Two of the three species which form the subject of this article are not only highly ornamental, but also valuable timber trees. Until recently they were considered to belong to the genus Planera, which, however, consists of but a single New World species; now, they properly constitute a distinct genus, viz., Zelkova, which differs materially from the true Planer tree in the structure of the fruit, etc. Z. crenata, from the Caucasus, and Z. acuminata, from Japan, are quick growing, handsome trees, with smooth bark not unlike that of beech or hornbeam; it is only when the trees are old that the bark is cast off in rather large sized plates, as is the case with the planes. The habit of both is somewhat peculiar; in Z. crenata especially there is a decided tendency for all the main branches to be given off from one point; these, too, do not spread, as for instance do those of the elm or beech, but each forms an acute angle with the center of the tree. The trunks are more columnar than those of almost all other hardy trees. Their distinct and graceful habit renders them wonderfully well adapted for planting for effect, either singly or in groups. The flowers, like those of the elm, are produced before the leaves are developed; in color they are greenish brown, and smell like those of the elder. It does not appear that fruits have yet been ripened in England. All the Zelkowas are easily propagated by layers or by grafting on the common elm.
YOUNG ZELKOWA TREE (21 FEET HIGH)
YOUNG ZELKOWA TREE (21 FEET HIGH)
Zelkcova crenata--The Caucasian Zelkowa is a native of the country lying between the Black and the Caspian Sea between latitudes 35° and 47° of the north of Persia and Georgia. According to Loudon, it was introduced to this country in 1760, and it appears to have been planted both at Kew and Syon at about that date. A very full account of the history, etc., of the Zelkowa, from which Loudon largely quotes, was presented to the French Academy of Science by Michaux the younger, who speaks highly of the value of the tree. In this he is fully corroborated by Mirbel and Desfontaine, on whom devolved the duty of reporting on this memoir. They say that it attains a size equal to that of the largest trees of French forests, and recommend its being largely planted. They particularly mention its suitability for roadside avenues, and affirm that its leaves are never devoured by caterpillars, and that the stems are not subject, to the canker which frequently ruins the elm. The name Orme de Siberie, which is or was commonly applied to Zelkova crenata in French books and gardens, is doubly wrong, for the tree is neither an elm nor is it native of Siberia. In 1782 Michaux, the father of the author of the paper above mentioned, undertook, under the auspices, of a Monsieur (afterward Louis XVIII.), a journey into Persia, in order to make botanical researches.
FOLIAGE OF A YOUNG ZELKOWA TREE, WITHFLOWERS AND FRUIT.
"Having left Ispahan, in order to explore the province of Ghilan, he found this tree in the forests which he traversed before arriving at Recht, a town situated on the Caspian Sea. In this town he had opportunities of remarking the use made of the wood, and of judging how highly it was appreciated by the inhabitants." The first tree introduced into Europe appears to have been planted by M. Lemonnier, Professor of Botany in the Jardin des Plautes, etc., in his garden near Versailles. This garden was destroyed in 1820, and the dimensions of the tree when it was cut down were as follows: Height 70 feet, trunk 7 feet in circumference at 5 feet from the ground. The bole of the trunk was 20 feet in length and of nearly uniform thickness; and the proportion of heart-wood to sap-wood was about three quarters of its diameter. This tree was about fifty years old, but was still in a growing state and in vigorous health. The oldest tree existing in France at the time of the publication of Loudon's great work, was one in the Jardin des Plantes, which in 1831 was about 60 feet high. It was planted in 1786 (when a sucker of four years old), about the same time as the limes which form the grand avenue called the Allee de Buffon. "There is, however, a much larger Zelkowa on an estate of M. le Comte de Dijon, an enthusiastic planter of exotic trees, at Podenas, near Nerac, in the department of the Lot et Garonne. This fine tree was planted in 1789, and on the 20th of January, 1831. it measured nearly 80 feet high, and the trunk was nearly 3 feet in diameter at 3 feet from the ground." A drawing of this tree, made by the count in the autumn of that year, was lent to Loudon by Michaux, and the engraving prepared from that sketch (on a scale of 1 inch to 12 feet) is herewith reproduced. At Kew the largest tree is one near the herbarium (a larger one had to be cut down when the herbarium was enlarged some years ago, and a section of the trunk is exhibited in Museum No. 3). Its present dimensions are: height, 62 feet; circumference of stem at 1 foot from the ground, 9 feet 8 inches; ditto at ground level, 10 feet; Height of stem from ground to branches, 7 feet; diameter of head, 46 feet. The general habit of the tree is quite that as represented in the engraving of the specimen at Podenas. The measurements of the large tree at Syon House were, in 1834, according to Loudon: Height, 54 feet; circumference of of stem, 6 feet 9 inches; and diameter of head, 34 feet; the present dimensions, for which I am indebted to Mr. Woodbridge, are: Height, 76 feet; girth of trunk at 2½ feet from ground, 10 feet; spread of branches, 36 feet.
