MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING COAL REFUSE INTO FUEL.

--------------------------------------------------------------| Vanes. | Diameter of inletDiameter of fans. |------------------------| openings.| Width. | Length. |--------------------------------------------------------------ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in.3 0 | 0 9 | 0 9 | 1 63 6 | 0 10½ | 0 10½ | 1 94 0 | 1 0 | 1 0 | 2 04 6 | 1 1½ | 1 1½ | 2 35 0 | 1 3 | 1 3 | 2 66 0 | 1 6 | 1 6 | 3 0| | |--------------------------------------------------------------

For higher pressures the blades should be longer and narrower, and the inlet openings smaller. The case is to be made in the form of an arithmetical spiral widening, the space between the case and the blades radially from the origin to the opening for discharge, and the upper edge of the opening should be level with the lower side of the sweep of the fan blade, somewhat as shown in Fig. 5.

FIG. 5

A considerable number of patents has been taken out for improvements in the construction of fans, but they all, or nearly all, relate to modifications in the form of the case and of the blades. So far, however, as is known, it appears that, while these things do exert a marked influence on the noise made by a fan, and modify in some degree the efficiency of the machine, that this last depends very much more on the proportions adopted than on the shapes--so long as easy curves are used and sharp angles avoided. In the case of fans running at low speeds, it matters very little whether the curves are present or not; but at high speeds the case is different.--The Engineer.

The problem as to how the refuse of coal shall be utilized has been solved in the manufacture from it of an agglomerated artificial fuel, which is coming more and more into general use on railways and steamboats, in the industries, and even in domestic heating.

The qualities that a good agglomerating machine should present are as follows:

1. Very great simplicity, inasmuch as it is called upon to operate in an atmosphere charged with coal dust, pitch, and steam; and, under such conditions, it is important that it may be easily got at for cleaning, and that the changing of its parts (which wear rapidly) may be effected without, so to speak, interrupting its running.

2. The compression must be powerful, and, that the product may be homogeneous, must operate progressively and not by shocks. It must especially act as much as possible upon the entire surface of the conglomerate, and this is something that most machines fail to do.

3. The removal from the mould must be effected easily, and not depend upon a play of pistons or springs, which soon become foul, and the operation of which is very irregular.

The operations embraced in the manufacture of this kind of fuel are as follows:

The refuse is sifted in order to separate the dust from the grains of coal. The dust is not submitted to a washing. The grains are classed into two sizes, after removing the nut size, which is sold separately. The grains of each size are washed separately. The washed grains are either drained or dried by a hydro-extractor in order to free them from the greater part of the water, the presence of this being an obstacle to their perfect agglomeration. The water, however, should not be entirely extracted because the combustibles being poor conductors of heat, a certain amount of dampness must be preserved to obtain an equal division of heat in the paste when the mixture is warmed.

After being dried the grains are mixed with the coal dust, and broken coal pitch is added in the proportion of eight to ten per cent. of the coal. The mixture is then thrown into a crushing machine, where it is reduced to powder and intimately mixed. It then passes into a pug-mill into which superheated steam is admitted, and by this means is converted into a plastic paste. This paste is then led into an agitator for the double purpose of freeing it from the steam that it contains, and of distributing it in the moulds of the compressing machine.

IMPROVED MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING REFUSE COAL INTO FUEL.

Bilan's machine, shown in the accompanying cut, is designed for manufacturing spherical conglomerates for domestic purposes. It consists of a cast iron frame supporting four vertical moulding wheels placed at right angles to each other and tangent to the line of the centers. These wheels carry on their periphery cavities that have the form of a quarter of a sphere. They thus form at the point of contact a complete sphere in which the material is inclosed. The paste is thrown by shovel, or emptied by buckets and chain, into the hopper fixed at the upper part of the frame. From here it is taken up by two helices, mounted on a vertical shaft traversing the hopper, and forced toward the point where the four moulding wheels meet. The driving pulley of the machine is keyed upon a horizontal shaft which is provided with two endless screws that actuate two gear-wheels, and these latter set in motion the four moulding wheels by means of beveled pinions. The four moulding wheels being accurately adjusted so that their cavities meet each other at every revolution, carry along the paste furnished them by the hopper, compress it powerfully on the four quarters, and, separating by a further revolution, allow the finished ball to drop out.

The external crown of the wheels carrying the moulds consists of four segments, which may be taken apart at will to be replaced by others when worn.

This machine produces about 40 tons per day of this globular artificial fuel.--Annales Industrielles.

We give a view of a hank sizing machine by Messrs. Heywood & Spencer, of Radcliffe, near Manchester. The machine is also suitable for fancy dyeing. It is well known, says theTextile Manufacturer, that when hanks are wrung by hand, not only is the labor very severe, but in dyeing it is scarcely possible to obtain even colors, and, furthermore, the production is limited by the capabilities of the man. The machine we illustrate is intended to perform the heavy part of the work with greater expedition and with more certainty than could be relied upon with hand labor. The illustration represents the machine that we inspected. Its construction seems of the simplest character. It consists of two vats, between which is placed the gearing for driving the hooks. The large wheel in this gear, although it always runs in one direction, contains internal segments, which fall into gear alternately with pinions on the shanks of the hooks. The motion is a simple one, and it appeared to us to be perfectly reliable, and not liable to get out of order. The action is as follows: The attendant lifts the hank out of the vat and places it on the hooks. The hook connected to the gearing then commences to turn; it puts in two, two and a half, three, or more twists into the hank and remains stationary for a few seconds to allow an interval for the sizer to "wipe off" the excess of size, that is, to run his hand along the twisted hank. This done, the hook commences to revolve the reverse way, until the twists are taken out of the hank. It is then removed, either by lifting off by hand or by the apparatus shown, attached to the right hand side. This arrangement consists of a lattice, carrying two arms that, at the proper moment, lift the hank off the hooks on to the lattice proper, by which it is carried away, and dropped upon a barrow to be taken to the drying stove. In sizing, a double operation is customary; the first is called running, and the second, finishing. In the machine shown, running is carried on one side simultaneously with finishing in the other, or, if required, running may be carried on on both sides. If desired, the lifting off motion is attached to both running and finishing sides, and also the roller partly seen on the left hand for running the hanks through the size. The machine we saw was doing about 600 bundles per day at running and at finishing, but the makers claim the production with a double machine to be at the rate of about 36 10 lb. bundles per hour (at finishing), wrung in 1½ lb. wringers (or I½ lb. of yarn at a time), or at running at the rate of 45 bundles in 2 lb. wringers. The distance between the hooks is easily adjusted to the length or size of hanks, and altogether the machine seems one that is worth the attention of the trade.

