TIME REQUIRED TO DIGEST DIFFERENT FOODS.

[5]

Read before the Indiana State Sanitary Society, Seymour, March 13, 1884.—The Sanitarian.

[6]

These are the exceptions. Pork, on account of the prevalence of disease in hogs, should be well done.

The Monitor de la Saludcontains in a recent number the results of some experiments lately made by E. Jessen on the time required for the digestion of certain kinds of food. The stomach of the person on whom the experiments were made was emptied by means of a pump; 100 grammes, equal to 1,544 grains, or about 2⅔ ounces, of meat, finely chopped and mixed with three times the quantity of water, were introduced. The experiment was considered ended when the matter, on removal by the pump, was found to contain no muscular fibre.

It will be remembered that the gramme weighs nearly 15½ grains, and the cubic centigramme is equal to 1 gramme. The 2⅔ ounces of meat were therefore mixed with nearly eight ounces of water, before being introduced into the stomach.

The results were as follows:

The digestibility of milk was examined in the same way. The quantity used was regulated so that the nitrogen should be the same as in the 100 grammes of beef.

A Scientific institution or bureau operating under government authority can be controlled by statute and by superior administrative authority but to a limited extent. These operations are practically carried on by specialists, and they can be controlled only in their financial operations and in the general purposes for which investigations are made. Their methods of investigation are their own—originate with themselves, and are carried out by themselves. But in relation to the scientific operations of such a government institution, there is an unofficial authority which, though not immediately felt, ultimately steps in to approve or condemn, viz., the body of scientific men of the country; and though their authority is not exercised antecedently and at every stage of the work, yet it is so potent that no national scientific institution can grow and prosper without their approval, but must sooner or later fall and perish unless sustained by their strong influence.

As director of the Geological Survey, I deeply realize that I owe allegiance to the scientific men of the country, and for this reason I desire to present to the National Academy of Sciences the organization and plan of operations of the Survey.

Sound geologic research is based on geography. Without a good topographic map geology cannot even be thoroughly studied, and the publication of the results of geologic investigation is very imperfect without a good map; but with a good map thorough investigation and simple, intelligible publication become possible. Impelled by these considerations, the Survey is making a topographic map of the United States. The geographic basis of this map is a trigonometric survey by which datum points are established throughout the country; that is, base-lines are measured and a triangulation extended therefrom. This trigonometric work is executed on a scale only sufficiently refined for map-making purposes, and will not be directly useful for geodetic purposes in determining the figure of the earth. The hypsometric work is based upon the railroad levels of the country. Throughout the greater part of the country, there is a system of railroad lines, constituting a net-work. The levels or profiles of these roads have been established with reasonable accuracy, and as they cross each other at a multiplicity of points, a system of checks is afforded, so that the railroad surface of the country can be determined therefrom with all the accuracy necessary for the most refined and elaborate topographic maps. From such a hypsometric basis the reliefs for the whole country are determined, by running lines of levels, by trigonometric construction, and in mountainous regions by barometric observation.

The primary triangulation having been made, the topography is executed by a variety of methods, adapted to the peculiar conditions found in various portions of the country. To a large extent the plane-table is used. In the hands of the topographers of the Geological Survey, the plane-table is not simply a portable draughting table for the field; it is practically an instrument of triangulation, and all minor positions of the details of topography are determined through its use by trigonometric construction.

The scale on which the map is made is variable. In some portions of the prairie region, and in the region of the great plains, the topography and the geology alike are simple, and maps on a comparatively small scale are sufficient for practical purposes. For these districts it is proposed to construct the sheets of the map on a scale of 1-250,000, or about four miles to the inch. In the mountain regions of the West the geology is more complex, and the topography more intricate; but to a large extent these regions are uninhabited, and to a more limited extent uninhabitable. It would therefore not be wise to make a topographic or geologic survey of the country on an excessively elaborate plan. Over much of this area the sheets of the map will also be constructed on a scale of 1-250,000, but in special districts that scale will be increased to 1-125,000, and in the case of important mining districts charts will be constructed on a much larger scale. In the eastern portion of the United States two scales are adopted. In the less densely populated country a scale of 1-125,000 is used; in the more densely populated regions a scale of 1-62,500 is adopted, or about one mile to the inch. But throughout the country a few special districts of great importance, because of complex geologic structure, dense population, or other condition, will require charts on still larger scales. The area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, is about three million square miles, and a map of the United States, constructed on the plan set forth above, will require not less than 2,600 sheets. It may ultimately prove to require more than that, from the fact that the areas to be surveyed on the larger scale have not been fully determined. Besides the number of sheets in the general map of the United States, there will be several hundred special maps on large scales, as above described.

