to the practical use of the instrument, and may as well be omitted, as they considerably increase the cost, being nickel-plated and polished on both sides. The top and bottom plates of the cover are of 0.01 inch brass, nickel-plated and polished on both sides, both convex outward, the bottom plate but slightly, the top plate to 4.25 inches radius. A ring of hard rubber connects, yet separates and insulates these plates, and they are bound together with the ring into a firm structure by a tube of hard rubber, having a shoulder and knob at the top, and at the lower end a screw-thread engaging with a thin nut soldered to the upper side of the bottom plate. When the cover is in place, its lower plate is even with the top of the cell; and the contained water, which nearly fills the cell, is surrounded by polished, nickel-plated, brass plates 0.01 inch thick, insulated trom other metal by interposed hard rubber. The spaces between the cell and case (a single space if the partitions are omitted), the space above the hard rubber rings, and the space or spaces in the cover are all filled with eider-down, which costs $1.00 per ounce avoirdupois, but a few ounces are sufficient. Soft, fine shavings, or turnings of hard rubber, are said to be excellent as a substitute for eider-down. Heat cannot be confined by any known method. Its transmission can be in some degree retarded, and in a greater degree, perhaps, regulated. Some heat will be promptly absorbed by the sides, bottom, and cover of the cell, and by the agitator; but this does no harm, as its quantity can be accurately ascertained and allowed for. Some will be gradually transmitted to the eider-down, filling the spaces, and through this to the outer casing; but this can be reduced to a minimum by rapid and skillful manipulation, and its quantity, under normal conditions, can be ascertained approximately, so as not to introduce large errors. But varying external influences, such as currents of air, caused by opening doors, or by persons passing along near the apparatus during the progress of an experiment, which would introduce disturbing irregularities, can best be guarded against by such spaces as I have described, filled with the poorest heat-conductor and the lightestsolidsubstance attainable. Air, although a poor heat-conductor, and extremely light, is diathermous, and offers no obstruction to the escape of radiant heat.
The agitator is an important part of the apparatus. Its object, in this instrument, is twofold.First, it serves to produce a uniform temperature throughout the body of water in the instrument; andsecondly, it answers as a support to the heat-carrier of platinum or other metal, often intensely hot, which would injure or destroy the delicate metal of the bottom if allowed to fall on it. For this second purpose, no spiral revolving agitator, such as that commended by Berthelot, would suffice. The best form is such as I have shown in Fig. 1. A concave disk of sheet-brass, made to conform to the shape of the bottom of the cell, with a narrow rim turned up all around, of about 0.02 inch thickness, is liberally perforated with holes to lighten it, and to give free passage to water. The concave form causes the streams of water, produced by slightly raising and lowering the agitator, to take a radial direction downward or upward, so as to cross each other and promote rapid mixing. By a slight modification small vanes might be turned outward from the surface of the metal, which would produce mixing currents if the agitator were given a slight reciprocatory revolving motion, thus avoiding the alternate withdrawal and re-immersion of any part of the stem so strongly deprecated by Berthelot; but for several reasons I think an up and down motion of the agitator desirable in this instrument. The platinum heat carrier, sometimes at a temperature of 2,500° to 2,800° F., is thereby brought into more rapid and forcible contact with the water, steam or water in the spherical condition is washed away from its surface, and by cooling it more rapidly, the duration of the observation is lessened, and errors due to transmission of heat through the walls of the instrument are diminished. The upper part of the agitator stem is of hard rubber, and the brass portion, which terminates at the under side of the cover when the agitator is in its lowest position, suspended by the shoulder at the upper end, need never be lifted for the purpose of mixing out of the hard rubber tube at the cover, so that loss of heat from this cause must be very slight. The brass tube is very freely perforated with holes to admit water, streaming radially through the holes in the agitator, to contact with the thermometer. The hole in the stem at the top is flared, to receive a cork, through which the thermometer is to be passed. The bulb of the thermometer should be elongated, and very slightly smaller in diameter than the stem. After passing it through the cork, a very slight band--a mere thread--of elastic rubber should be put around the bulb, near its lower end, or a thin, narrow shaving of cork may be wound around and tied on, to keep it from contact with the brass tube, for safety; and a little tuft of wool, curled hair, or hard rubber shavings should be put in the bottom of the brass tube to avoid accidents. For the same purpose, a light, but sufficient fender of brass wire, say 0.03 inch diameter, might be judiciously placed around the brass tube at a little distance, to protect it and the thermometer inside of it from shocks from the platinum ball when hastily thrown in, as it must always be. I have had delicate and costly thermometers broken for want of such a fender. Thermometers cannot be too nice for this work. For accurate work at moderate temperatures, they should be about 14 inches long, having a "safe" bulb at the upper end, with a range of 20° F.--32° to 52°--in a length of 10 inches, giving half an inch to a degree F., and carefully graduated to tenths of a degree, so that they can be read to hundredths, corresponding to single degrees of the heat-carrier in the normal use of the instrument.