FLOWERS AND FRUITOF ZELKOVA CRENATA(Planera Richardi).
IDENTIFICATION.--Zelkova crenata, Spach in Ann. des Sc. nat. 2d ser. 15, p. 358. D. C. Prodromus, xvii., 165 Rhamnus ulmoides, Güldenst. It., p. 313. R carpinifolius, Pall. Fl Rossica, 2 p. 24, tab. 10. Ulmus polygama, L C. Richard in Mem. Acad. des Sciences de Paris, ann. 1781. Planera Richardi, Michx. Fl. bor. Amer. 2, p. 248; C.A. Meyer, Enumer. Causas. Casp., n. 354; Dunal in Bulletin Soc. cent d'Agricult. de l'Herault. ann. 1841, 299, 303, et ann. 1843, 225, 236. Loudon, Arbor, et Frut. Brit., vol. 3, p. 1409. Planera crenata, Desf. Cat. Hort. Paris et hortul, fere omnium. Michaux fil. Mem. sur le Zelkowa, 1831. Planera carpinifolia, Watson, Dend. Brit., t. 106. Koch Dendrologie, zweit theil, sweit. Abtheil. p. 425.
ZELKOWA TREE ATPODENASShowing peculiar habit of branching.In old trees the effect is veryremarkable in winter as at Oxford,Versailles (Petit Trianon)and Syon.
Var pendula(the weeping Zelkowa).--This is a form of which I do not know the origin or history. It is simply a weeping variety of the common Zelkowa. I first saw it in the Isleworth Nurseries of Messrs. C. Lee & Son, and a specimen presented by them to Kew for the aboretum is now growing freely. I suspect that the Zelkova crenata var. repens of M. Lavallee's "Aboretum Segrezianum" and the Planera repens of foreign catalogues generally are identical with the variety now mentioned under the name it bears in the establishment of Messrs. Lee & Son.
FOLIAGE OF A FULL-GROWN ZELKOWA TREE.
FOLIAGE OF A FULL-GROWN ZELKOWA TREE.