Such is a brief outline of the plan so far as it has been developed at the present time. In this connection it should be stated that the map of the United States can be completed, with the present organization of the Geological Survey, in about 24 years; but it is greatly to be desired that the time for its completion may be materially diminished by increasing the topographic force of the Geological Survey. We ought to have a good topographic map of the United States by the year 1900. About one-fifth of the whole area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, has been completed on the above plan. This includes all geographic work done in the United States under the auspices of the General Government and under the auspices of State Governments. The map herewith shows those areas that have been surveyed by various organizations on such a scale and in such a manner that the work has been accepted as sufficient for the purposes of the Survey.

Much other work has been done, but not with sufficient refinement and accuracy to be of present value, though such work subserved its purpose in its time. An examination of the map will show that the triangulation of the various organizations is already largely in advance of the topography. The map of the United States will be a great atlas divided into sheets as above indicated. In all of those areas where the survey is on a scale of 1-250,000, a page of the atlas will present an area of one degree in longitude and one degree in latitude. Where the scale is 1-125,000, a page of the atlas-sheet will represent one-fourth of a degree. Where the scale is 1-62,500, the atlas-sheet will represent one-sixteenth of a degree. The degree sheet will be designated by two numbers—one representing latitude, the other longitude. Where the sheets represent fractional degrees, they will be labeled with the same numbers, with the addition of the description of the proper fractional part.

The organization, as at present established, executing this work, is as follows: First, an astronomic and computing division, the officers of which are engaged in determining the geographic coordinates of certain primary points. Second, a triangulation corps engaged in extending a system of triangulation over various portions of the country from measured base-lines. Third, a topographic corps, organized into twenty-seven parties, scattered over various portions of the United States. Such, in brief outline, is the plan for the map of the United States, and the organization by which it is to be made. Mr. Henry Gannett is the Chief Geographer.

Before giving the outline of the plan for the general geologic survey, it will be better to explain the accessory plans and organizations. There are in the Survey, as at present organized, the following paleontologic laboratories:

1. A laboratory of vertebrate paleontology for formations other than the Quaternary. In connection with this laboratory there is a corps of paleontologists. Professor O.C. Marsh is in charge.

2. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Quaternary age, with a corps of paleontologists, Mr. Wm. H. Dall being in charge.

3. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Cenozoic and Mesozoic age, with a corps of paleontologists. Dr. C.A. White is in charge.

4. There is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of Paleozoic age, with a corps of paleontologists. Mr. C.D. Walcott is in charge.

5. There is a laboratory of fossil botany, with a corps of paleobotanists, Mr. Lester F. Ward being in charge.

The paleontologists and paleobotanists connected with the laboratories above described, study and discuss in reports the fossils collected by the general geologists in the field. They also supplement the work of the field geologists by making special collections in important districts and at critical horizons; but the paleontologists are not held responsible for areal and structural geology on the one hand, and the geologists are not held responsible for paleontology on the other hand. In addition to the large number of paleontologists on the regular work of the Geological Survey, as above described, several paleontologists are engaged from time to time to make special studies.

There is a chemic laboratory attached to the Survey, with a large corps of chemists engaged in a great variety of researches relating to the constitution of waters, minerals, ores, and rocks. A part of the work of this corps is to study the methods of metamorphism and the paragenesis of minerals, and in this connection the chemists do work in the field; but to a large extent they are occupied with the study of the materials collected by the field geologists. Professor F.W. Clarke is in charge of this department.

There is a physical laboratory in the Survey, with a small corps of men engaged in certain physical researches of prime importance to geologic philosophy. These researches are experimental, and relate to the effect of temperatures, pressures, etc., on rocks. This laboratory is under the charge of the chief chemist.