For the determination of the highest temperatures, up closely to 2,900° F., it will be convenient to have thermometers of greater range, say 32° to 82° F., 50° in a length of 12.5 inches, or a quarter of an inch to a degree F., also graduated to tenths, or at the least, to fifths of a degree. Such thermometers will be about 17 inches long.
It is very satisfactory to havetwoinstruments and a good outfit of thermometers and heat-carriers, in order to take duplicate observations for mutual verification and detection of errors.
For these platinum is greatly to be preferred to any other known substance. Its rather high cost is the only objection to its use. Its heat capacity is low, by weight, but its specific gravity is great, and sufficient capacity can be obtained in moderate bulk, while its high conductivity tends to shorten the duration of each experiment or observation. A convenient outfit for each instrument consists of three balls, hammered to a spherical form, one 1.1385 inches diameter, weighing 4,200 grains=0.6 pound avoirdupois; one 0.9945 inch diameter, weighing 2,800 grains=0.4 pound; and one 0.7894 inch diameter, weighing 1,400 grains=0.2 pound.
These can be obtained at 1-2/3 cents per grain, and will cost, respectively, $70.00, $46.67, and $23.33, and collectively, $140.00. At the assumed specific heat of Pt=0.0333+, the heat capacity of the respective balls will be 1/100, 1/150, and 1/300 of 2 pounds of cold water, and the two smaller balls used together will be equal to the larger one. Corrections for varying specific heat of platinum may be conveniently made by the tables given in a previous article.[1] Corrections for varying specific heat of water are less important, but may be made by the following table:
Temperatures, Fahrenheit, and Corresponding Number of British Thermal Units Contained in Water from Zero Fahrenheit.
_______________________________________________________________Deg | B.t.u. || Deg | B.t.u. || Deg | B.t.u. || Deg | B.t.u. |----+--------++-----+--------++-----+---------++-----+---------+32 | 32.000 || 57 | 57.007 || 82 | 82.039 || 107 | 107.101 |33 | 33.000 || 58 | 58.007 || 83 | 83.041 || 108 | 108.104 |34 | 34.000 || 59 | 59.008 || 84 | 84.043 || 109 | 109.107 |35 | 35.000 || 60 | 60.009 || 85 | 85.045 || 110 | 110.110 |36 | 36.000 || 61 | 61.010 || 86 | 86.047 || 111 | 111.113 |37 | 37.000 || 62 | 62.011 || 87 | 87.049 || 112 | 112.117 |38 | 38.000 || 63 | 63.012 || 88 | 88.051 || 113 | 113.121 |39 | 39.001 || 64 | 64.013 || 89 | 89.053 || 114 | 114.125 |40 | 40.001 || 65 | 65.014 || 90 | 90.055 || 115 | 115.129 |41 | 41.001 || 66 | 66.015 || 91 | 91.057 || 116 | 116.133 |42 | 42.001 || 67 | 67.016 || 92 | 92.059 || 117 | 117.137 |43 | 43.001 || 68 | 68.018 || 93 | 93.061 || 118 | 118.141 |44 | 44.002 || 69 | 69.019 || 94 | 94.063 || 119 | 119.145 |45 | 45.002 || 70 | 70.020 || 95 | 95.065 || 120 | 120.149 |46 | 46.002 || 71 | 71.021 || 96 | 96.068 || 121 | 121.153 |47 | 47.002 || 72 | 72.023 || 97 | 97.071 || 122 | 122.157 |48 | 48.003 || 73 | 73.024 || 98 | 98.074 || 123 | 123.161 |49 | 49.003 || 74 | 74.036 || 99 | 99.077 || 124 | 124.165 |50 | 50.003 || 75 | 75.027 || 100 | 100.080 || 125 | 125.169 |51 | 51.004 || 76 | 76.029 || 101 | 101.083 || 126 | 126.173 |52 | 52.004 || 77 | 77.030 || 102 | 102.086 || 127 | 127.177 |53 | 53.005 || 78 | 78.032 || 103 | 103.089 || 128 | 128.182 |54 | 54.005 || 79 | 79.034 || 104 | 104.092 || 129 | 129.187 |55 | 55.006 || 80 | 80.036 || 105 | 105.095 || 130 | 130.192 |56 | 56.006 || 81 | 81.037 || 106 | 106.098 || 131 | 131.197 |----+--------++-----+--------++-----+---------++-----+---------+
[Footnote 1:Journalfor August, pp. 97, 98, and errata inJournalfor September, p. 172.]