Z. acuminatais one of the most useful and valuable of Japanese timber trees. It was found near Yeddo by the late Mr. John Gould Veitch, and was sent out by the firm of Messrs. J. Veitch & Sons. Maximowicz also found the tree in Japan, and introduced it to the Imperial Botanic Gardens of St. Petersburg, from whence both seeds and plants were liberally distributed. In theGardeners' Chroniclefor 1862 Dr. Lindley writes as follows: "A noble deciduous tree, discovered near Yeddo by Mr. J. G. Veitch, 90 feet to 100 feet in height, with a remarkably straight stem. In aspect it resembles an elm. We understand that a plank in the Exotic Nursery, where it has been raised, measures 3 feet 3 inches across. Mr. Veitch informs us that it is one of the most useful timber trees in Japan. Its long, taper-pointed leaves, with coarse, very sharp serratures, appear to distinguish it satisfactorily from the P. Richardi of the northwest of Asia." There seems to be no doubt as to the perfect hardiness of the Japanese Zelkowa in Britain, and it is decidedly well worth growing as an ornamental tree apart from its probable value as a timber producer. A correspondent in the periodical just mentioned writes, in 1873, p. 1142, under the signature of "C.P.": "At Stewkley Grange it does fairly well; better than most other trees. In a very exposed situation it grew 3 feet 5 inches last year, and was 14 feet 5 inches high when I measured it in November; girth at ground, 8¾ inches; at 3 feet, 5 inches." The leaves vary in size a good deal on the short twiggy branches, being from 3 inches to 3½ inches in length and 1¼ inches to 1½ inches in width, while those on vigorous shoots attain a length of 5 inches, with a width of about half the length. They are slightly hairy on both surfaces. The long acuminate points, the sharper serratures, the more numerous nerves (nine to fourteen in number), and the more papery texture distinguish Z. acuminata easily from its Caucasian relative, Z. crenata. The foliage, too, seems to be retained on the trees in autumn longer than that of the species just named; in color it is a dull green above and a brighter glossy green beneath. The timber is very valuable, being exceedingly hard and capable of a very fine polish. In Japan it is used in the construction of houses, ships, and in high class cabinet work. In case 99, Museum No. 1 at Kew, there is a selection of small useful and ornamental articles made in Japan of Keyaki wood. Those manufactured from ornamental Keyaki (which is simply gnarled stems or roots, or pieces cut tangentially), and coated with the transparent lacquer for which the Japanese an so famous, are particularly handsome. In the museum library is also a book, the Japanese title of which is given below--"Handbook of Useful Woods," by E. Kinch. Professor at the Imperial College of Agriculture, at Tokio, Japan. This work contains transverse and longitudinal sections of one hundred Japanese woods, and numbers 45 and 46 represent Z. acuminata. It would be worth the while of those who are interested in the introduction and cultivation of timber trees in temperate climates to procure Kinch's handbook.
IDENTIFICATION.--Zelkova acuminata, D.C. Prodr., xvii., 166; Z. Keaki, Maxim. Mel. biol. vol. ix, p. 21. Planera acuminata, Lindl. in Gard. Chron. 1862, 428; Regel, "Gartenflora" 1863, p. 56. P Japonica, Miq. ann. Mus. Ludg Bat iii., 66; Kinch. Yuyo Mokuzai Shoran, 45, 46. P. Keaki, Koch Dendrol. zweit. theil zweit Abtheil, 427. P. dentata japonica, Hort. P. Kaki, Hort.
FLOWERING TWIG OF PLANERA GMELINI.
FLOWERING TWIG OF PLANERA GMELINI.
Z. creticais a pretty, small foliaged tree, from 15 to 20 feet in height. The ovate crenate leaves, which measure from an inch or even less, to one inch and a half in length by about half the length in breadth, are leathery, dark green above, grayish above. They are hairy on both surfaces, the underside being most densely clothed, and the twigs, too, are thickly covered with short grayish hairs. This species, which is a native of Crete, is not at present in the Kew collection; its name, however, if given in M. Lavallee's catalogue, "Enumeration des Arbres et Arbris Cultives à Segrez" (Seine-et-Oise).
OLD SPECIMEN OF ZELKOWA TREE IN SUMMER FOLIAGE,CONCEALING FORM OF BRANCHING.
IDENTIFICATION.--Zelkova cretica. Spach in Suit à Buff, ii, p. 121. Ulmus Abelicea, Sibth & Sm. Prod. Fl., Graeca, i., p. 172. Planera Abelicea Roem. & Schltz. Syst., vi. p. 304; Planch, in Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1848, p. 282. Abelicea cretica, Smith in Trans. Linn. Sov., ix., 126.