There is a lithologic laboratory in the Survey, with a large corps of lithologists engaged in the microscopic study of rocks. These lithologists are field geologists, who examine the collections made by themselves.

There is in the Survey a division of mining statistics, with a large corps of men engaged in statistic work, the results of which are published in an annual report entitled "Mineral Resources." Mr. Albert Williams, Jr., is the Chief Statistician of the Survey.

There is in the Survey a division organized for the purpose of preparing illustrations for paleontologic and geologic reports. Mr. W.H. Holmes is in charge of this division. Illustrations will not hereafter be used for embellishment, but will be strictly confined to the illustration of the text and the presentation of such facts as can be best exhibited by figures and diagrams. All illustrations will, as far as possible, be produced by relief methods, such as wood-engraving, photo-engraving, etc. As large numbers of the reports of the Survey are published, this plan is demanded for economic reasons; but there is another consideration believed to be of still greater importance; illustrations made on stone cannot be used after the first edition, as they deteriorate somewhat by time, and it is customary to use the same lithographic stone for various purposes from time to time. The illustrations made for the reports of the Survey, if on relief-plates that can be cheaply electrotyped, can be used again when needed. This is especially desirable in paleontology, where previously published figures can be introduced for comparative purposes. There are two methods of studying the extinct life of the globe. Fossils are indices of geological formations, and must be grouped by formations to subserve the purpose of geologists. Fossils also have their biologic relations, and should be studied and arranged in biologic groups. Under the plan adopted by the Survey, the illustrations can be used over and over again for such purposes when needed, as reproduction can be made at the small cost of electrotyping. These same illustrations can be used by the public at large in scientific periodicals, text-books, etc. All the illustrations made by the Geological Survey are held for the public to be used in this manner.

The library of the Survey now contains more than 25,000 volumes, and is rapidly growing by means of exchanges. It is found necessary to purchase but few books. The librarian, Mr. C.C. Darwin, has a corps of assistants engaged in bibliographic work. It is proposed to prepare a catalogue of American and foreign publications upon American geology, which is to be a general authors' catalogue. In addition to this, it is proposed to publish bibliographies proper of special subjects constituting integral parts of the science of geology.

The publications of the Survey are in three series: Annual Reports, Bulletins, and Monographs. The Annual Report constitutes a part of the Report of the Secretary of the Interior for each year, but is a distinct volume. This contains a brief summary of the purposes, plans, and operations of the Survey, prepared by the Director, and short administrative reports from the chiefs of divisions, the whole followed by scientific papers. These papers are selected as being those of most general interest, the object being to make the Annual Report a somewhat popular account of the doings of the Survey, that it may be widely read by the intelligent people of the country. Of this 5,650 copies are published as a part of the Secretary's report, and are distributed by the Secretary of the Interior, Senators, and Members of the House of Representatives; and an extra edition is annually ordered of 15,000 copies, distributed by the Survey and members of the Senate and House of Representatives. Four annual reports have been published; the fifth is now in the hands of the printer.

The Bulletins of the Survey are short papers, and through them somewhat speedy publication is attained. Each bulletin is devoted to some specific topic, in order that the material ultimately published in the bulletins can be classified in any manner desired by scientific men. Nine bulletins have been published, and seven are in press. The bulletins already published vary in size from 5 to 325 pages each; they are sold at the cost of press-work and paper, and vary in price from five to twenty cents each; 4,900 copies of each bulletin are published; 1,900 are distributed by Congress, 3,000 are held for sale and exchange by the Geological Survey.

The Monographs of the Survey are quarto volumes. By this method of publication the more important and elaborate papers are given to the public. Six monographs, with two atlases, have been issued; five monographs, with two atlases, are in press; 1,900 copies of each monograph are distributed by Congress; 3,000 are held for sale and exchange by the Survey at the cost of press-work, paper, and binding. They vary in price from $1.05 to $11.

The chiefs of divisions supervise the publications that originate in their several corps. The general editorial supervision is exercised by the Chief Clerk of the Survey, Mr. James C. Pilling.