A composite heat-carrier, of iron covered with platinum, answers well for temperatures up to about 1,500° F. A ball of wrought iron 0.88 inch diameter will weigh 700 grains, and a capsule of platinum spun over it 0.048 inch thick, making the outside diameter 0.976+ inch, will also weigh 700 grains. Upon the assumption of 0.0333+ for the specific heat of Pt and 0.1666+ for that of Fe, the composite ball will have a heat capacity equal to that of 4,200 grains of Pt, and equal to 0.01 of that of 2 pounds of cold water. A patch, about 0.35 inch diameter, has to be put in to close the orifice where the Pt capsule is spun together, and a slight stain will show itself at the joint around this patch, from oxidation of the iron, but the latter will be pretty effectually protected. Difference of expansion, which will not exceed 0.007 inch in diameter, will not endanger the capsule of Pt. The interruption of conductivity at the surface contact of the two metals makes the process of heating and cooling a little slower, but not noticeably so.
Such composite balls can be obtained for $20 each, $50 less than the cost of an equivalent ball of solid platinum, which is preferable in all but cost. Iron balls could be used for a few crude determinations. Cast iron varies too much in composition, and wrought iron oxidizes rapidly. While the oxide adheres it gains in weight, and when scales fall off it loses; and the specific heat of the oxide differs from that of metallic iron. Whatever metal is used, care must be taken to apply the appropriate tabular correction for PtFe, or Pt and Fe.
Small graphite crucibles with covers, as shown in section, in Fig. 2, serve to guard against losing the ball, to handle it by when hot, and to protect it against loss of heat during transmission from the fire to the pyrometer. To guard against overturning the crucibles, moulded firebrick should be provided to receive them, two crucibles being put into one brick, in the same exposure, whenever great accuracy is desired, each serving as a check on the other, and their mean being likely to be more nearly correct than either one if they differ. The firebrick cover is occasionally useful to retard cooling, if, by reason of local obstructions, some little delay is unavoidable in transferring the balls from the fire to the water of the pyrometer. With convenient arrangements, this may be done in three seconds. After observing the temperature of the water, make ready for the immersion of the heat carrier by raising the agitator until a space of only about 1.5 of an inch is left between its rim and the cover. An instant before putting in the heat carrier--"pouring" it from the crucible--lift the cover and agitator both together, so that the rim of the latter is level with the sloping top of the instrument. The agitator then receives the hot ball without shock, and no harm is done. If the ball goes below the agitator, it is likely to injure the bottom of the cup. If, on taking the temperature of the water before the immersion of the heat carrier, any change is observed, either rising or falling, the direction and rate of such change, and the exact interval of time between the last recorded observation and the immersion, should be noted, in order to determine the exact temperature of the water at the instant of immersion. The temperature of the water will continue to rise as long as the heat carrier gives out heat faster than the cell loses it. The rise will grow gradually slower until it ceases, and the maximum can be very accurately determined. Examples of the mode of using the tables, and of determining the true temperature of the heat carrier at the instant of immersion from the observations with the instrument, are given in the table on pages 170 and 171 of this Journal for September. A method of using the tables, by which a closer approximation to the true temperature may be reached, will be pointed out in a subsequent article.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2.