IMPROVED HANK SIZING MACHINE.

The working parts of the breaker now in use by the South Metropolitan Gas Company consist essentially of a drum provided with cutting edges projecting from it, which break up the coke against a fixed grid. The drum is cast in rings, to facilitate repairs when necessary, and the capacity of the machine can therefore be increased or diminished by varying the number of these rings. The degree of fineness of the coke when broken is determined by the regulated distance of the grid from the drum. Thus there is only one revolving member, no toothed gearing being required. Consequently the machine works with little power; the one at the Old Kent Road, which is of the full size for large works, being actually driven by a one horse power "Otto" gas-engine. Under these conditions, at a recent trial, two tons of coke were broken in half an hour, and the material delivered screened into the three classes of coke, clean breeze (worth as much as the larger coke), and dust, which at these works is used to mix with lime in the purifiers. The special advantage of the machine, besides the low power required to drive it and its simple action, lies in the small quantity of waste. On the occasion of the trial in question, the dust obtained from two tons of coke measured only 3½ bushels, or just over a half hundredweight per ton. The following statement, prepared from the actual working of the first machine constructed, shows the practical results of its use. It should be premised that the machine is assumed to be regularly employed and driven by the full power for which it is designed, when it will easily break 8 tons of coke per hour, or 80 tons per working day:

500 feet of gas consumed by a 2 horse powergas-engine, at cost price of gas delivered s. d.in holder. 0 9Oil and cotton waste. 0 6Two men supplying machine with largecoke, and shoveling up broken, at 4s.6d. 9 0Interest and wear and tear (say). 0 3-----Total per day. 10 6-----For 80 tons per day, broken at the rateof. 0 1½Add for loss by dust and waste, 1 cwt.,with price of coke at (say) 13s. 4d. perton. 0 8-----Cost of breaking, per ton. 0 9½

As coke, when broken, will usually fetch from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per ton more than large, the result of using these machines is a net gain of from 1s. 3d. to 1s. 9d. per ton of coke. It is not so much the actual gain, however, that operates in favor of providing a supply of broken coke, as the certainty that by so doing a market is obtained that would not otherwise be available.

IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.

It will not be overstating the case to say that this coke breaker is by far the simplest, strongest, and most economical appliance of its kind now manufactured. That it does its work well is proved by experience; and the advantages of its construction are immediately apparent upon comparison of its simple drum and single spindle with the flying hammers or rocking jaws, or double drums with toothed gearing which characterize some other patterns of the same class of plant. It should be remarked, as already indicated, lest exception should be taken to the size of the machine chosen here for illustration, that it can be made of any size down to hand power. On the whole, however, as a few tons of broken coke might be required at short notice even in a moderate sized works, it would scarcely be advisable to depend upon too small a machine; since the regular supply of the fuel thus improved may be trusted in a short time to increase the demand.

IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.

This is the design of Alfred Godfrey, of Clapton. According to this improvement, as represented at Figs. 1 and 2, a rack, A, is employed vibrating on the pivot a, and a pinion, a1, so arranged that instead of the pinion moving on a universal joint, or the rack moving in a parallel line from side to side of the pinion at the time the motion of the table is reversed, there is employed, for example, the radial arm, a2, mounted on the shaft, a3, supporting the driving wheel, a4. The opposite or vibrating end of the radial arm, a2, supports in suitable bearings the pinion, a1, and wheel, a5, driving the rack through the medium of the driving wheel, a4, the effect of which is that through the mechanical action of the vibrating arm, a2, and pinion, a1in conjunction with the vibrating movement of the rack, A, an easy, uniform, and silent motion is transmitted to the rack and table.

IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 1

IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 2.

A correspondent of theTribunedescribes at length the mining camps about Lake Valley, New Mexico, hitherto thought likely to be the central camp of that region, and then graphically tells the story of the recent "rush" to the Perche district. Within a month of the first strike of silver ore the country was swarming with prospectors, and a thousand or more prospects had been located.

The Perche district is on the eastern flanks of the Mimbres Mountains, a range which is a part of the Rocky Mountain range, and runs north and south generally parallel with the Rio Grande, from which it lies about forty miles to the westward. The northern half of these mountains is known as the Black Range, and was the center of considerable mining excitement a year and a half ago. It is there that the Ivanhoe is located, of which Colonel Gillette was manager, and in which Robert Ingersoll and Senator Plumb, of Kansas, were interested, much to the disadvantage of the former. A new company has been organized, however, with Colonel Ingersoll as president, and the reopening of work on the Ivanhoe will probably prove a stimulus to the whole Black Range. From this region the Perche district is from forty to sixty miles south. It is about twenty-five miles northwest of Lake Valley, and ten miles west of Hillsboro, a promising little mining town, with some mills and about 300 people. The Perche River has three forks coming down from the mountains and uniting at Hillsboro, and it is in the region between these forks that the recent strikes have been made.

On August 15 "Jack" Shedd, the original discoverer of the Robinson mine in Colorado, was prospecting on the south branch of the north fork of the Perche River, when he made the first great strike in the district. On the summit of a heavily timbered ridge he found some small pieces of native silver, and then a lump of ore containing very pure silver in the form of sulphides, weighing 150 pounds, and afterward proved to be worth on the average $11 a pound. All this was mere float, simply lying on the surface of the ground. Afterward another block was found, weighing 87 pounds, of horn silver, with specimens nearly 75 per cent. silver. The strike was kept a secret for a few days. Said a mining man: "I went up to help bring the big lump down. We took it by a camp of prospectors who were lying about entirely ignorant of any find. When they saw it they instantly saddled their horses, galloped off, and I believe they prospected all night." A like excitement was created when the news of this and one or two similar finds reached Lake Valley. Next morning every waiter was gone from the little hotel, and a dozen men had left the Sierra mines, to try their fortunes at prospecting.