In organizing the general geologic work, it became necessary, first, to consider what had already been done in various portions of the United States; and for this purpose the compilation of a general geologic map of the United States was begun, together with a Thesaurus of American formations. In addition to this the bibliographic work previously described was initiated, so that the literature relating to American geology should be readily accessible to the workers in the Survey. At this point it became necessary to consider the best methods of apportioning the work; that is, the best methods of dividing the geologic work into parts to be assigned to the different corps of observers. A strictly geographic apportionment was not deemed wise, from the fact that an unscientific division of labor would result, and the same classes of problems would to a large extent be relegated to the several corps operating in field and in the laboratory. It was thought best to divide the work, as far as possible, by subject-matter rather than by territorial areas; yet to some extent the two methods of division will coincide. There are in the Survey at present:

First, a division of glacial geology, and Prof. T.C. Chamberlin, formerly State Geologist of Wisconsin is at its head, with a strong corps of assistants. There is an important field for which definite provision has not yet been made, namely, the study of the loess that constitutes the bluff formations of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. But as this loess proves to be intimately associated with the glacial formations of the same region, it is probable that it will eventually be relegated to the glacial division. Perhaps the division may eventually grow to such an extent that its field of operations will include the whole Quaternary geology.

Second, a division of volcanic geology is organized, and Capt. Clarence E. Dutton, of the Ordnance Corps of the Army, is placed in charge, also with a strong corps of assistants.

Third and fourth, two divisions have been organized to prosecute work on the archæan rocks, embracing within their field not only all rocks of archæan age, but all metamorphic crystalline schists, of whatever age they may be found. The first division has for its chief Prof. Raphael Pumpelly, assisted by a corps of geologists, and the field of his work is the crystalline schists of the Appalachian region, or eastern portion of the United States, extending from northern New England to Georgia. He will also include in his studies certain paleozoic formations which are immediately connected with the crystalline schists and involved in their orographic structure.

The second division for the study of this class of rocks is in charge of Prof. Roland D. Irving, with a corps of geologists, and his field of operation is in the Lake Superior region. It is not proposed at present to undertake the study of the crystalline schists of the Rocky Mountain region.

Fifth, another division has been organized for the study of the areal, structural, and historical geology of the Appalachian region, extending from the Atlantic, westward, to the zone which separates the mountain region from the great valley of the Mississippi. Mr. G.K. Gilbert has charge of this work, and has a large corps of assistants.

Sixth, it seemed desirable, partly for scientific reasons and partly for administrative reasons, that a thorough topographic and geologic survey should be made of the Yellowstone Park, and Mr. Arnold Hague is in charge of the work, with a corps of assistants. When it is completed, his field will be expanded so as to include a large part of the Rocky Mountain region, but the extent of the field is not yet determined.

It will thus be seen that the general geologic work relating to those areas where the terranes are composed of fossiliferous formations is very imperfectly and incompletely organized. The reason for this is twofold: First, the work cannot be performed very successfully until the maps are made; second, the Geological Survey is necessarily diverting much of its force to the construction of maps, and cannot with present appropriations expand the geologic corps so as to extend systematic work in the field over the entire country.

Under the organic law of the Geological Survey, investigations in economic geology are restricted to those States and Territories in which there are public lands; the extension of the work into the eastern portion of the United States included only that part relating to general geology. Two mining divisions are organized. One, in charge of Mr. George F. Becker, with headquarters at San Francisco, California, is at the present time engaged in the study of the quicksilver districts of California. The other, under charge of Mr. S.F. Emmons, with headquarters at Denver, Colorado, is engaged in studying various mining districts in that State, including silver, gold, iron, and coal areas. Each division has a corps of assistants. The lignite coals of the upper Missouri, also, are under investigation by Mr. Bailey Willis, with a corps of assistants.

The employes on the Geological Survey at the close of September, 1884, were as follows:

Appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate (Director), 1.

Appointed by the Secretary of the Interior, on the recommendation of the Director of the Survey, 134.

Employed by the chiefs of parties in the field, 148.