DETERMINATION OF THE CALORIFIC CAPACITY OF THE METALS OF THE PYROMETER, in terms of water, i.e., in British thermal units.
First. Weigh the cup, or cell, the lower plate of the cover and the metallic portion of the agitator, and compute their heat-capacity by the specific heat of the respective metals. Compute also the heat capacity of the thermometer; or, if it be long, of so much of it as is found to share nearly the temperature of the immersed portion. The result will be a minimum--indeed, in so small a vessel the inevitable loss by conduction and radiation will amount to more than one-third as much as the simple heat capacity of the metals.[1] The total must be ascertained by an application of the method of mixture. Ascertain the temperature of the interior of the instrument simply; pour in quickly but carefully a known quantity of water, say about two pounds, of known temperature, say about 100° F., and ascertain the temperature as soon after pouring as mixing can be properly performed. But a correction is necessary for loss of heat in the act of pouring. To ascertain the amount of this correction prepare a bath of tepid water, and bring all parts of the instrument--outside, inside, and interior portions, together with the vessel to pour from--exactly to one common, carefully ascertained temperature. Now take two pounds of the water and pour it into the cell in the same manner as before. Exposure of so thin a stream on two surfaces to the air of the room will produce a certain degree of refrigeration in the water, which is supposed to be warmer than the air, say at about 160° F. This effect will be due to conduction, by contact with the air, to radiation, and to evaporation; and by so much the refrigeration observed in mixing is to be diminished.
[Footnote 1: In our case the heat-capacity, thermometer included, was 0.0757; total, 0.1053; radiation, etc., 0.0296. Respectively, 71.9 per cent, and 28.1 per cent. of the total.]
Four experiments, carefully conducted, gave the following results:
Loss of temperature by pouring at 170° F., 0.81°, 0.86°, 1.00°, and 1.07° F.; mean, 0.935° F.
The following are values of the calorific capacity of my pyrometers, that is, of those parts of each which share directly the temperature of the inclosed water, including the thermometer to be used with the instrument, and the heat communicated to the eider-down and otherwise lost during an observation, expressed in decimals of a British thermal unit, or in decimals of a pound of cold water:
0.1048, 0.1052, 0.1077, 0.1008, 0.1028, and 0.1104.
Mean 0.1053 = 0 lb. 1 oz. 11 drms.Add water 1.8947 = 1 " 14 " 4 "------ - -- --2.0000 = 2 " 0 " 0 "
This was the value used. The instrument, being put on delicate coin scales and counterbalanced, weights equal to 1.8947 lb. avoirdupois = 1 lb. 14 oz. 5 drms., were added to the counterbalancing weights, and cold water was poured in until the scales again balanced.
The pyrometer with its contained water was then just equal in heating capacity, while the temperature was not above 38° F. to two pounds of cold water. The two instruments were sensibly alike, but were numbered No. 1 and No. 2, and at each observation the one used was noted.
The process of preparation and testing appears long and tedious, and is indeed somewhat so; but the instruments once well made are durable, convenient in use, and with care reasonably accurate.
Compared with mercurial thermometers between 212° and 600° F., I believe them to be much more accurate, although less convenient.
For a range of temperatures from 212° to 900° F. they are certainly more trustworthy than anything save an air thermometer of suitable construction; and for all temperatures from 800° to 900° F. up nearly to the melting point of platinum they are without a rival, so far as I know.
For some situations the ball can best be inserted in the fire or other situation where an observation is desired, and withdrawn for immersion by means of long, slender tongs, with jaws resembling bullet moulds.
A word about the melting point of platinum. My balls certainly began to melt below 2,950° F., but I am by no means sure that they do not contain any silver, although their specific gravity gives assurance that they are at least nearly pure.--Franklin Journal.
[Footnote: A paper read before the Master Car Painters' Association, Chicago, September, 1883.]