As the news spread men poured into the Perche district from no one knows where, some armed with only a piece of salt pork, a little meal, and a prospecting pick; some mounted on mules, others on foot; old men and men half-crippled were among the number, but all bitten by the monomania which possesses every prospector. Now there are probably 2,000 men in the Perche district, and the number of prospects located must far exceed 1,000. Three miners from there with whom I was talking recently owned forty-seven mines among them, and while one acknowledged that hardly one prospect in a hundred turns out a prize, the other millionaire in embryo remarked that he wouldn't take $50,000 for one of his mines. So it goes, and the victims of the mining fever here seem as deaf to reason as the buyers of mining stock in New York. Fuel was added to the flame by the report that Shedd had sold his location, named the Solitaire, to ex-Governor Tabor and Mr. Wurtzbach on August 25 for $100,000. This was not true. I met Governor Tabor's representative, who came down recently to examine the properties, and learned that the Governor had not up to that date bought the mine. He undoubtedly bonded it, however, and his representative's opinion of the properties seemed highly favorable. The Solitaire showed what appeared to be a contact vein, with walls of porphyry and limestone in a ledge thirty feet wide in places, containing a high assay of horned silver. The vein was composed of quartz, bearing sulphides, with horn silver plainly visible, giving an average assay of from $350 to $500. This was free milling. These were the results shown simply by surface explorations, which were certainly exceedingly promising. Recently it has been stated that a little development shows the vein to be only a blind lead, but the statement lacks confirmation. In any case the effect of so sensational a discovery is the same in creating an intense excitement and attracting swarms of prospectors.

But the Perche district does not rest on the Solitaire, for there has been abundance of mineral wealth discovered throughout its extent. Four miles south of this prospect, on the middle fork of the Perche, is an actual mine--the Bullion--which was purchased by four or five Western mining men for $10,000, and yielded $11,000 in twenty days. The ore contains horn and native silver. On the same fork are the Iron King and Andy Johnson, both recently discovered and promising properties, and there is a valuable mine now in litigation on the south fork of the Perche, with scores of prospects over the entire district. Now that one or two sensational strikes have attracted attention, and capital is developing paying mines, the future of the Perche District seems assured.

TheBritish Medical Journalsays that Prof. E. Kinch, writing in theAgricultural Students' Gazette, says that the Soy bean approaches more nearly to animal food than any other known vegetable production, being singularly rich in fat and in albuminoids. It is largely used as an article of food in China and Japan. Efforts have been made to acclimatize it in various parts of the continent of Europe, and fair success has been achieved in Italy and France; many foods are made from it and its straw is a useful fodder.

[Footnote: Paper read at the British Association, Southampton. Revised by the Author.--Nature.]

Electric lamps on the arc principle are almost as numerous as the trees in the forest, and it is somewhat fresh to come upon something that is novel. In these lamps the carbons are consumed as the current flows, and it is the variation in their consumption which occasions the flickering and irregularity of the light that is so irritating to the eyes. Special mechanical contrivances or regulators have to be used to compensate for this destruction of the carbons, as in the Siemens and Brush type, or else refractory materials have to be combined with the carbons, as in the Jablochkoff candle and in the lamp Soleil. The steadiness of the light depends upon the regularity with which the carbons are moved toward each other as they are consumed, so as to maintain the electric resistance between them a constant quantity. Each lamp must have a certain elasticity of regulation of its own, to prevent irregularities from the variable material of carbon used, and from variations in the current itself and in the machinery.

In all electric lamps, except the Brockie, the regulator is in the lamp itself. In the Brockie system the regulation is automatic, and is made at certain rapid intervals by the motor engine. This causes a periodic blinking that is detrimental to this lamp for internal illumination.

FIG. 1. FIG. 2.

M. Abdank, the inventor of the system which I have the pleasure of bringing before the Section, separates his regulator from his lamp. The regulator may be fixed anywhere, within easy inspection and manipulation, and away from any disturbing influence in the lamp. The lamp can be fixed in any inaccessible place.

The Lamp(Figs. 1, 2, and 3.)--The bottom or negative carbon is fixed, but the top or positive carbon is movable, in a vertical line. It is screwed at the point, C, to a brass rod, T (Fig. 2), which moves freely inside the tubular iron core of an electromagnet, K. This rod is clutched and lifted by the soft iron armature, A B, when a current passes through the coil, M M. The mass of the iron in the armature is distributed so that the greater portion is at one end, B, much nearer the pole than the other end. Hence this portion is attracted first, the armature assumes an inclined position, maintained by a brass button, t, which prevents any adhesion between the armature and the core of the electromagnet. The electric connection between the carbon and the coil of the electromagnet is maintained by the flexible wire, S.

FIG. 3.

The electromagnet, A (Fig. 1), is fixed to a long and heavy rack, C, which falls by its own weight and by the weight of the electromagnet and the carbon fixed to it. The length of the rack is equal to the length of the two carbons. The fall of the rack is controlled by a friction break, B (Fig. 3), which acts upon the last of a train of three wheels put in motion by the above weight. The break, B, is fixed at one end of a lever, B A, the other end carrying a soft iron armature, F, easily adjusted by three screws. This armature is attracted by the electromagnet, E E (whose resistance is 1,200 ohms), whenever a current circulates through it. The length of the play is regulated by the screw, V. The spring, L, applies tension to the break.

The Regulator.--This consists of a balance and a cut-off.

The Balance(Figs. 4 and 5) is made with two solenoids. S and S', whose relative resistances is adjustable. S conveys the main current, and is wound with thick wire having practically no resistance, and S' is traversed by a shunt current, and is wound with fine wire having a resistance of 600 ohms. In the axes of these two coils a small and light iron tube (2 mm. diameter and 60 mm. length) freely moves in a vertical line between two guides. When magnetized it has one pole in the middle and the other at each end. The upward motion is controlled by the spring, N T. The spring rests upon the screw, H, with which it makes contact by platinum electrodes. This contact is broken whenever the little iron rod strikes the spring, N T.