I have seen no specimens of the Zelkova stipulacea of Franchet and Savatier's "Enumeratio Plantarum Japonicarum," vol. ii., p. 489, and as that seems to have been described from somewhat insufficient material, and, moreover, does not appear to be in cultivation, I passed it over as a doubtful plant.
GEORGE NICHOLSON.
Royal Gardens, Kew.
Prof. A.J. Cook, the eminent apiarist, calls attention to a new pest which has made its appearance in many apiaries. After referring to the fact that poultry and all other domestic animals of ten suffer serious injury from the attacks of parasitic mites, and that even such household stores as sugar, flour, and cheese are not from their ravages, he tells of the discovery of a parasitic pest among bees. He says:
"During the last spring a lady bee-keeper of Connecticut discovered these mites in her hives while investigating to learn the cause of their rapid depletion. She had noticed that the colonies were greatly reduced in number of bees, and upon close observation found that the diseased or failing colonies were covered with the mites. So small are these pests that a score of them can take possession of a single bee and not be crowded for room either. The lady states that the bees roll and scratch in their vain attempts to rid themselves of these annoying stick-tights, and finally, worried out, fall to the bottom of the hive, or go forth to die on the outside. Mites are not true insects, but are the most degraded of spiders. The sub-classArachnidaare at once recognized by their eight legs. The order of mites (Accorina), which includes the wood-tick, cattle-tick, etc., and mites, are quickly told from the higher orders--true spiders and scorpions--by their rounded bodies, which appear like mere sacks, with little appearance of segmentation, and their small, obscure heads. The mites alone, of all theArachinida, pass through a marked metamorphosis. Thus the young mite has only six legs, while the mature form has eight. The bee mite is very small, not more than one-fiftieth of an inch long. The female is slightly longer than the male, and somewhat transparent. The color is black, though the legs and more transparent areas of the female appear yellowish. All the legs are fine jointed, slightly hairy, and each tipped with two hooks or claws."
As to remedies, the Professor says that as what would kill the mites would doubtless kill the bees, makes the question a difficult one. He suggests, however, the frequent changing of the bees from one hive to another, after which the emptied hives should be thoroughly scalded. He thinks this course of treatment, persisted in, would effectually clean them out.
To the Editor of the Scientific American:
Seeing in your issue of October 13, 1883, an article on "Crystallization in Extracted Honey," I beg leave to differ a little with the gentleman. I have handled honey as an apiarist and dealer for ten years, and find by actual experience that it has no tendency to crystallize in warm weather; but on the contrary it will crystallize in cold weather, and the colder the weather the harder the honey will get. I have had colonies of bees starve when there was plenty of honey in the hives; it was in extreme cold weather, there was not enough animal heat in the bees to keep the honey from solidifying, hence the starvation of the colonies.
To-day I removed with a thin paddle sixty pounds of honey from a large stone jar where it had remained over one year. Last winter it was so solid from crystallization, it could not be cut with a knife; in fact, I broke a large, heavy knife in attempting to remove a small quantity.
As to honey becoming worthless from candying is a new idea to me, as I have, whenever I wanted our crystallized honey in liquid form, treated it to water bath, thereby bringing it to its natural state, in which condition it would remain for an indefinite time, especially if hermetically sealed. I never had any recrystallize after once having been treated to the water bath; and the flavor of the honey was in no way injured. I think the adding of glycerine to be entirely superfluous.
W.R. MILLER.
Polo, October 15.