The subject of locomotive painting has been pretty well discussed at the former meetings of the association, and we have heard many excellent suggestions regarding the use of oils, mineral paints, and leads from gentlemen of long experience. But as the secretary has invited a display of my ignorance I will endeavor to explain as clearly as possible the methods I pursue, which, though not new or original, have been productive of good results.
If time enough can be had we can prime with oil alone, or in connection with the leads or minerals, and be sure of durability; but in these days of "lightning speed," "lightning illuminations," and "lightning painting," we must look about for something with "chain lightning" in it, which, unlike the lightning, will remain bright and stick after it strikes. We all have to paint according to the time and the facilities we have for doing the work.
The scale on iron or steel is the only serious trouble which the painter has to contend with. Rust can be removed or utilized with the oil, making a good paint, but unless time can be given it is better to remove the rust.
If possible let tanks get thoroughly rusted, then scrape off scale and rust with files sharpened to a chisel edge, rub down large surfaces with sandstone, and use No. 3 emery cloth between rivet heads, etc., then wash off with turpentine. This will give you a good solid surface to work upon.
For priming I use 100 pounds white lead (in oil), 10 pounds dry red lead, 13 pounds Prince's metallic, 8 quarts boiled oil, 2 quarts varnish, 6 quarts turpentine, and grind in the mill, as it mixes it thoroughly with less waste. I mix about 250 pounds at a time (put into kegs and draw off as wanted through faucets).
Thiso-le-ag-in-ouscompound can be worked both ways, quickly by adding japan, slower by adding oil, and reduce to working consistency with turpentine.
Without the oil or japan it will dry hard on wrought iron in about seven days, on castings in about four days. When dry putty with white-lead putty, thinned with varnish and turpentine, and knifed in with a "broad-gauge" putty knife. Next day sandpaper and apply first coat rough-stuff, which is, equal parts, in bulk, white lead and "Reno's umber," mixed "stiff" with equal parts japan and rubbing varnish, and thin with turpentine. Next morning, second coat rough-stuff, made with Reno's umber, fine pumice stone, japan, and turpentine. At 1 o'clock P.M. put on guide coat for the benefit of the small boys, which is rough-stuff No. 2, darkened with lamp-black and very thin. The addition of fine pumice to rough-stuff No. 2 encourages the boys in rubbing, and prevents the blockstone from clogging.
By the time the last end of the tank is painted the first end is ready for rubbing, though it is better to stand until next day.
After rubbing sandpaper and put on very thin coat of varnish and turpentine (about equal parts). This soaks into the filling, hardening it and making a close, smooth, elastic surface, leaving no brush marks and being more durable than aquick-drying lead. This can be rubbed with fine sandpaper or hair to take off gloss, and colored the next morning, but it is better to remain 24 hours before coloring.
Upon this surface an "all japan color" would, before night, resemble a map of the war in Egypt, but by adding varnish and a very little raw oil to the "japan color," making it of the same nature as the under surface, will prevent cracking.
If I sandpaper in the morning, I put on first-coat color before noon. Second ditto afternoon, and varnish with rubbing varnish that night; rub down, stripe and letter next day, though I consider it better to stripe and letter on the color, and varnish with "wearing body varnish."
The tank is then ready for mounting. When mounted I paint trucks and woodwork, two coats lead, color, "color and varnish," and finish the whole with "wearing body varnish." Time, from 14 to 16 days.
On cabs I use the same priming as on tanks, let stand five days, putty nail holes and "plaster putty" hard wood, and give two coats lead, mixed as follows: 100 pounds keg lead, 19 pounds Reno's umber, 3½ quarts japan, 1½ quarts varnish, 6 quarts turpentine. I call this "No. 2 lead," and allow 24 hours between coats, then apply a coat of No. 2 "rough stuff" at 7 A.M. Rub down at 10 A.M. two coats color, and varnish before 6 P.M. Striped and lettered next day and finished on the following day if it is not taken away from me, and put on the engine. Time, eleven days. Can be done in five days.
On castings, same priming, putty and "No. 2 lead" if time is allowed. I use rough-stuff No. 2 on all flat places, rub down and give two coats of No. 2 lead. Also painting inside of all castings, and sheet iron casings; and inside of boiler jacket, with "Prince's metallic."