The positive lead from the dynamo is attached to the terminal, B, then passes through the coil, S, to the terminal, B', whence it proceeds to the lamp. The negative lead is attached to terminal, A, passing directly to the other terminal, A', and thence to the lamp.

FIG. 4

The shunt which passes through the fine coil, S', commences at the point, P. The other end is fixed to the screw, H, whence it has two paths, the one offering no resistance through the spring, T N, to the upper negative terminal, A'; the other through the terminal, J, to the electromagnet of the break, M, and thence to the negative terminal of the lamp, L'.

FIG. 5.

The Cut-off.--The last part of the apparatus (Fig. 4) to be described is the cut-off, which is used when there are several lamps in series. It is brought into play by the switch, C D, which can be placed at E or D. When it is at E, the negative terminal, A, is in communication with the positive terminal, B, through the resistance, R, which equals the resistance of the lamp, which is, therefore, out of circuit. When it is at D the cut-off acts automatically to do the same thing when required. This is done by a solenoid, V, which has two coils, the one of thick wire offering no resistance, and the other of 2,000 ohms resistance. The fine wire connects the terminals, A' and B. The solenoid has a movable soft iron core suspended by the spring, U. It has a cross-piece of iron which can dip into two mercury cups, G and K, when the core is sucked into the solenoid. When this is the case, which happens when any accident occurs to the lamp, the terminal, A, is placed in connection with the terminal, B, through the thick wire of V and the resistance, R, in the same way as it was done by the switch, C D.

Electrical Arrangement.--The mode in which several lamps are connected up in series is shown by Fig. 6. M is the dynamo machine. The + lead is connected to B1of the balance it then passes to the lamp, L, returning to the balance, and then proceeds to each other lamp, returning finally to the negative pole of the machine. When the current enters the balance it passes through the coil, S, magnetizing the iron core and drawing it downward (Fig. 4). It then passes to the lamp, L L', through the carbons, then returns to the balance, and proceeds back to the negative terminal of the machine. A small portion of the current is shunted off at the point, P, passing through the coil, S', through the contact spring, T N, to the terminal, A', and drawing the iron core in opposition to S. The carbons are in contact, but in passing through the lamp the current magnetizes the electromagnet, M (Fig. 2), which attracts the armature, A B, that bites and lifts up the rod, T, with the upper carbon, a definite and fixed distance that is easily regulated by the screws, Y Y. The arc then is formed, and will continue to burn steadily as long as the current remains constant. But the moment the current falls, due to the increased resistance of the arc, a greater proportion passes through the shunt, S' (Fig. 4), increasing its magnetic moment on the iron core, while that of S is diminishing. The result is that a moment arrives when equilibrium is destroyed, the iron rod strikes smartly and sharply upon the spring, N T. Contact between T and H is broken, and the current passes through the electromagnet of the break in the lamp. The break is released for an instant, the carbons approach each other. But the same rupture of contact introduces in the shunt a new resistance of considerable magnitude (viz., 1,200 ohms), that of the electromagnets of the break. Then the strength of the shunt current diminishes considerably, and the solenoid, S, recovers briskly its drawing power upon the rod, and contact is restored. The carbons approach during these periods only about 0.01 to 0.02 millimeter. If this is not sufficient to restore equilibrium it is repeated continually, until equilibrium is obtained. The result is that the carbon is continually falling by a motion invisible to the eye, but sufficient to provide for the consumption of the carbons.

FIG. 6

The contact between N T and H is never completely broken, the sparks are very feeble, and the contacts do not oxidize. The resistances inserted are so considerable that heating cannot occur, while the portion of the current abstracted for the control is so small that it may be neglected.

The balance acts precisely like the key of a Morse machine, and the break precisely like the sounder-receiver so well known in telegraphy. It emits the same kind of sounds, and acts automatically like a skilled and faithful telegraphist.

This regulation, by very small and short successive steps, offers several advantages: (1) it is imperceptible to the eye; (2) it does not affect the main current; (3) any sudden instantaneous variation of the main current does not allow a too near approach of the carbon points. Let, now, an accident occur; for instance, a carbon is broken. At once the automatic cut-off acts, the current passes through the resistance, R, instead of passing through the lamp. The current through the fine coil is suddenly increased, the rod is drawn in, contact is made at G and K, and the current is sent through the coil, R. As soon as contact is again made by the carbons, the current in the coil, S, is increased, that of the thick wire in V diminished, and the antagonistic spring, U, breaks the contact at G and K. The rupture of the light is almost invisible, because the relighting is so brisk and sharp.

I have seen this lamp in action, and its constant steadiness leaves nothing to be desired.

Our readers are well aware that water as found naturally is never absolutely free from dissolved impurities; and in ordinary cases it contains solid impurities derived both from the inorganic and organic kingdoms, together with gaseous substances; these latter being generally derived from the atmosphere.

By far the purest water which occurs in nature is rain-water, and if this be collected in a secluded district, and after the air has been well washed by previous rain, its purity is remarkable; the extraneous matter consisting of little else than a trace of carbonic acid and other gases dissolved from the air. In fact, such water is far purer than any distilled water to be obtained in commerce. The case is very different when the rain-water is collected in a town or densely populated district, more especially if the water has been allowed to flow over dirty roofs. The black and foully-smelling liquid popularly known as soft water is so rich in carbonaceous and organic constituents as to be of very limited use to the photographer; but by taking the precaution of fitting up a simple automatic shunt for diverting the stream until the roofs have been thoroughly washed, it becomes possible to insure a good supply of clean and serviceable soft water, even in London. Several forms of shunt have been devised, some of these being so complex as to offer every prospect of speedy disorganization; but a simple and efficient apparatus is figured inEngineeringby a correspondent who signs himself "Millwright," and as we have thoroughly proved the value of an apparatus which is practically identical, we reproduce the substance of his communication.

A gentleman of Newcastle, a retired banker, having tried various filters to purify the rain-water collected on the roof of his house, at length had the idea to allow no water to run into the cistern until the roof had been well washed. After first putting up a hard-worked valve, the arrangement as sketched below has been hit upon. Now Newcastle is a very smoky place, and yet my friend gets water as pure as gin, and almost absolutely free from any smack of soot.