Three classes of appointments are made on the Survey. The statute provides that "the scientific employes of the Geological Survey shall be selected by the Director, subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, exclusively for their qualifications as professional experts." The provisions of this statute apply to all those cases where scientific men are employed who have established a reputation, and in asking for their appointment the Director specifically states his reasons, setting forth the work in which the person is to be employed, together with his qualifications, especially enumerating and characterizing his published works. On such recommendations appointments are invariably made. Young men who have not established a reputation in scientific research are selected through the agency of the Civil Service Commission on special examination, the papers for which are prepared in the Geological Survey. About one-half of the employes, however, are temporary, being engaged for services lasting for a few days or a few months only, largely in the field, and coming under two classes: Skilled laborers and common laborers. Such persons are employed by the Director or by the heads of divisions, and are discharged from the service when no longer needed. It will be seen that the Director is responsible for the selection of the employes, directly for those whom he recommends for appointment, and indirectly for those selected by the Civil Service Commission, as he permanently retains in the work. If, then, improper persons are employed, it is wholly the Director's fault.

The appropriations made for the Geological Survey for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1885, aggregate the sum of $504,040. This sum does not include the amount appropriated for ethnologic researches—$40,000. Nor are the expenses for engraving and printing paid for from the above appropriations, but from appropriations made for the work under the direction of the public printer. It is estimated that the amount needed for engraving and printing for the same fiscal year will exceed $200,000.

The United States Geological Survey is on friendly relations with the various State Surveys. Between the Government Survey and the State Survey of New York, there is direct co-operation. The State Survey of Pennsylvania has rendered valuable assistance to the Government Survey, and negotiations have been entered into for closer relations and more thorough co-operation. The State Surveys of North Carolina, Kentucky, and Alabama are also co-operating with the Government Survey, and the director of the Government Survey is doing all within his power to revive State Surveys. The field for geologic research in the United States is of great magnitude, and the best results can be accomplished only by the labors of many scientific men engaged for a long term of years. For this reason it is believed that surveys should be established in all of the States and Territories. There is work enough for all, and the establishment of local surveys would greatly assist the general work prosecuted under the auspices of the government, and prevent it from falling into perfunctory channels. Its vigor and health will doubtless be promoted by all thorough local research.

It may be of interest to scientific men to know that the Director finds that in presenting the general results, interests, and needs of the Survey to Congress, and to Committees of Congress, a thorough appreciation of the value of scientific research is shown by the statesmen of the country. Questions relating to immediately economic values are asked, as they should be; but questions relating to sound administration, wise methods of investigation, and important scientific results are vigorously urged, and the principle is recognized that all sound scientific research conduces to the welfare of the people, not only by increasing knowledge, but ultimately by affecting all the industries of the people.

[7]

Communicated to the National Academy of Sciences at the October meeting in 1884.

FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS.

The genus Helianthus is almost entirely North-American, and for the distinction and limitation of its species we are indebted to the labor of Dr. Asa Gray, now universally recognized as the highest authority on North American plants. In the recently published second part of his "Synoptical Flora of North America" he has described thirty-nine species, six of which are annual. The synonyms and cross-naming adopted by previous authors have led to much confusion, which probably will not now be altogether cleared up, for Dr. Gray warns us that the characters of some of the species are variable, especially in cultivation. It may be added that some at least of the species readily form hybrids. There is always more or less difficulty with a variable genus in making garden plants fit wild specific types, but in the following notes I have described no kinds which I have not myself cultivated, selecting the best forms and giving them the names assigned severally by Dr. Gray to the species to which our garden plants seem to come nearest.

HELIANTHUS ARGOPHYLLUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.

Helianthus multiflorus, or, according to Asa Gray, speaking botanically, H. decapetalus hort. var. multiflorus, is mentioned first, because it is the subject of the colored illustration. The name multiflorus is established by long usage, and perhaps was originally given in contrast to the few-flowered habit of H. annuus, for the type of the species is more floriferous than the variety of which Asa Gray says that it is "known only in cultivation from early times, must have been derived from decapetalus," a statement which gardeners would hardly have accepted on less indisputable authority, as they will all think the habit and appearance of the two plants widely different. The variety multiflorus has several forms; the commonest form is double, the disk being filled with ligules much shorter than those of the ray flowers, after the form of many daisy-like composites. In this double form the day flowers are often wanting. It is common also on old plants in poor soils to see double and single flowers from the same root. In the single forms the size of the flowers varies, the difference being due to cultivation as often as to kind. I have obtained by far the finest flowers by the following treatment: In early spring, when the young shoots are about an inch high, cut some off, each with a portion of young root, and plant them singly in deep rich soil, and a sheltered but not shaded situation. By August each will have made a large bush, branching out from one stalk at the base, with from thirty to forty flowers open at a time, each 5 inches across. The same plants if well dressed produce good flowers the second season, but after that the stalks become crowded, and the flowers degenerate. The same treatment suits most of the perennial sunflowers. The following kinds are mentioned in the order in which they occur in Asa Gray's book:

HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.