All castings I get ready for color before they are put on the locomotive, except such as have to be filed or fitted on outside edges. As there is very little time given to finish a locomotive after the machinists get through, I usually finish itthe day before it is done.
As a sample (one of many), an 8--17--C. locomotive boiler tested Saturday afternoon, August 12, boiler painted, with 120 pounds steam on, wheels put under, boiler covered, cab put on, and finished Monday, August 14, at midnight (did not work Sunday); primed, puttied, colored, lettered, and varnished same day. After 10 o'clock at night the painters have a chance, and it is their glorious privilege to work until morning. The machinists have all the time there is, the painters have what is left.
So much for the ordinary way. For a quicker method of painting tanks I send a sample marked No. 1. Time, including first coat varnish, five days. Priming, 1 pound Reno's umber to 2 quarts pellucedite; two coats rough-stuff, composed of umber and pellucedite, rubbed down, and thin coat of pellucedite; one coat drop black, one coat rubbing varnish; exposed to weather (southeasterly exposure near salt water) March 12, 1879; revarnished one coat, finishing September 1, 1879; remained out until March 22, 1880. Total exposure, one year and one and a half weeks; thrown around the shop until August, 1882; has been painted three years and six months. This is not a sample of good work, but of quick and rough painting. Considering the time and usuage it has experienced it has stood much better than I expected, though I cannot safely recommend that kind of painting when any other can be followed.
Sample No. 3--Time, including two coats varnish, 14 days. Painted as described in first part of this article; exposed in same places as No. 1, April 3, 1880; total exposure, six months; has been painted two years and five months.
The above are not exactly "Thoughts on Locomotive Painting." What my thoughts are would require several dictionaries to express; but that is owing, not to the kind of work, but having to produce certain results in a time that will not insure good, durable work.
For removing old paint on wood I use a burner. From iron, I have found the quickest and most effectual way is to dissolve as much sal soda in warm water as the water will take up, and mix with fresh lime, making a thick mortar; spread this on the tank, about an inch thick, with a trowel; when it begins to crack, which will be in a few minutes, it has softened the paint enough, so that with a wide putty knife you can take it all off; then wash off tank with water. This takes off paint, rust, and everything, including the skin from your hands, if you are not careful. Plaster one side of tank, and use mortar over again for the other side.
Engine oil used to brighten smoke stacks, no matter with what painted, will cause blistering. Tallow and "japan drop black" mixed, and apply while stack is hot, with an occasional rubbing over with the same, will remain bright a long time.
Rust always contains dampness, and will feed on itself, extending underneath and destroying solidly painted surfaces. It is, therefore, necessary, in order to secure good results, that the rust should be killed before priming, or that the priming be so mixed that it will assimilate with the rust and prevent spreading.
Steel tanks will not rust as rapidly as iron, but the scale is more apt to flake off by the expansion and contraction of the metal, taking the paint with it.
Heated oil, or heated oil priming, will dry faster and be more penetrating than cold. I consider heated "boiled oil" and red lead the best primer for iron.
In regard to ornamentation, mytasteis governed by the fact that I work "by contract," and get no more for a highly ornate locomotive than I do for a plain one, therefore I like theplain ones best, and I hope that our "good brother Burch's" prophecy, that "the days of 'fancy locomotives' will return," will never be fulfilled until after I go out of the business. There is a happy medium between a hearse and a circus wagon, and the locomotive painter, when not tied down by "specifications," can produce a neat and handsomely painted engine without the "spread eagle" or "star spangled banner." My own ideas are in the direction of simple lines of striping, following the lines of the surfaces upon which they are drawn.
Finally, take all the time you can get, the more the better, and useoilaccordingly.