The sketch explains itself. The weight, W, and the angle of the lever, L, are such, that when the valve, V, is once opened it goes full open. A small hole in the can C, acts like a cataract, and brings matters to a normal state very soon after the rain ceases.

The proper action of the apparatus can only be insured by a careful adjustment of the weight, W, the angle through which the valve opens, and the magnitude of the vessel, C. It is an advantage to make the vessel, C, somewhat broader in proportion to its height than represented, and to provide it with a movable strainer placed about half way down. This tends to protect the cataract hole, and any accumulation of leaves and dirt can be removed once in six months or so. Clean soft water is valuable to the photographer in very many cases. Iron developer (wet plate) free from chlorides will ordinarily remain effective on the plate much longer than when chlorides are present, and the pyrogallic solution for dry-plate work will keep good for along time if made with soft water, while the lime which is present in hard water causes the pyrogallic acid to oxidize with considerable rapidity. Negatives that have been developed with oxalate developer often become covered with a very unsightly veil of calcium oxalate when rinsed with hard water, and something of a similar character occasionally occurs in the case of silver prints which are transferred directly from the exposure frame to impure water.

To the carbon printer clean rain-water is of considerable value, as he can develop much more rapidly with soft water than with hard water; or, what comes to the same thing, he can dissolve away his superfluous gelatine at a lower temperature than would otherwise be necessary.

The cleanest rain-water which can ordinarily be collected in a town is not sufficiently pure to be used with advantage in the preparation of the nitrate bath, it being advisable to use the purest distilled water for this purpose; and in many cases it is well to carefully distill water for the bath in a glass apparatus of the kind figured below.

A, thin glass flask serving as a retort. The tube, T, is fitted air-tight to the flask by a cork, C.

B, receiver into which the tube, T, fits quite loosely.

D, water vessel intended to keep the spiral of lamp wick, which is shown as surrounding T, in a moist condition. This wick acts as a siphon, and water is gradually drawn over into the lower receptacle, E.

L, spirit lamp, which may, in many cases, be advantageously replaced by a Bunsen burner.

A small metal still, provided with a tin condensing worm, is, however, a more generally serviceable arrangement, and if ordinary precautions are taken to make sure that the worm tube is clean, the resulting distilled water will be nearly as pure as that distilled in glass vessels.

Such a still as that figured below can be heated conveniently over an ordinary kitchen fire, and should find a place among the appliances of every photographer. Distilled water should always be used in the preparation of emulsion, as the impurities of ordinary water may often introduce disturbing conditions.--Photographic News.

The author refers to the customary view that black phosphorus is merely a mixture of the ordinary phosphorus with traces of a metallic phosphide, and contends that this explanation is not in all cases admissible. A specimen of black or rather dark gray phosphorus, which the author submitted to the Academy, became white if melted and remained white if suddenly cooled, but if allowed to enter into a state of superfusion it became again black on contact with either white or black phosphorus. A portion of the black specimen being dissolved in carbon disulphide there remained undissolved merely a trace of a very pale yellow matter which seemed to be amorphous phosphorus.--Comptes Rendus.

According to M. C. Leeuw, water in which malt has been steeped has the following composition:

Organic matter. 0.56 per cent.Mineral matter. 0.52 "----Total dry matter. 1.08 "----Nitrogen. 0.033 "

The mineral matter consists of--

Potash. 0.193 "Phosphoric acid. 0.031 "Lime. 0.012 "Soda. 0.047 "Magnesia. 0.016 "Sulphuric acid. 0.007 "Oxide of iron. traces.Chlorine and silica. 0.212 "

We give opposite illustrations of Schreiber's apparatus for revivifying bone-black or animal charcoal. The object of revivification is to render the black fit to be used again after it has lost its decolorizing properties through service--that is to say, to free its pores from the absorbed salts and insoluble compounds that have formed therein during the operation of sugar refining. There are two methods employed--fermentation and washing. At present the tendency is to abandon the former in order to proceed with as small a stock of black as possible, and to adopt the method of washing with water and acid in a rotary washer.

Figs. 1 and 2 represent a plan and elevation of a bone-black room, containing light filters, A, arranged in a circle around wells, B. These latter have the form of a prism with trapezoidal base, whose small sides end at the same point, d, and the large ones at the filter. The funnel, E, of the washer, F, is placed in the space left by the small ends of the wells, so that the black may be taken from these latter and thrown directly into the washer. The washer is arranged so that the black may flow out near the steam fitter, G, beneath the floor. The discharge of this filter is toward the side of the elevator, H, which takes in the wet black below, and carries it up and pours it into the drier situated at the upper part of the furnace. This elevator, Figs. 3 and 4, is formed of two vertical wooden uprights, A, ten centimeters in thickness, to which are fixed two round-iron bars the same as guides. The lift, properly so-called, consists of an iron frame, C, provided at the four angles with rollers, D, and supporting a swinging bucket, E, which, on its arrival at the upper part of the furnace, allows the black to fall to an inclined plane that leads it to the upper part of the drier. The left is raised and lowered by means of a pitch-chain, F, fixed to the middle of the frame, C, and passing over two pulleys, G, at the upper part of the frame and descending to the mechanism that actuates it. This latter comprises a nut, I, acting directly on the chain; a toothed wheel, K, and a pinion, J, gearing with the latter and keyed upon the shaft of the pulleys, L and M. The diameter of the toothed wheel, K, is 0.295 of a meter, and it makes 53.4 revolutions per minute. The diameter of the pinion is 0.197 of a meter, and it makes 80 revolutions per minute. The pulleys, M and L, are 0.31 of a meter in diameter, and make 80 revolutions per minute. Motion is transmitted to them by other pulleys, N, keyed upon a shaft placed at the lower part, which receives its motion from the engine of the establishment through the intermedium of the pulley, O. The diameter of the latter is 0.385 of a meter, and that of N is 0.58. They each make 43 revolutions per minute.