H. argophyllus(white-leaved, not argyrophyllus, silver-leaved, as written in some catalogues).—An annual with woolly leaves, neater and less coarse than H. annuus, with which it is said soon to degenerate in gardens if grown together with it.

H. annuus.—The well known sunflower in endless varieties, one of the most elegant having pale lemon-colored flowers; these, too, liable to pass into the common type if grown in the same garden.

HELIANTHUS ORGYALIS, SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH IN AUTUMN.

H. debilis var. cucumerifolius.—I have never seen the typical species, but the variety was introduced a few years ago by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich, from whose seed I have grown it. It becomes 4 feet or 5 feet high, with irregularly toothed deltoid leaves and spotted stalks, making a widely branched bush and bearing well-shaped golden flowers more than 3 inches across, with black disks. It crosses with any perennial sunflower that grows near it, simulating their flowers in an annual form. I had a very fine cross with it and H. annuus, but the flowers of this produced no good seed.

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS).

H. orgyalis(the fathom-high sunflower).—The name is far within the true measure, which is often 9 feet or 10 feet. A very distinct species, increasing very slowly at the root and throwing all its growing efforts upward. The long linear ribbon leaves, often exceeding a foot, spreading in wavy masses round the tall stem, which has a palm-like tuft of them at the summit, are a more ornamental feature than the flowers, which are moderate in size and come late in the axils of the upper leaves.

HELIANTHUS ANNUUS GLOBULUS FISTULOSUS.

H. angustifolius.—A neat and elegant species, which I first raised from seed sent by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich. It has a very branching habit quite from the base like a well-grown bush of the common wallflower. The flowers are abundant, about 2½ inches across, with a black disk. The plant, though a true herb, never comes up in my garden with more than one stalk each year.

HELIANTHUS RIGIDUS (SYN. HARPALIUM RIGIDUM).

H. rigidusis well known as the best of the perennial sunflowers, and has many synonyms, the commonest Harpalium rigidum. It need not be described, but one or two things about it may be noted. The shoots, which come up a yard or more from last year's stalk, may be transplanted as soon as they appear without injury to the flowering, but if put back to the old center, the soil, which should be deep and light, ought to be enriched. The species is variable, and improved forms may be expected, as it produces seed in England. The number of ray flowers is often very large. I have one form which has several rows of them, nearly hiding the disk. A variety is figured inBotanical Magazine, tab. 2,668, under the name of H. atro-rubens. Another comes in the same series, tab. 2,020, as H. diffusus. Other synonyms are H. missuricus and H. missouriensis. Its native range extends across North America in longitude, and covers many degrees of latitude. It likes a dry soil. In wet soil and wet seasons the flower-stalk is apt to wither in the middle, and the bud falls over and perishes prematurely.

COMMON SUNFLOWER (H. ANNUUS) SHOWING HABIT OF GROWTH.

H. Lætiflorus.—Under this name we grow in England a tall, much-branched, late flowering kind, with smooth and very stout and stiff stalks, sometimes black, sometimes green. It increases at the base of the stalks; it makes close growth, and shows little disposition to run at the root. The flowers are rather small, not more than 9 inches across, but so durable and so well displayed by the numerous spreading branches as to make the plant very useful for late decoration. I own that I cannot identify this plant with the lætiflorus of Asa Gray, which he tells us resembles tall forms of H. rigidus, with rough stalks, and bears flowers with numerous rays 1½ inches long.

FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS ANNUUS.

H. occidentalis.—Recently introduced by Mr. W. Thompson, of Ipswich, who gave me the plant two years ago. It is a neat species, growing about 2 feet high, well branched, and producing at the end of July abundance of flowers about 2 inches across. The lower leaves are small and broad, with long stalks, ovate in form.

HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS FL-PL.

H. mollis, so called from the soft white down with which the leaves are covered, grows about 4 feet high. Leaves large, ovate, and sessile; growth of the plant upright, with hardly any branches; flowers pale yellow, about 3 inches across, not very ornamental. Cultivated at Kew, whence I had it.

H. giganteusgrows 10 feet high; stem much branched and disposed to curve. Flowers about 2½ inches across, produced abundantly in August; rays narrow and pointed, cupped, with the ends turning outward; leaves lanceolate and sessile; rootstock creeping, forming tuberous thickenings at the base of the stems, which Asa Gray tells us were "the Indian potato of the Assiniboine tribe," mentioned by Douglas, who called the plant H. tuberosus.

FULL SIZED FLOWER OF HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS.

H. maximiliani.—Half the height of the last, which it resembles, but the stem is stouter, the leaves larger, as are also the flowers, which are produced later. It is not so floriferous and ornamental as the last.

H. lævigatus.—Smooth stalked, very distinct, does not spread at the roots, which are composed of finer fibers than those of most of the genus; stalks slender and black, growing closely together, branched near the summit, 5 feet high; leaves narrowly lanceolate and acute; flowers plentiful and about 2 inches across; rays few, and disk small.

We are warned that the following species are "difficult of extrication," either confluent or mixed by intercrossing.

H. doronicoides.—I place this the third in merit among perennial sunflowers, H. rigidus and H. multiflorus being first and second. It is 6 feet or 7 feet high, upright in growth, with many stalks. Flowers 3½ inches across, produced from the end of July to the end of September, bright golden yellow; leaves large, ovate, tapering from the middle to both ends; stalk leaves sessile and nearly connate, that is, clasping the stalk by their opposite base. The plant spreads rapidly by running rootstocks, and ripens seed in abundance. Figured as H. pubescens inBotanical Magazine, tab. 2,778.

H. divaricatusresembles the last, but is inferior, being a smaller plant in all parts, especially in the flowers, which come out a month later. The cauline leaves are stalked and diverge widely, which habit gives its name to the plant. A casual observer would hardly notice the difference between this species and the last, but when grown together the superiority of doronicoides as a garden plant is at once evident.

H. strumosus.—Fully 6 feet high; growth upright; rootstock less spreading than the last two; leaves on very short stalks, broadest at the base, ovate tapering by a long narrow point; flower disk narrow, but rays large and orange-yellow; flowers showy, 3 inches across; they come out late in August. I had this plant from Kew. The shape of the leaves would have led me rather to refer it to H. trachelifolius, a closely allied species.

H. decapetalus.—Five feet high; flowers from end of July; makes a dense forest of weak, slender stalks, much branched at the top; spreads fast; leaves serrate, oblong-ovate, rather large; flowers abundant, pale yellow, about 2 inches across; rays nearly always more than ten, in spite of the name.

H. tuberosus.—The well-known Jerusalem artichoke; not a plant grown for ornament, being too coarse and late in flowering, but several things in its history may be mentioned, as Dr. Asa Gray has spent labor and study over it. It is believed to have been cultivated by the natives before the discovery of America, and the edible tubers are thought to be a development of cultivation. Forms of it without tuberous roots are found wild, but whether indigenous to the place or degenerate from cultivation was for long uncertain. Several species of Helianthus have a tendency to produce similar fleshy tubers at the top of the roots. Dr. Gray used to refer the origin of this species to H. doronicoides, but it is now believed by him to be a distinct species, though one of which it is difficult to identify with certainty the typical form.

I omitted to say that the word Helianthus is Greek for sunflower. After several years' careful observation, I believe the notion that the flowers keep their face to the sun is quite a delusion.

Edge Hall. C. WOLLEY DOD.

A QUICK FILTER.—TheDruggists Circularrecommends chamois skin, free from thin places; cut it of the desired size; wash it in a weak solution of sal soda, or any alkali, to remove the grease, and rinse thoroughly in cold water before using.

Tinctures, elixirs, sirups, and even mucilages are filtered rapidly. A pint of the thickest sirup will run through in four or five minutes. By washing thoroughly after each time of using, it will last a long time.

The group of fuchsias shown in our engraving represents a collection of nine specimens raised and exhibited by that well known cultivator, Mr. James Lye, of Clyffe Hall Gardens, Market Lavington, at an exhibition held in Bath in September last, and which received the first prize in the premier class for that number of plants. For many years past Mr. Lye has exhibited fuchsias at exhibitions held at Bath, Trowbridge, Devizes, Calne, Chippenham, and elsewhere; on all occasions staging specimens of a high order of merit; but the plants appearing in our illustration were universally regarded as the best he had ever placed in an exhibition tent. So much were the committee of the Bath show pleased with the specimens that they engaged the services of a photographer to make a picture of them on the spot; but after being two hours making the attempt, no satisfactory result occurred. After the plants were taken back to Clyffe Hall, they were photographed as seen in the illustration. Some idea of their height and dimensions can be realized by a comparison with the stature of Mr. Lye, who is standing by his plants, and who is of average height. It should be mentioned that previous to being photographed they had traveled by road from Market Lavington to Bath and back, a distance of 52 miles, in addition to having been exhibited two days. They returned to their home apparently little the worse for wear, which immunity from harm is no doubt owing to the admirable system of tying adopted by Mr. Lye. It is sometimes said that the act of trying in the flowering shoots in this manner gives the plants a somewhat severely formal appearance, but there is an abundance of healthy foliage and a wonderful profusion of finely developed flowers, showing the most careful and painstaking cultivation. It is only those who are privileged to see these unrivaled plants who can appreciate them at their proper worth.

It has been stated already that the varieties figured are all of Mr. Lye's own raising, which facts attests to the value of his seedlings, many of which he has produced. Four of these are dark varieties, viz., Bountiful, Charming, Elegance, and the Hon. Mrs. Hay—the latter one of the oldest, but one of the freest, and scarcely without an equal for its great freedom of bloom. The remaining five are light varieties, viz., Lye's Favorite, Harriet Lye, Star of Wilts, Pink Perfection, and Beauty of the West.

MR. LYE'S FUSCHIAS.

The specimens figured average from two to five years of age. It is really marvelous what Mr. Lye can do with a fuchsia in two years; and lest it might be supposed that he has plenty of glass accommodation, and can keep his plants under glass continuously, it is due to him it should be stated that he is very deficient in house accommodation, having but two small houses, in one of which (an old house) he winters his plants and brings them on until he can place them with safety in the open air in early summer. His method of treating the specimens as set forth in his own words may prove helpful to some of our readers: "After the plants have done flowering, say about the third week in October, I cut them back into the shape best fitted to form symmetrical specimens, and keep them dry for a week or ten days, to check the bleeding of sap which follows; after that I give a little water just to start them into growth, so as to make shoots about three-quarters of an inch in length, in order to keep the old wood active and living. I keep them in a cold house, and give but very little water until the first or second week in February, when I shake the old soil from the roots, and re-pot them into a fresh compost made up of three parts good loam, one part well decomposed manure, and one part leaf-mould and peat, with a good bit of silver or sea sand to keep it open. In order to make large specimens, they are shifted as soon as the pots are filled with roots. About the first week in June I place them out of doors on a border somewhat sheltered, and syringe the plants freely every day during hot weather to keep the foliage clean and healthy. I top them back till about seven or eight weeks before I want to show them, according to the requirements of the variety, as some of them require it to be done more freely than others. I give them liquid manure, using what I get from the cows, which with some soot is put into a tub, and allowed to stand a week or ten days before using, and I give them a good dose once a week as they show signs of flowering."

In order to preserve his plants from the effects of hail and very heavy rains, a rough framework is erected, and over this is stretched some floral shading, which can be readily removed when required; it also serves the purpose of shading the plants from the sun in very hot and scorching weather.

During his career as an exhibitor of fuchsias Mr. Lye has taken nearly one hundred first prizes—a measure of success which fully justifies the bestowal of the title of being the Champion Fuchsia Grower of his day.—R.D. in The Gardeners' Chronicle.

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