An ingenious process of producing glass with an iced or crackled surface, suitable for many decorative purposes, has been invented in France by Bay. The product appears in the form of sheets or panes, one side of which is smooth or glossy, like common window glass, while the other is rough and filled with innumerable crevices, giving it the frozen or crackled appearance so much admired for many decorative purposes. This peculiar cracked surface is obtained by covering the surface of the sheet on the table with a thick coating of some coarse-grained flux mixed to form a paste, or with a coating of some more easily fusible glass, and then subjecting it to the action of a strong fire, either open or in a muffle. As soon as the coating is fused, and the table is red-hot, it is withdrawn and rapidly cooled. The superficial layer of flux separates itself in this operation from the underlying glass surface, and leaves behind the evidence of its attachment to the same in the form of numberless irregularities, scales, irregular crystal forms, etc., giving the glass surface the peculiar appearance to which the above name has been given. The rapid cooling of the glass may be facilitated with the aid of a stream of cold air, or by continuously projecting a spray of cold water upon it. By protecting certain portions of the glass surface from contact with the flux, with the use of a template of any ornamental or other desired form, these portions will retain their ordinary appearance, and will show the form of the design very strongly outlined beside the crackled surface. In this manner, letters, arabesque, and other patterns in white or colored glass can be produced with great ease and with fine effect.
Marbles are named from the Latin word "marmor," by which similar playthings were known to the boys of Rome, 2,000 years ago. Some marbles are made of potter's clay and baked in an oven just as earthenware is baked, but most of them are made of a hard kind of a stone found in Saxony, Germany. Marbles are manufactured there in great numbers and sent to all parts of the world, even to China, for the use of the Chinese children.
The stone is broken up with a hammer into pieces, which are then ground round in a mill. The mill has a fixed slab of stone, with its surface full of little grooves or furrows. Above this a flat block of oak wood of the same size as the stone is made to turn round rapidly, and, while turning, little streams of water run in the grooves and keep the mill from getting too hot. About 100 pieces of the square pieces of stone are put in the grooves at once, and in a few minutes are made round and polished by the wooden block.
China and white marbles are also used to make the round rollers which have delighted the hearts of the boys of all nations for hundred of years. Marbles thus made are known to the boys as "chinas," or "alleys." Real china ones are made of porcelain clay, and baked like chinaware or other pottery. Some of them have a pearly glaze, and some are painted in various colors, which will not rub off, because they are baked in, just as the pictures are on the plates and other tableware.
Glass marbles are known as "agates." They are made of both clear and colored glass. The former are made by taking up a little melted glass on the end of an iron rod and making it round by dropping it into a round mould, which shapes it, or by whirling it around the head until the glass is made into a little ball.
Sometimes the figure of a dog or squirrel or a kitten or some other object is put on the end of the rod, and when it is dipped into the melted glass the glass runs all around it, and when the marble is done the animal can be seen shut up in it. Colored glass marbles are made by holding a bunch of glass rods in the fire until they melt; then the workmen twist them round into a ball or press them into a mould, so that when done the marble is marked with bands or ribbons of color. Real agates, which are the nicest of all marbles, are made in Germany, out of the stone called agate. The workmen chip the pieces of agate nearly round with hammers and then grind them round and smooth on grindstones.--Philadelphia Times.
Among the examples we have received are some which would certainly do credit to any professional artist, alike for the posing, lighting, and general treatment; indeed, we may say that some of the poses are of a high artistic order, and quite a relief from the conventional positions and accessories so frequently seen in professional work. The expressions secured are also, as a rule, unusually pleasing and natural. This is, no doubt, in a great measure due to the sitter feeling more at ease in the amateur friend's drawing room than in a stranger's studio. Particularly is this the case in some excellent work--full-length pictures--sent from the other side of the Atlantic, and taken in a room of very modest dimensions, and with only one window. Among the failures (if such they may be called) the chief fault lies in the lighting, and from either under or over exposure--the former chiefly arising when a landscape lens was used, and the latter when a portrait combination was employed. Some correspondents also complain of the long exposure that, in their case, had been imperative; but, curiously enough, with all the successful pictures a very brief exposure has always been mentioned, and generally with an exceedingly small window.
With a view to the further assistance of those who have met with difficulties, we recur again to the subject of the lighting, for upon this must entirely depend the success or failure in producing satisfactory results; and, as we explained in previous articles, unless properchiaroscurois secured on the model, it will be impossible to obtain it in the picture. The chief defect in this respect has been either that the light has been too abrupt, and consequently the high lights are very white and the shadows heavy, giving the pictures an under-exposed appearance, or the face is devoid of shadow, one side being as light as the other; hence it lacks the roundness necessary to constitute a good picture. In most instances the former defect has arisen from the reflecting screen not being properly placed so as to reflect back the light in the right direction, or it has been too far from the model; hence it has lost the greater part of its value. It should be borne in mind that the nearer the sitter is to the source of light the nearer the reflector must be to him, and also that at whatever angle the light falls upon the reflector it is always thrown off at a corresponding one.