FIG. 1.--ELEVATION OF BONE-BLACK REVIVIFYING PLANT (SCHREIBER'S SYSTEM.)FIG. 2.--PLAN VIEW.FIG. 3.--LATERAL VIEW OF ELEVATOR.FIG. 4.--FRONT VIEW OF ELEVATOR.FIG. 5.--CONTINUOUS FURNACE FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK.

The elevator is set in motion by the simple maneuver of the gearing lever, P, and when this has been done all the other motions are effected automatically.

The Animal Black Furnace.--This consists of a masonry casing of rectangular form, in which are arranged on each side of the same fire-place two rows of cast-iron retorts, D, of undulating form, each composed of three parts, set one within the other. These retorts, which serve for the revivification of the black, are incased in superposed blocks of refractory clay, P, Q, S, designed to regularize the transmission of heat and to prevent burning. These pieces are kept in their respective places by crosspieces, R. The space between the retorts occupied by the fire-place, Y, is covered with a cylindrical dome, O, of refractory tiles, forming a fire-chamber with the inner surface of the blocks, P, Q, and S. The front of the surface consists of a cast-iron plate, containing the doors to the fire-place and ash pan, and a larger one to allow of entrance to the interior to make repairs.

One of the principal disadvantages of furnaces for revivifying animal charcoal has been that they possessed no automatic drier for drying the black on its exit from the washer. It was for the purpose of remedying this that Mr. Schreiber was led to invent the automatic system of drying shown at the upper part of the furnace, and which is formed of two pipes, B, of undulating form, like the retorts, with openings throughout their length for the escape of steam. Between these pipes there is a closed space into which enters the waste heat and products of combustion from the furnace. These latter afterward escape through the chimney at the upper part.

In order that the black may be put in bags on issuing from the furnace, it must be cooled as much as possible. For this purpose there are arranged on each side of the furnace two pieces of cast iron tubes, F, of rectangular section, forming a prolongation of the retorts and making with them an angle of about 45 degrees. The extremities of these tubes terminate in hollow rotary cylinders, G, which permit of regulating the flow of the black into a car, J (Fig. 1), running on rails.

From what precedes, it will be readily understood how a furnace is run on this plan.

The bone-black in the hopper, A, descends into the drier, B, enters the retorts, D, and, after revivification, passes into the cooling pipes, F, from whence it issues cold and ready to be bagged. A coke fire having been built in the fire-place, Y, the flames spread throughout the fire chamber, direct themselves toward the bottom, divide into two parts to the right and left, and heat the back of the retorts in passing. Then the two currents mount through the lateral flues, V, and unite so as to form but one in the drier. Within the latter there are arranged plates designed to break the current from the flames, and allow it to heat all the inner parts of the pipes, while the apertures in the drier allow of the escape of the steam.

By turning one of the cylinders, G, so as to present its aperture opposite that of the cooler, it instantly fills up with black. At this moment the whole column, from top to bottom, is set in motion. The bone-black, in passing through the undulations, is thrown alternately to the right and left until it finally reaches the coolers. This operation is repeated as many times as the cylinder is filled during the descent of one whole column, that is to say, about forty times.

With an apparatus of the dimensions here described, 120 hectoliters of bone-black may be revivified in twenty four hours, with 360 to 400 kilogrammes of coke.--Annales Industrielles.

[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330, page 5264.]

In our last article, under the above heading, the advantages to be gained by the use of potash soap as compared with soda soap were pointed out, and the reasons of this superiority, especially in the case of washing wool or woolen fabrics, were pretty fully gone into. It was also further explained why the potash soaps generally sold to the public were unfit for general use, owing to their not being neutral--that is to say, containing a considerable excess of free or unsaponified alkali, which acts injuriously on the fiber of any textile material, and causes sore hands if used for household or laundry purposes. It was shown that the cause of this defect was owing to the old-fashioned method of making potash or soft soap, by boiling with wood ashes or other impure form of potash; but that a perfectly pure and neutral potash soap could readily be made with pure caustic potash, which within the last few years has become a commercial article, manufactured on a large scale; just in the same manner as the powdered 98 per cent. caustic soda, which was recommended in our previous articles on making hard soap without boiling.

The process of making pure neutral potash soap is very simple, and almost identical with that for making hard soap with pure powdered caustic soda. The following directions, if carefully and exactly followed, will produce a first-class potash soap, suitable either for the woolen manufacturer for washing his wool, and the cloth afterward made from it, or for household and laundry purposes, for which uses it will be found far superior to any soda soap, no matter how pure or well made it may be.

Dissolve twenty pounds of pure caustic potash in two gallons of water. Pure caustic potash is very soluble, and dissolves almost immediately, heating the water. Let the lye thus made cool until warm to the hand--say about 90 F. Melt eighty pounds of tallow or grease, which must be free from salt, and let it cool until fairly hot to the hand--say 130 F.; or eighty pounds of any vegetable or animal oil may be taken instead. Now pour the caustic potash lye into the melted tallow or oil, stirring with a flat wooden stirrer about three inches broad, until both are thoroughly mixed and smooth in appearance. This mixing may be done in the boiler used to melt the tallow, or in a tub, or half an oil barrel makes a good mixing vessel. Wrap the tub or barrel well up in blankets or sheepskins, and put away for a week in some warm dry place, during which the mixture slowly turns into soap, giving a produce of about 120 pounds of excellent potash soap. If this soap is made with tallow or grease it will be nearly as hard as soda soap. When made by farmers or householders tallow or grease will generally be taken, as it is the cheapest, and ready to hand on the spot. For manufacturers, or for making laundry soap, nothing could be better than cotton seed oil. A magnificent soap can be made with this article, lathering very freely. When made with oil it is better to remelt in a kettle the potash soap, made according to the above directions, with half its weight of water, using very little heat, stirring constantly, and removing the fire as soon as the water is mixed with and taken up by the soap. A beautifully bright soap is obtained in this way, and curiously the soap is actually made much harder and stiffer by this addition of water than when it is in a more concentrated state previously to the water being added.

With reference to the caustic potash for making the soap, it can be obtained in all sizes of drums, but small packages just sufficient for a batch of soap are generally more economical than larger packages, as pure caustic potash melts and deteriorates very quickly when exposed to the air. The Greenbank Alkali Co., of St. Helens, seems to have appreciated this, and put upon the market pure caustic potash in twenty pound canisters, which are very convenient for potash soft soap making by consumers for their own use.

While on this subject of caustic potash, it cannot be too often repeated thatcaustic potashis a totally different article tocaustic soda, though just like it in appearance, and therefore often sold as such. One of the most barefaced instances of this is the so-called "crystal potash," "ball potash," or "rock potash," of the lye packers, sold in one pound packages, which absolutely, without exception, do not contain a single grain of potash, but simply consist of caustic soda more or less adulterated--as a rule very much "more" than "less!" It is much to be regretted that this fraud on the public has been so extensively practiced, as potash has been greatly discredited by this procedure.

The subject of fleece scouring or washing the wool while growing on the sheep, with a potash soap made on the spot with the waste tallow generally to be had on every sheep farm, seems recently to have been attracting attention in some quarters, and certainly would be a source of profit to sheep owners by putting their wool on the market in the best condition, and at the same time cleaning the skin of the sheep. It therefore appears to be a move in the right direction.

In concluding this series of articles on practical soap making from a consumer's point of view, the writer hopes that, although the subject has been somewhat imperfectly handled, owing to necessarily limited space and with many unavoidable interruptions, yet that they may have been found of some interest and assistance to consumers of soap who desire easily and readily to make a pure and unadulterated article for their own use.

Having had occasion during the last six years to manufacture lead plaster in considerable quantities, it occurred to me that cotton seed oil might be used instead of olive oil, at less expense, and with as good results. The making of this plaster with cotton seed oil has been questioned, as, according to some authorities, the product is not of good consistence, and is apt to be soft, sticky, and dark colored; but in my experience such is not the case. If the U. S. P. process is followed in making this plaster, substituting for the olive oil cotton seed oil, and instead of one half-pint of boiling water one and one-half pint are added, the product obtained will be equally as good as that from olive oil. My results with this oil in making lead plaster led me to try it in making the different liniments of the Pharmacopoeia, with the following results:

Linimentum Ammoniæ.--This liniment, made with cotton seed oil, is of much better consistency than when made with olive oil. It is not so thick, will pour easily out of the bottle, and if the ammonia used is of proper strength, will make a perfect liniment.

Linimentum Calcis.--Cotton seed oil is not at all adapted to making this liniment. It does not readily saponify, separates quickly, and it is almost impossible to unite when separated.

Linimentum Camphoræ.--Cotton seed oil is far superior to olive oil in making this liniment, it being a much better solvent of camphor. It has not that disagreeable odor so commonly found in the liniment.

Linimentum Chloroformi.--Cotton seed oil being very soluble in chloroform, the liniment made with it leaves nothing to be desired.

Linimentum Plumbi Subacetatis.--When liq. plumbi subacet. is mixed with cotton seed oil and allowed to stand for some time the oil assumes a reddish color similar to that of freshly made tincture of myrrh. When the liquor is mixed with olive oil, if the oil be pure, no such change takes place. Noticing this change, it occurred to me that this would be a simple and easy way to detect cotton seed oil when mixed with olive oil. This change usually takes place after standing from twelve to twenty-four hours. It is easily detected in mixtures containing five per cent., or even less, of the oils, and I am convinced, after making numerous experiments with different oils, that it is peculiar to cotton seed oil.--American Journal of Pharmacy.

[Footnote: From a lecture delivered at the Sanitary Congress, at Newcastle-on-Tyne, September 28, 1882.]

Although eating cannot be said to be in any way a new fashion, it has nevertheless been reserved for modern times, and indeed we may say the present generation, to get a fairly clear idea of the way in which food is really utilized for the work of our bodily frame. We must not, however, plume ourselves too much upon our superior knowledge, for inklings of the truth, more or less dim, have been had through all ages, and we are now stepping into the inheritance of times gone by, using the long and painful experience of our predecessors as the stepping-stone to our more accurate knowledge of the present time. In this, as in many other things, we are to some extent in the position of a dwarf on the shoulders of a giant; the dwarf may, indeed, see further than the giant; but he remains a dwarf, and the giant a giant.

The question has been much discussed as to what the original food of man was, and some people have made it a subject of excited contention. The most reasonable conclusion is that man is naturally a frugivorous or fruit-eating animal, like his cousins the monkeys, whom he still so much resembles. This forms a further argument in favor of his being originated in warm regions, where fruits of all kinds were plentiful. It is pretty clear that the resort to animal food, whether the result of the pressure of want from failure of vegetable products, or a mere taste and a desire for change and more appetizing food, is one that took place many ages ago, probably in the earliest anthropoid, if not in the latest pithecoid stage. No doubt some advantage was recognized in the more rapid digestion and the comparative ease with which the hunter or fisher could obtain food, instead of waiting for the ripening of fruits in countries which had more or less prolonged periods of cold and inclement weather. Some anatomical changes have doubtless resulted from the practice, but they are not of sufficiently marked character to found much argument upon; all that we can say being that the digestive apparatus in man seems well adapted for digesting any food that is capable of yielding nutriment, and that even when an entire change is made in the mode of feeding, the adaptability of the human system shows itself in a more or less rapid accommodation to the altered circumstances.

Food, then, is any substance which can be taken into the body and applied to use, either in building up or repairing the tissues and framework of the body itself, or in providing energy and producing animal heat, or any substance which, without performing those functions directly, controls, directs, or assists their performance. With this wide definition it is evident that we include all the ordinary articles recognized commonly as food, and that we reject all substances recognized commonly as poisons. But it will also include such substances as water and air, both of which are essential for nutrition, but are not usually recognized as belonging to the list of food substances in the ordinary sense. When we carry our investigation further, we find that the organic substances may be again divided into two distinct classes, namely, that which contains nitrogen (the casein), and those that do not (the butter and sugar).

On ascertaining this, we are immediately struck with the remarkable fact that all the tissues and fluids of the body, muscles (or flesh), bone, blood--all, in short, except the fat--contain nitrogen, and, consequently, for their building up in the young, and for their repair and renewal in the adult, nitrogen is absolutely required. We therefore reasonably infer that the nitrogenous substance is necessary for this purpose. Experiment has borne this out, for men who have been compelled to live without nitrogenous food by dire necessity, and criminals on whom the experiment has been tried, have all perished sooner or later in consequence. When nitrogenous substances are used in the body, they are, of course, broken up and oxidized, or perhaps we ought to say more accurately, they take the place of the tissues of the body which wear away and are carried off by oxidation and other chemical changes.

Now, modern science tell us that such changes are accompanied with manifestations of energy in some form or other, most frequently in that of heat, and we must look, therefore, upon nitrogenous food as contributing to the energy of the body in addition to its other functions.

What are the substances which we may class as nitrogenous. In the first place, we have the typical example of the purest form inalbumin, or white of egg; and from this the name is now given to the class ofalbuminates. The animal albuminates are: Albumin from eggs, fibrin from muscles, or flesh, myosin, or synronin, also from animals, casein (or cheesy matter) from milk, and the nitrogenous substances from blood. In the vegetable kingdom, we have glutin, or vegetable fibrin, which is the nourishing constituent of wheat, barley, oats, etc.; and legumin, or vegetable casein, which is the peculiar substance found in peas and beans. The other organic constituents--viz., the fats and the starches and sugars--contain no nitrogen, and were at one time thought to be concerned in producing animal heat.

We now know--thanks to the labors of Joule, Lyon Playfair, Clausius, Tyndall, Helmholtz, etc.--that heat itself is a mode of motion, a form of convertible energy, which can be made to do useful or productive work, and be expressed in terms of actual work done. Modern experiment shows that all our energy is derived from that of food, and, in particular from the non-nitrogenous part of it, that is, the fat, starch, and sugar. The nutrition of man is best maintained when he is provided with a due admixture of all the four classes of aliment which we have mentioned, and not only that, but he is also better off if he has a variety of each class. Thus he may and ought to have albumen, fibrine, gluten, and casein among the albuminates, or at least two of them; butter and lard, or suet, or oil among the fats; starch of wheat, potato, rice, peas, etc., and cane-sugar, and milk-sugar among the carbo-hydrates. The salts cannot be replaced, so far as we know. Life may be maintained in fair vigor for some time on albuminates only, but this is done at the expense of the tissues, especially the fat of the body, and the end must soon come; with fat and carbo hydrates alone vigor may also be maintained for some time, at the expense of the tissues also, but the limit is a near one, In either of these cases we suppose sufficient water and salts to be provided.

We must now inquire into the quantities of food necessary; and this necessitates a little consideration of the way in which the work of the body is carried on. We must look upon the human body exactly as a machine; like an engine with which we are all so familiar. A certain amount of work requires to be done, say, a certain number of miles of distance to be traversed; we know that to do this a certain number of pounds, or hundredweights, or tons of coal must be put into the fire of the boiler in order to furnish the requisite amount of energy through the medium of steam. This amount of fuel must bear a certain proportion to the work, and also to the velocity with which it is done, so both quantity and time have to be accounted for.

No lecture on diet would be complete without a reference to the vexed question of alcohol. I am no teetotal advocate, and I repudiate the rubbish too often spouted from teetotal platforms, talk that is, perhaps, inseparable from the advocacy of a cause that imports a good deal of enthusiasm. I am at one, however, in recognizing the evils of excess, and would gladly hail their diminution. But I believe that alcohol properly used may be a comfort and a blessing, just as I know that improperly used it becomes a bane and a curse. But we are now concerned with it as an article of diet in relation to useful work, and it may be well to call attention markedly to the fact that its use in this way is very limited. The experiments of the late Dr. Parkes, made in our laboratory, at Netley, were conclusive on the point, that beyond an amount that would be represented by about one and a half to two pints of beer, alcohol no longer provided any convertible energy, and that, therefore, to take it in the belief that it did do so is an error. It may give a momentary stimulus in considerable doses, but this is invariably followed by a corresponding depression, and it is a maxim now generally followed, especially on service, never to give it before or during work. There are, of course, some persons who are better without it altogether, and so all moderation ought to be commended, if not enjoyed.

There are other beverages which are more useful than the alcoholic, as restoratives, and for support in fatigue. Tea and coffee are particularly good. Another excellent restorative is a weak solution of Liebig's extract of meat, which has a remarkable power of removing fatigue. Perhaps one of the most useful and most easily obtainable is weak oatmeal gruel, either hot or cold. With regard to tobacco, it also has some value in lessening fatigue in those who are able to take it, but it may easily be carried to excess. Of it we may say, as of alcohol, that in moderation it seems harmless, and even useful to some extent, but, in excess, it is rank poison.

There is one other point which I must refer to, and which is especially interesting to a great seaport like this. This is the question of scurvy--a question of vital importance to a maritime nation. A paper lately issued by Mr. Thomas Gray, of the Board of Trade, discloses the regrettable fact that since 1873 there has been a serious falling off, the outbreaks of scurvy having again increased until they reached ninety-nine in 1881. This, Mr. Gray seems to think, is due to a neglect of varied food scales; but it may also very probably have arisen from the neglect of the regulation about lime-juice, either as to issue or quality, or both. But it is also a fact of very great importance that mere monotony of diet has a most serious effect upon health; variety of food is not merely a pandering to gourmandism or greed, but a real sanitary benefit, aiding digestion and assimilation. Our Board of Trade has nothing to do with the food scales of ships, but Mr. Gray hints that the Legislature will have to interfere unless shipowners look to it themselves. The ease with which preserved foods of all kinds can be obtained and carried now removes the last shadow of an excuse for backwardness in this matter, and in particular the provision of a large supply of potatoes, both fresh and dried, ought to be an unceasing care; this is done on board American ships, and to this is doubtless owing in a great part the healthiness of their crews. Scurvy in the present day is a disgrace to shipowners and masters; and if public opinion is insufficient to protect the seamen, the legislature will undoubtedly step in and do so.

And now let me close by pointing out that the study of this commonplace matter of eating and drinking opens out to us the conception of the grand unity of nature; since we see that the body of man differs in no way essentially from other natural combinations, but is subject to the same universal physical laws, in which there is no blindness, no variableness, no mere chance, and disobedience of which is followed as surely by retribution as even the keenest eschatologist might desire.

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