The little schooner Santa Rosa arrived in port from Santa Barbara a few days ago. She comes up to this city twice a year to secure provisions, clothing, lumber, etc., for use on Santa Rosa Island, being owned by the great sheep raiser A.P. Moore, who owns the island and the 80,000 sheep that exist upon it. The island is about 30 miles south of Santa Barbara, and is 24 miles in length and 16 in breadth, and contains about 74,000 acres of land, which are admirably adapted to sheep raising. Last June, Moore clipped 1,014 sacks of wool from these sheep, each sack containing an average of 410 pounds of wool, making a total of 415,740 pounds, which he sold at 27 cents a pound, bringing him in $112,349.80, or a clear profit of over $80,000. This is said to be a low yield, so it is evident that sheep raising there, when taking into consideration that shearing takes place twice a year, and that a profit is made off the sale of mutton, etc., is very profitable. The island is divided into four quarters by fences running clear across at right angles, and the sheep do not have to be herded like those ranging about the foothills.
Four men are employed regularly the year round to keep the ranch in order, and to look after the sheep, and during the shearing time fifty or more shearers are employed. These men secure forty or fifty days' work, and the average number of sheep sheared in a day is about ninety, for which five cents a clip is paid, thus $4.50 a day being made by each man, or something over $200 for the season, or over $400 for ninety days out of the year. Although the shearing of ninety sheep in a day is the average, a great many will go as high as 110, and one man has been known to shear 125.
Of course, every man tries to shear as many as he can, and, owing to haste, frequently the animals are severely cut by the sharp shears. If the wound is serious, the sheep immediately has its throat cut and is turned into mutton and disposed of to the butchers, and the shearer, if in the habit of frequently inflicting such wounds, is discharged. In the shearing of these 80,000 sheep, a hundred or more are injured to such an extent as to necessitate their being killed, but the wool and meat are of course turned into profit.
Although no herding is necessary, about 200 or more trained goats are kept on the island continually, which to all intents and purposes take the place of the shepherd dogs so necessary in mountainous districts where sheep are raised. Whenever the animals are removed from one quarter to another, the man in charge takes out with him several of the goats, exclaims in Spanish, "Cheva" (meaning sheep). The goat, through its training, understands what is wanted, and immediately runs to the band, and the sheep accept it as their leader, following wherever it goes. The goat, in turn, follows the man to whatever point he wishes to take the band.
To prevent the sheep from contracting disease, it is necessary to give them a washing twice a year. Moore, having so many on hand, found it necessary to invent some way to accomplish this whereby not so much expense would be incurred and time wasted. After experimenting for some time, he had a ditch dug 8 feet in depth, a little over 1 foot in width, and 100 feet long. In this he put 600 gallons of water, 200 pounds of sulphur, 100 pounds of lime, and 6 pounds of soda, all of which is heated to 138°. The goats lead the sheep into a corral or trap at one end, and the animals are compelled to swim through to the further end, thus securing a bath and taking their medicine at one and the same time.
The owner of the island and sheep, A.P. Moore, a few years ago purchased the property from the widow of his deceased brother Henry, for $600,000. Owing to ill health, he has rented it to his brother Lawrence for $140,000 a year, and soon starts for Boston, where he will settle down for the rest of his life. He still retains an interest in the Santa Cruz Island ranch, which is about 25 miles southeast of Santa Barbara. This island contains about 64,000 acres, and on it are 25,000 sheep. On Catalina Island, 60 miles east of Santa Barbara, are 15,000 sheep, and on Clementa Island, 80 miles east of that city, are 10,000 sheep. Forty miles west of the same city is San Miguel, on which are 2,000 sheep. Each one of these ranches has a sailing vessel to carry freight, etc., to and fro between the islands and the mainland, and they are kept busy the greater part of the time.--San Francisco Call.
At the Parkes Museum of Hygiene, London, Dr. Robert J. Lee recently delivered a lecture on the above subject, illustrated by experiments.
The author remarked that he could not better open up his theme than by explaining what was meant by disinfection. He would do so by an illustration from Greek literature. When Achilles had slain Hector, the body still lay on the plain of Troy for twelve days after; the god Hermes found it there and went and told of it--"This, the twelfth evening since he rested, untouched by worms, untainted by the air." The Greek word for taint in this sense wassepsis, which meant putrefaction, and from this we had the term "antiseptic," or that which was opposed to or prevented putrefaction. The lecturer continued:
I have here in a test tube some water in which a small piece of meat was placed a few days ago. The test tube has been in rather a warm room, and the meat has begun to decompose. What has here taken place is the first step in this inquiry. This has been the question at which scientific men have been working, and from the study of which has come a valuable addition to surgical knowledge associated with the name of Professor Lister, and known as antiseptic. What happens to this meat, and what is going on in the water which surrounds it? How long will it be before all the smell of putrefaction has gone and the water is clear again? For it does in time become clear, and instead of the meat we find a fine powdery substance at the bottom of the test tube. It may take weeks before this process is completed, depending on the rate at which it goes on. Now, if we take a drop of this water and examine it with the microscope, we find that it contains vast numbers of very small living creatures or "organisms." They belong to the lowest forms of life, and are of very simple shape, either very delicate narrow threads or rods or globular bodies. The former are called bacteria, or staff-like bodies; the latter, micrococci. They live upon the meat, and only disappear when the meat is consumed. Then, as they die and fall to the bottom of the test tube, the water clears again.
Supposing now, when the meat is first put into water, the water is made to boil, and while boiling a piece of cotton wool is put into the mouth of the tube. The tube may be kept in the same room, at the same temperature as the unboiled one, but no signs of decomposition will be found, however long we keep it. The cotton wool prevents it; for we may boil the water with the meat in it, but it would not be long before bacteria and micrococci are present if the wool is not put in the mouth of the test tube. The conclusion you would naturally draw from this simple but very important experiment is that the wool must have some effect upon the air, for we know well that if we keep the air out we can preserve meat from decomposing. That is the principle upon which preserved meats and fruits are prepared. We should at once conclude that the bacteria and micrococci must exist in the air, perhaps not in the state in which we find them in the water, but that their germs or eggs are floating in the atmosphere. How full the air may be of these germs was first shown by Professor Tyndall, when he sent a ray of electric light through a dark chamber, and as if by a magician's wand revealed the multitudinous atomic beings which people the air. It is a beautiful thing to contemplate how one branch of scientific knowledge may assist another; and we would hardly have imagined that the beam of the electric light could thus have been brought in to illumine the path of the surgeon, for it is on the exclusion of these bacteria that it is found the success of some great operation may depend. It is thus easy to understand how great an importance is to be attached to the purity of air in which we live. This is the practical use of the researches to which the art of surgery is so much indebted; and not surgery alone, but all mankind in greater or less degree. Professor Tyndall has gone further than this, and has shown us that on the tops of lofty mountains the air is so pure, so free from organisms, that decomposition is impossible.
Now, supposing we make another experiment with the test tube, and instead of boiling we add to its contents a few drops of carbolic acid; we find that decomposition is prevented almost as effectually as by the use of the cotton wool. There are many other substances which act like carbolic acid, and they are known by the common name of antiseptics or antiseptic agents. They all act in the same way; and in such cases as the dressing of wounds it is more easy to use this method of excluding bacteria than by the exclusion of the air or by the use of cotton wool. We have here another object for inquiry--viz., the particular property of these different antiseptics, the property which they possess of preventing decomposition. This knowledge isveryancient indeed. We have the best evidence in the skill of the Egyptians in embalming the dead. These substances are obtained from wood or coal, which once was wood. Those woods which do not contain some antiseptic substance, such as a gum or a resin, will rot and decay. I am not sure that we can give a satisfactory reason for this, but it is certain that all these substances act as antiseptics by destroying the living organisms which are the cause of putrefaction. Some are fragrant oils, as, for example, clove, santal, and thyme; others are fragrant gums, such as gum bezoin and myrrh. A large class are the various kinds of turpentine obtained from pine trees. We obtain carbolic acid from the coal tar largely produced in the manufacture of gas. Both wood tar, well known under the name of creosote, and coal tar are powerful antiseptics. It is easy to understand by what means meat and fish are preserved from decomposition when they have been kept in the smoke of a wood fire. The smoke contains creosote in the form of vapor, and the same effect is produced on the meat or fish by the smoke as if they had been dipped in a solution of tar--with this difference, that they are dried by the smoke, whereas moisture favors decomposition very greatly.
I can show why a fire from which there is much smoke is better than one which burns with a clear flame, by a simple experiment. Here is a piece of gum benzoin, the substance from which Friar's balsam is made. This will burn, if we light it, just as tar burns, and without much smoke or smell. If, instead of burning it, we put some on a spoon and heat it gently, much more smoke is produced, and a fragrant scent is given off. In the same way we can burn spirit of lavender or eau de Cologne, but we get no scent from them in this way, for the burning destroys the scent. This is a very important fact in the disinfection of the air. The less the flame and the larger the quantity of smoke, the greater the effect produced, so far as disinfection is concerned. As air is a vapor, we must use our disinfectants in the form of vapor, so that the one may mix with the other, just as when we are dealing with fluids we must use a fluid disinfectant.
The question that presents itself is this: Can we so diffuse the vapor of an antiseptic like carbolic acid through the air as to destroy the germs which are floating in it, and thus purify it, making it like air which has been filtered through wool, or like that on the top of a lofty mountain? If the smoke of a wood fire seems to act as an antiseptic, and putrefaction is prevented, it seems reasonable to conclude that air could be purified and made antiseptic by some proper and convenient arrangement. Let us endeavor to test this by a few experiments.
Here is a large tube 6 inches across and 2 feet long, fixed just above a small tin vessel in which we can boil water and keep it boiling as long as we please. If we fill the vessel with carbolic acid and water and boil it very gently, the steam which rises will ascend and fill the tube with a vapor which is strong or weak in carbolic acid, according as we put more or less acid in the water. That is to say, we have practically a chimney containing an antiseptic vapor, very much the same thing as the smoke of a wood fire. We must be able to keep the water boiling, for the experiment may have to be continued during several days, and during this time must be neither stronger nor weaker in carbolic acid, neither warmer nor colder than a certain temperature. This chimney must be always at the same heat, and the fire must therefore be kept constantly burning. This is easily accomplished by means of a jet of gas, and by refilling the vessel every 24 hours with the same proportions of carbolic acid and water.
The question arises, how strong must this vapor be in carbolic acid to act as an antiseptic? It is found that 1 part acid to 50 of water is quite sufficient to prevent putrefaction. If we keep this just below boiling point there will be a gentle and constant rising of steam into the cylinder, and we can examine this vapor to see if it is antiseptic. We will take two test tubes half filled with water and put a small piece of beef into each of them and boil each for half a minute. One test tube we will hang up inside the cylinder, so that it is surrounded by carbolic acid vapor. The other we stand up in the air. If the latter is hung in a warm room, decomposition will soon take place in it; will the same thing happen to the other cylinder? For convenience sake we had best put six tubes inside the cylinder, so that we can take one out every day for a week and examine the contents on the field of a microscope. It will be necessary to be very particular as to the temperature to which the tubes are exposed, and the rates of evaporation beneath the cylinder. I may mention that on some of the hottest days of last summer I made some experiments, when the temperature both of the laboratory and inside the cylinder was 75°F. I used test tubes containing boiled potatoes instead of meat, and found that the tube in the air, after 48 hours, abounded not simply with bacteria and other small bodies present in decomposition, but with the large and varied forms of protozoa, while the tube inside the cylinder contained no signs of decomposition whatever. When the room was cold the experiments were not so satisfactory, because in the former case there was very little if any current of air in the cylinder. This leads us to the question, why should we not make the solution of carbolic acid and water, and heat it, letting the steam escape by a small hole, so as to produce a jet? It is a singular fact that for all practical purposes such a steam jet will contain the same proportion of acid to water as did the original solution. The solution can of course be made stronger or weaker till we ascertain the exact proportion which will prevent decomposition.
From this arises naturally the question, what quantity of vapor must be produced in a room in order to kill the bacteria in its atmosphere? If we know the size of the room, shall we be able tell? These questions have not yet been answered, but the experiments which will settle them will be soon made, I have no doubt, and I have indicated the lines upon which they will be made. I have here a boiler of copper into which we can put a mixture, and can get from it a small jet of steam for some hours. A simple experiment will show that no bacteria will exist in that vapor. If I take a test tube containing meat, and boil it while holding the mouth of it in this vapor, after it has cooled we close the mouth with cotton wool, and set it aside in a warm place; after some days we shall find no trace of decomposition, but if the experiment is repeated with water, decomposition will soon show itself. Of course, any strength of carbolic acid can be used at will, and will afford a series of tests.
There are other methods of disinfecting the atmosphere which we cannot consider this evening, such as the very potent one of burning sulphur.
In conclusion, the lecturer remarked that his lecture had been cast into a suggestive form, so as to set his audience thinking over the causes which make the air impure, and how these impurities are to be prevented from becoming deleterious to health.
Having had considerable experience in the use of the alcoholic solutions of aniline dyes for staining bacteria, and having for some months used solutions in glycerine instead, I have come to much prefer the latter. Evaporation of the solvent is avoided, and in consequence a freedom from vexatious precipitations is secured, and more uniform and reliable results are obtained. There is, moreover, with the alcoholic mixtures a tendency to "creep," or "run," by which one is liable to have stained more than he wishes--fingers, instruments, table, etc.
From these things the glycerine mixtures are practically free, and there are no compensating drawbacks. For stainingBacillus tuberculosisthe following is confidently commended as preferable to the materials and methods heretofore in use. Take glycerine, 20 parts; fuchsin, 3 parts; aniline oil, 2 parts; carbolic acid, 2 parts.
The solution is readily and speedily effected, with no danger of precipitation, and can be kept in stock without risk of deterioration. When wanted for use, put about two drops into a watch glass (a small pomatum pot is better) full of water and gently shake or stir. Just here there is some danger of precipitating the coloring matter, but the difficulty is easily avoided by gentle instead of vigorous stirring. After the stain is once dissolved in the water no further trouble occurs; if any evaporation takes place by being left too long, it is the water that goes, not the main solvent. The color should now be a light, translucent red, much too diffuse for writing ink. Put in the smeared cover glass, after passing it a few times through a flame, and leave it, at the ordinary temperature of a comfortable room, half an hour. If, however, quicker results are desired, boil a little water in a test tube and put in about double the above indicated amount of the glycerine mixture, letting it run down the side of the tube, gently shake until absorbed, and pour out the hot liquid into a convenient dish, and at once put in the cover with sputum. Without further attention to the temperature the stain will be effected within two minutes; but the result is not quite so good, especially for permanent mounts, as by the slower process.
After staining put the cover into nitric (or hydrochloric) acid and water, one part to four, until decolorized, say one minute; wash in water and examine, or dry and mount in balsam.
If it is desired to color the ground material, which is not necessary, put on the decolorized and washed glass a drop of aniline blue in glycerine; after one minute wash again in water and proceed as before.
Almost any objective, from one-fourth inch up will show the bacilli if sufficient attention is paid to the illumination.--Med. Record.
"The carbolic acid treatment of hemorrhoids is now receiving considerable attention. Hence the reprint from thePittsburgh Medical Journal, November, 1883, of an article on the subject by Dr. George B. Fundenberg is both timely and interesting. After relating six cases, the author says: "It would serve no useful purpose to increase this list of cases. The large number I have on record all prove that this treatment is safe and effectual. I believe that the great majority of cases can be cured in this manner. Whoever doubts this should give the method a fair trial, for it is only those who have done so, that are entitled to speak upon the question."
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