Now, supposing that the light falls upon the model at an angle of, say, 40°: we shall have to place our reflecting screen at somewhat the same angle, and the nearer it is approached the greater will be the effect produced. If the sitter be placed very close to the window and the reflector a long way off, or if it project the light in a wrong direction, it is manifest that in the resulting pictures the shadows will, of necessity, be heavy, and the negative will have an under-exposed appearance, however long may have been given, simply because there was no harmony in the lighting of the model. In the case where the picture has been flat it has arisen from the sitter being placed too far back from the window, so that the direct light falling upon him has been too feeble to produce any strong lights, and the reflector arranged so that it received a stronger illumination than the model, then reflecting it on to the latter, quite overpowering the dominant lights. The remedy for this is simply to bring the sitter more forward, so as to obtain a stronger dominant light.
With regard to the time of exposure: we must again impress upon the student the necessity for placing the sitter as close to the window as can be conveniently done, for then he will receive the strongest illumination; and, no matter how strong the shadows which may be produced, they can always be modified sufficiently by the judicious use of the reflector. Of course, in practice there is a limit as to the closeness the sitter can be placed, inasmuch as if too near there will not be room enough for the background. As we have before said, the effective light falling upon the sitter is governed by the amount of direct skylight to which he is exposed. For experiment, let any one seat himself, say, one foot from the window and sideways to it, and note the amount of sky that can be seen from this position, then take a seat six feet within the room, and note it from thence. The difference will be very marked indeed, and it will fully account for the long exposure that some have found imperative.
In our previous articles we directed special attention to the advantage accruing from arranging the sitter in such a position that he received as much direct light as possible, so that it practically helps to soften the shadows; hence the sitter should be placed so that he is turned as little away from the source of light as will enable the desired view of the face being obtained. That this may the more advantageously be done the camera should always be placed as close as possible to the side wall in which the window is situated. As an experiment illustrating the advantage of this: let a camera be placed close to the wall, then the sitter arranged so that from that point of view a three-quarter face is obtained, and it will be noticed that there is very little need of the reflector at all. Let a negative now be taken, and the camera brought, say, five feet into the room, and the sitter, without changing his seat, turned round until a similar view of the face is obtained from that point. It will now be seen that the shadows are very much deeper than before, and the reflector will have to be brought pretty close in order to overcome them; nevertheless they may be obtained quite as soft and harmonious as in the former case. Let a second negative now be taken, giving the same exposure as before, and it will be found that if the first one were correctly timed the second will be considerably under-exposed. Yet the sitter was at the same distance from the window in each case.
This shows the advisability of utilizing all the direct light it is possible to do, and thereby leaving as little as we can to be accomplished by the reflector. When the sitter is arranged to the best advantage at a window of ordinary size, fully exposed pictures can generally be obtained with a portrait lens (full opening) in fairly good light, on moderately sensitive plates, with one or two seconds' (or even less) exposure. If a longer exposure than this be necessary, it may fairly be assumed that the lighting has not been properly managed.--British Journal of Photography.
I consider the method of precipitation described below as far superior to any other hitherto employed, particularly on account of its infallible certainty. I began at first with a thirtieth of the whole quantity of gelatine, and increased that quantity to a tenth without the precipitate forming with greater difficulty. The salts were dissolved in the usual quantity of water, the bromide of potassium was added to the separately-dissolved gelatine, and both solutions cooled in iced water. I soon found that even this was not necessary. I accelerated the solution of the salts by vigorous agitation, so that the temperature became so much lowered that, even after the addition of the warm gelatine, it still remained low enough to give the precipitate when mixed. The mixing took place gradually, all the usual precautionary measures being observed; such as pouring the silver solution into No. 2 in small quantities at a time, and constantly stirring, and the separation from the mother lye was complete.
The formula according to which I worked latterly was as follows: