XXI. THE BESTIARYManuscript:Arundel 292, British Museum: on vellum, 200 × 130 mm.: late thirteenth century. Its miscellaneous contents, English, Anglo-French, and Latin, are described in Altdeutsche Blätter, ii. 141-148. The Bestiary is written continuously, but the initials of the lines and, in the long metres, of the half lines are mostly rubricated. In most cases the long lines aredivided into half lines by a space and a stop, sometimes one or both are missing. At ll. 439, 493, two words are carried below the last full line of the folio. Final g of ll. 42, 43, 316, 317, 332, 333, 338, 339, 358, 359, 463, 464, 475, 476, 477, 478, 542, 543, 662 has a stroke or hook added, which appears to be merely ornamental: similarly the g of wrengðe 69, among 147, ðing 392, strong 509; h and b are much alike; ƿ is open at the top as in Genesis and Exodus. Latin headings are in red, some are on the margin, the others at the head of their sections. As will be seen from the footnotes, the manuscript was much corrected or altered over erasures, and that after it was finished, for the substituted words do not always fill the gaps left by the scraper. The first leaves of the exemplar were probably damaged at the lower margin, since defective or difficult passages occur at regular intervals, so l. 32, ll. 89-92, 120, 121, 143, 144, 173, 200, 201.Editions:Wright, T., Altdeutsche Blätter, Leipzig, 1836, 1840, ii. 99-120; Reliquiae Antiquae, London, 1841, i. 208-27. Mätzner, E., Altenglische Sprachproben, Berlin, 1867, i. 55-75. Morris, R., An Old English Miscellany, 1872, 1-25.Literature:(1)of the English Bestiary. Hallbeck, E., The Language of the M. E. Bestiary, Lund, 1905. Holthausen, F., Archiv, lxxxviii. 365-9 (emendations). (2)of the Bestiaries in general. A detailed bibliography will be found in Anglia, Beiblatt, x. 274-87, xii. 13-23, xiii. 18, 19, 236-9. The following will provide an introduction to the subject: Ahrens, K., Zur Geschichte des sogennanten Physiologus, Ploen, 1885; Carus, J. V., Geschichte der Zoologie, München, 1872; Land, J. N. P., Encyclopaedia Britannica,s.v.Physiologus; Lauchert, F., Geschichte des Physiologus, Strassburg, 1889; Mann, M. F., Französische Studien, vi. Heft 2, Heilbronn, 1888; Peters, E., Der Griechische Physiologus und seine orientalischen Uebersetzungen, Berlin, 1898.Source:With the exception of the last section, the English poem is generally an adaptation of the Latin Physiologus, written in a variety of verse forms as the concluding line informs us, by one Tebaldus or Thetbaldus, who is variously described in the headings as Italicus, Senensis, Placentinus episcopus, and is identified by some with the Abbot Theobald who presided over Monte Cassino from 1022 to 1035. The poem is extant in a large number of manuscripts and early printed editions, the first of which latter with place and date is that of Antwerp, 1487. It will be found printed in Hildeberti Turonensis Archiepiscopi Opera, ed. D. A. Beaugendre, Paris, 1708, p. 1174, from which it is repeated in Migne, P. L., tom. 171, p. 1218, and also as Appendix i,p. 201 in An Old English Miscellany, ed. Morris. The text is very unsettled, apparently scribes and editors felt themselves free to rewrite it on occasion. The passages where the English adapter notably departs from his original are pointed out in the notes. He was, no doubt, acquainted with one of the older Latin prose versions of Physiologus enumerated by M. F. Mann in Anglia vii. 443-6; there is no positive evidence that he knew the Bestiary of Philippe de Thaün.Phonology:Oralaisa, dareð 310, late 453;abefore nasals isa, bane 370, man 194, ðan 157, ðanne 13, wan 386, wanne 10, wankel 446;abefore lengthening groups iso, among 147, folde 33, fondeð 532, stonden 497, but gangen 110 (3 times), gangeð 153, 177, gangande 530, standen 531 with Anglian shortening; in gandre 532dis inorganic; funt 93 (OE.fant) descends from OE. *funt, its use here possibly influenced by Anglo-Fr. funt.æis mostlya(82 times), barlic 192, fast 161, fasteð 109, qual 598 r. w. al, togaddre 482, 525, ðat 3 &c., was 26 &c.; the exceptions mostly descend from OE. forms ine, or are due to analogy, defte 23 (gedeftan), dele 4 (comp.dell), festeð 438, festen 417, feste 143, 160 (comp.festeadv., Scandinavian influence is also possible), heruest 177 (herfest), meche 586 r. w. reche (gemečča, but make 574, 576, 578,gemaca), nese 3, 223 (næs-), resteð 178, 504 (restan), steppeð 6 (steppan), steppes 5 (stepe), weder 270, 521 (hweþer): togiddre 282 haseraised toibefore a dental, wos 628 is *hwāswith vowel fromhwā.eise, be 588, fel 109; before lengthening groups, felde 307, lengðe 437, trendled 606, but bi 4, 24 (bi); wilc 4, swilc 248, swilk 338, sille 449 (syllič) r. w. ille, represent forms withy; tetireð 318 (to-teran) hasifrom Fr. tirer, as in tireð 336, possibly helped by the contracted sing. 3,tyrþ; seie 613 (4) r. w. haliweie, seien 385 imitate other parts of the verb withoutc, similarly leigeð 272.iisi, biddan 101, is 384, 414 r. w. fis, 509 r. w. fuligewis, mirke 80 r. w. kirke, wile 71 r. w. bile, wille 607 r. w. stille; before lengthening groupsi, finden 7, singeð 448, but es 183 r. w. gres, nes 518, merk 341 r. w. werk (due to labial influence), wulle 634, wullen 314.oiso, bodes 136, nos 303 r. w. gōs; before lengthening groups, hornes 236, sorgeden 559 (withouti-umlaut), word 35, but forwurden 108, wulde 74 (4), wuldest 385 by consonant influence; ouese 362, eaves, is withouti-umlaut, comp.ofesc, owiscand modern Essex dialectal oavis, but in Layamon eouesen.uisu, cumeð 40 &c., dure 134, wude 181, wune 281; before lengthening groups, bunden 443, hunger 306, but towrong 42 r. w. strong, withobeforen, ðrist 231, 428 r. w. list (analogy ofþyrstan,þyrstig).yisi, dine 646 r. w. wiðerwine, fille 373 r. w. stille, mankin 168, 243 r. w. win, 569 r. w. dim, pit 624 r. w. offrigt,stireð 11 (4), unride 389, 507 r. w. wide, 522 r. w. side, wirm 106 (4); before lengthening groups, birdene 289, minde 263 (3); but dede 171, elp 522 (3) (comp. OE.elpend), stereð 309, furgdat.withufrom the nominative, hungren 428, hungreð 390 (analogy ofhungor), sundren 577 (analogy ofsundor), tunder 419 r. w. wunder (once ‘tunderi,’Oldest E.Texts 570; comp. also OWScand. tundr), vuemest 639 (ufemest), come 664 r. w. nome.āis regularlyo, cof 124, invariably non 494 r. w. bon, no 148, on 490 (7) r. w. gon, 635 r. w. bon, one (āna) 579 (3), ston 66 r. w. on; before two consonants, bitokneð 152, golsipe 245, gost 214; but a, an frequently, anoðer 262 (unstressed shortenedā), atter 121, 241 with shortenedāextending from the oblique cases (Bülbring § 344), gast 435 r. w. stedefast, 640 r. w. vuemest, which Morsbach, ME. Gr., § 135, anm. 8 deduces from shorteneda, nummore 208, 455, through loss of stress, comp. ‘wumme’ 235/21, 121/133.ǣ1ise, hete 56 r. w. wete, mene 248 r. w. ouerwene, rede 38 r. w. guðhede, stel 419 (stǣli), wete 190, 209; before two consonants, fles 114, 435, eure 402, neure 16, but haliweie 612, through association withhālig, most 501, moste 384 frommāst, goð 66 (5) withofrom the plural, oni 378 fromānig, ilk 82 (4), ilc 256, ilkines 180 fromylc.ǣ2is alsoe, dede 82 r. w. mede, forleteð 191, leteð 114, 658, let 156, sed 180 r. w. wed, 658 r. w. ned, slepen 452 r. w. waken, ðer 19 (17), ðere 207, 369, were 61 (8), weren 80 (4), wete 57 r. w. hete, 615 r. w. swete; before two consonants, neddre 107 (3), but lat 327, 328, lateð 271 r. w. wadeð, ðar 8 (7), ðore 81, 88 r. w. lore (þāra), wor 514 (5) fromhwāra, wore 578 r. w. more, broken 242 in both of whichorepresentsā.ēise, let 642, mede 84 r. w. dede, swetnesse 613; bokedat.665 has the vowel of the nominative, doð 141 (8) the vowel of the plural.īisiwithout exception.ōiso, but kam 29, 352, cam 564, te 107.ūisuwithout exception.ȳisi, briche 293, 592 r. w. heuenriche, fir 123, ðirl 112; before two consonants, filðe 156, wissing 246.eabeforer+ cons. isa, art 139, dar 647, narwe 113, sarpe 318; before lengthening groups, harde 499 (4), forðward 160, butein ern 73, ernes 37, flerd 351, middelerd 352 anduin wurð 566 (wearþ) by confusion with the present tense. Thei-umlaut isain chare 457, char 519 (see 359/4), warmen 421, but derne 21, 75, dernelike 326.eabeforel+ cons. isa, al 116 &c., fallen 56, galle 654, half 460, salt 155; before lengthening groupso, biholdeð 365, kold 495, holdeð 573, olde 581, told 459, twifold 322, wolden 139, wolde 482, but the contracted? bihalt 520, biwalt 521 have shorteneda; in helden 136eis probably miswritten foro: thei-umlaut isain falleð 58 (5), 526 r. w. calleð,ein elde 40, 108, elded 139, eldere 171, 241, unwelde 41, all before lengthening groups, welle 46, 253.eobeforer+ cons. is regularlye, berges 481, bergen 8, fer 265, herte 136 (3), stert 6, werc 340; before lengthening groups, erðe 20 (3) and its compounds. To thewurgroup belong forwurðes 138, forwurðe 196, wurðeð 59 and other forms ofweorþan, wurði 346, wurðlic 173, but not forwerpen 257, werpeð 236. Thei-umlaut is seen in hirde 33, 34 (hirde), tirgen 275 (not original); hertien 277 is very doubtful: awyrword is wurdi 145, without umlaut. Theu- andå-umlauts ofaare wanting, bale 172, 379, care 563, but heuekes 664:oin noule 444 (*nafola, contrast ‘neauele’ 120/98) is ascribed by Morsbach, ME. Gr. § 87, anm. 4, to the influence ofv, but a diphthong appears to have developed, the modern East Anglian dialectic word is nowle. Theu- andå-umlauts ofeare also wanting, forgelues 138, hert 218 (3), heuene 49 &c., werlde 106, fele 297, 463.eo,u- andå-umlaut ofiise, here 280 (5), senden 63, 441, seuene 50, 652, clepeð 221, leneð 510, 523, but limes 41 (3), niðer 4, 500, niðerward 444, siðen 227 r. w. swīðe, liuen 412: widue 578 is Anglianwidwe, but wude 181 (*wiudu) has normalu(Bülbring § 264).eaafter palatals isa, chaueles 397, sal 16 &c., sakeð 193, sadue 524 r. w. togaddre, but seftes 356; before nasal, same 193, 339, 346 r. w. name, and before lengthening group,oin sonde 431.ieafterġise, geld 338, gelt 316, bigeten 490, 494, forgeten 451, but giueð 291; aftersc, alsoe, seld 130 (butscildangives silden 34, sildeð 130), sending 339, seppande 356 (i-umlaut ofeaaftersc). EWS.giefis gef 274 (5), if 35 (9): if is used from l. 35 to l. 265 and once again at l. 578, gef, which is probably the author’s form, begins at l. 274.eoafterġisuin gungling 543, guðhede 39,iin ging 162, gingen 259, gingid 238, aftersc,u, sulde 123, suneð 193, sunen 210, 285 r. w. munen, sulen 203 (4).heomis hem 281 &c.ēais regularlye, ches 586, ded 26 (9), slep 635, lefful 585, queðsipe 298; thei-umlaut ise(Anglian), gemen 260, here 2 &c., leueð 85, nede 100 (9), nedeð 113, 164, remeð 527; before two consonants, bekneð 213.ēois alsoe, be 21 &c., bet 213, bitwen 281, crepeð 111 (3), deuel 164 (5), der 322 r. w. her (4), undergede 568 r. w. manhede, wel 600 (Ang.hwēl, Bülb. § 217) r. w. wel; before two consonants, brest 117 (4), helde 173, but diuel 21, an early instance of this shortening, cripelande 111 fromcrypel; thei-umlaut ise, strenen 485, ten 109.gesīeneis sene 356,gīet, get 62, 385 r. w. flet.ēaafter palatals ise, ger 492 r. w. her, sep 34, 483.a+gisag, dages 607, drageð 6, sage 475, but daies 109, 635; mugen 323 has the form of the subjunctivemugon; sei 159 descends fromsege, seieþ 347 fromsegeþ, seit 577 fromsegð.æ+gis divided betweenaiandei, dai 29 (7), 582 r. w. ai, daies 109, 635, faier 629, lai 28, 633, mai 110 (9), maig 64 (3), mainles 110; breid 548, breides 344 (bregd), dei216, 576, deies 309, meiden 23, 442, seide 191, 353, seid 549: fagen 394, 415 r. w. dragen is Anglianfagen; muge 126, 187 descends from LWS.muge.e+gisei, weie 4; forbredes 138 comes fromforbrēdan, agen 185, 457 fromagēn:e+his seen in hightes 135, 161, hightest 133.i+g: the spirant has been absorbed in lieð 15; finaligisi, mani 429, manie 441, wurði 346.i+hisig, idigt 364, sigte 92, wigt 235.o+hisog, ðogt 501, 559, but forbroiden 108, not from-brogden, but-brōden, with a variation which perhaps mimics the alternation of the ME. infinitives breden (brēdan) and breiden (bregdan), see NED.s.v.broiden.u+gisug, fugeles 308, mugen 503, 643, but the spirant has disappeared in fules 305, 312.y+hisig, drigten 26 (3), fligt 43, 54, offrigt 625 (late North.fryhta).ā+g,hisog, og 263 (3), ogen 210 (4), ogt 623 (āht), but ovt 560 r. w. ðogt 577, out 521, forms due to the scribe: steg 639 (stāh) has borrowede, as often elsewhere, from the third class of strong verbs.ǣ1+g,hisag, agte 477, er, meaning or, 99 (9) is descended fromǣgþer, while er, before, 191 (4) isǣr: neggen 122, negge 3 representgenēgan.ǣ2+gis seen in haliweie 612 (wǣg).ī+g: in sti 152 r. w. bi,ghas disappeared.ō+g,hisog, inog 118, ðogte 354, nogt 122 (9), but nout 11, 593, 622 r. w. ogt, nowt 192, 214, forms due to the scribe.ȳ+g, drie 615.ea+h,htis seen in magt (mæht) 426, magti 175, waxe 196, waxeð 124, waxen 445 (wæxan); thei-umlaut in migt 234, 532 r. w. wiht, migte 21 (3), nigt 47, but sloð 329 (WS.sliehþ) r. w. loð, corresponds to North.slāþ, influenced by OScand. slá.eo+htisigt, brigt 55 r. w. fligt, figtande 128, rigt 52, rigten 102, rigteð 125, but sexe 50 (Angliansex), bitwixen 293 (betweohs); without umlaut is seð 49 r. w. teð (WS.siehþ) as if fromsēoþ.ēa+g,hiseg(Anglian), egen 16 (5), heg 18, hege 562; eilond 387, 414 (īegland) is from Anglianēgland.ēo+gis alsoeg, fleges 366, flegeð 48 (3), legeð 350, 577;ēo+h, ligtlike 315; withouti-umlaut are fleð 123, 165 (comp.flēð, Durh. Rit.), teð 48 r. w. seð, 274, but ligten 20, 289.ā+wisow,ou,ov, knoweð 106, sowles 103, soule 158 (4), knov 133, but soge 386 as if from *sāhe, sawen 599, possibly miswritten for sowen.ī+w, appears in newe 60 (5), neweð 39 (5), newe 141, all from Anglian forms withēo.ō+w: nowor 35 represents *nōwar, nōwerfromnāhwǣr, nāhwār.ēa+wis seen in ðewes 143 and finally in deu 7:ēo+win rewen 437, rewe 206, reufulike 528, speweð 116, finally in gu 549 (4): tre 508, 516, 524, 551 r. w. we, is Angliantre(o): thei-umlaut is wanting in trewe 163, 589, untrewe 61, 96.In syllables without stressois levelled toe, wankel 446, hunger 203, siker 207, wunder 194, sumer 176, te 107.aappears forein mereman 442, influenced by man. Ane, generally unmetrical, has been inserted indeuẹles 436 (but deules 665), folegen 269, folẹgeð 431, 620 (but folgen 439, 643), fugeles 308, lagelike 573, steuẹne 561, husebondes 299, sineginge 149, wisedom 324, andisimilarly in hardilike 177, fulịgewis 508 (comp. fuliwis 445), haliweie 612 (‘haleweie,’ L 23072), sinịging 256:eis omitted in biforn 62, 68, 268, but metre requires everywhere biforen. The prefixbe-isbi-, bisetten 167:ge-isiin imong 476, it appears also in uniemete 459 (ungemǣte) with ie for i as in attrie 228, perhaps an Anglo-Norman interchange of these symbols. Butge-is generally lost, as in bodes 136, minde 263, vnride 389, unwelde 41.on-isain among 147,to-,tein tetireð 318. redi 125 (3) is a ME. formation fromgerǣde+ig, the termination in sille is-lic;-ungising, drowing 567, groning, woning 662, lesing 478.Geminated final consonants are invariably simplified as web 363, coc 300, stoc 224, fel 109, hil 18, spel 335, den 8, fen 630, mankin 168, sin(ful) 82, win 244, char 519, dar 647, fer 265, pit 624; often too medially asrr, chare 457, dure 145;nn, wiðerwine 645, cune 148, cunen 457;þþ, siðen 41 (5);cc, fecheð 179, reche 585, meche 586. Forw,uis written in sadue 524.ris doubled in warre 456; metathesis occurs in ðrist 231, 428.nis added in hauen 183, boðen 181, boden 525, doubled in drigtinnes 242, vnneðes 113, omitted in euelike 213, and frequent o foron.pis doubled in steppes 5, inserted in sampnen 484.fbetween vowels and vowellikes isu, rauen 311, geuelic 173, ouese 362, culuer 650, derue 205, oncevin weveð 360 (but weueð 363), otherwise it isf.fis doubled in offprep.104, 241, 264, 616, while the adverb appears as of 657.tis doubled in little 200, 432, beside litel 131, lost in beste 514, for itthis written in cethegrande 383:tsisscin giscing 245,cin milce 151.dis doubled in togaddre 482, gaddreð 180, omitted in selcuðes 441, as already in OE.selcūþand in sille 449, but alreadysyllicin OE. Ford,ðis written in ðon 328, faðer 13, queðsipe 298, seð 191, forþ,din boden 525, broder 287, dede 31, 625, filde 160, lodlike 357, swide 360, swideð 54, dat 634, de 165, dridde 29, drowing 567, wurden 250, mostly due to the scribe’s failure to complete ð:þistin forsaket 81, wit 136: after voicelesst,spronominal words begin withtinstead ofþ, tanne 216, tat 18, te 209, (at) te 134, 361, 586, ter 329, tin 161, tine 159, tis 73, 154, tu 133 (7), tus 77 &c., but de 192, once afterd, tu 150. In forðward 160,ðhas been wrongly inserted.sćiss, initially, sadue 524, sakeð 193, sal 16 &c., same 193 (3), sarpe 318, seftes 356, seld 130, sending 339, sep 34, seppande 356, silden 34, sinen 12, sipes 411, sonde 431, sop 356, sulde 123, suneð 193, sures 203, oncesc, scrifte 159, oncesk, skinbon 272, NED compares NFris. skenbiin, WFris. skynbonke; medially, golsipe 245, queðsipe 298, butssin wissing 246(*gewȳscung); finally, fis 383, fles 114, 435. The stopciskbeforeeandiand in combination with other consonants, forsaket 81, kinde 10, bitokneð 152, drink 158, but craft 111, in other positions mostlyc, cam 564, uncuð 396, blac 598, swic 149, but kam 29, 352, unkuð 97, swik 344, suk 454, smake 3 (ME. formation fromsmæcc):ccisck, necke 303.čisch, chaueles 397, ches 586, erðchine 308, chare 457, char 519, briche 293, 592, eche 139, quenchet 256, riche 480, but ic 38 &c., sekeð 46, kirke 78, Scand. in form, kolde 486, kold 495, mirke 80, merk 341 (see Björkman 146), micle 536, mikle 542 (comp. OWScand. mikil), wilc 4, swilc 248, swilk 338, ilik 343, lic 662.ččiscch, dreccheð 88, feccheð 301, but fecheð 179, reche 585, meche 586 and fetchen 265, witches 427, early instances of tch, but ?wikke 468.cwisqu,qw, quenchet 256, qwemeð 190, queðsipe 298, quike 253. Palatalgis writteng, bigeten 490, forgeten 451, gemen 260, geld 338, forgelues 138, ger 491, get 62, ging 162, gingen 259, gingid 238, giueð 291, gu 549, gungling 543, guðhede 39, undergede 568 (undereode); it is doubled in negge 3, neggen 122, lost in if 35 &c. The voiceless spirant is also represented byg, as in egen 16, ðogte 354, soge 386, furg 307, inog 118, ðurg 3: doubled in suggeden 559 (in Orm suhhghen), now dialectal, mostly Northern, sough, soo.his lost in ire 183, added in heten 421:hlisl, lene 110, lepeð 230, lides 16, list 585, listen 74, louerd 19, lude 377;hnisn, necke 303;hr,r, raðe 317, rem 13, remeð 527, rewen 437;hw,w, wan 386, wat 95, weder 270, wel 600, wete 190, wilc 4, wile 648, wite 599, wos 628, wu 20 &c., andquin qual (Northern).Accidence:Strong declension ofmasc.andneut.nouns. In thes. n. a.dine 646, heuenriche 18, 292, hirde 33, bale 379, golsipe 245, se 404, tre 508, 516, wete 190, 209 have e corresponding to their OE. vocalic ending, bodi 172, sti 152 have lost finalg; seppandẹ 356 and haliweie 612 r. w. seie have added e; mere 448 is shortened from meremenn.Gen.-es, bukes 330, foxes 314, sees 407, but heuenriche 558; brest 121, 160 is a composition form:dat.-e, bale 172, bile 70 and 15 others with vowel termination in thenom., hauen 183 has added n (nunnation, 457/11), dede 31, dele 4 and 31 others with inflection, of which ouese 362 is the only word of more than one syllable: without inflection are bodi 130 (3), drigtin 104, meiden 23, stel 419, der 322, 627, rem 13, 611 and 90 others mostly with long stem vowel or of more than one syllable; always o dei 576, bi dai 47 &c.; many examples are in rhyme as mod 249, 348, muð 395, ðogt 501, 559, wold 620. Thepl. n. a.of masculines ends in-es, chaueles 397, witches 427, daies 109, fodredes 361; there are no weak forms: neuters are limes 41, 63, sipes 411, 417, 454, bodes 136, 213, lides 16, sep 34, 483, ger 491, 492, ðing 358: datives have-es, berges 481,breides 344, briddes 660, finnes 445, ðewes 143, ðornes 237, limes 131, wiles 297, but der 603. Of thefem.nouns of the strong declension mire 175, neddre 107, 129, same 193, widue 578 have e corresponding to their OE. vocalic ending in thenom., dede 468, 469, sowle 586 have added e, all others are without e, culuer 650, ned 142, woning 662 (the verbal substantives are rarely inflected in any case). Genitives are sinnes 158, sowles 103: birde 117 (comp.byrdtīd), erðe 630, helle 638 (comp.hellewīte), heuene 638 (comp. heuen 170), kirke 134, 586, soule 158 may be genitives, but are more probably composition forms.Dat.-e, birdene 289, filde 160, godcundnesse 644, manhede 567, migte 587, werlde 106, sineginge 149, stefninge 451, but blis 140, 638, hid 120, magt 426, migt 416, tunder 419, werld 201, and the verbal nouns lesing 478, reming 542, sending 339, swiking 477, wissing 359 are without inflection. In theacc.forðward 160, migt 234, 532, ned 659, stund 309, 408 and the verbal nouns billing 316, 338, foxing 333, giscing 245, drowing 567, siniging 256, tokning 463, wissing 246, 255 are without inflection, bote 150, guðhede 39, nede 100, 216, 280, soule 172, 478, steringe 451 with 27 others have e, besides fille 319, 373, forbisne 322.Pl. n.are fedres 56;dat.harmdedes 299, misdedes 151, sinnes 75;a.forbisnes 219, kindes 218, seftes 356 (sometimesmasc.), sinnes 159, stefnes 448, agte 477. Nouns of the weak declension have-ein thenom., bane 370, sunne 12;d.make 576, erðchine 308;a.fode 64 (5), wille 330, but fod 207, licham 214 before a vowel: genitives are belles 541, huntes 548:pl. n.egen 44, 80, fleges 366, husebondes 299;dat.egen 16, 87;a.egen 55, willen 515. The minor declensions are represented by fet (steppes)pl. a.5; teðpl. a.318; mans. n.73, manness. g.148, mans. d.444,a.124, menpl. n.305, sipmen 451, mannepl. g.24, men ?pl. d.144, manne 359, menpl. a.428; bocs. n.350, bokes. d.38 (4); furgs. d.307; goss. a.302; nigtes. d.588, bi nigt 47, 150, o nigt 576, nigts. a.582;faðers. n.13, fader 30,s. d.640; broders. n.287,s. a.535; fends. n.349.Adjectives which in OE. end in a vowel have-ethroughout, briche 592, eche 139, minde 263, newe 210, softe 176, but swets. d. neut.231 (comp.swētnes,swōt) and merks. d. f.341 have lost e; those in-iglose g, attrie 228 (with ie for i), droui 407, holi 642, redi 311, weri 511. Weak inflections ares. voc.cristene 133,d.rigte 70, sinfule 340,a.olde 210, 581: strong ares. n. f.bare 121, ilike 442, like 444,s. d. m.rigte 435,s. d. f.quike 253; others are uninflected in the singular: mikels. n. m.565 hasd.mikle 542, but mikel 230,pl. n.mikle 433, 536: litels. n. neut.131 hass. a. f.little 200,pl. n.432. Thepl. n.has-e, kolde 486, leue, loðe 594, warre, wise 456; the exceptions are all predicative, fagen 394, 415, kold 495,siker 207, strong 63, twifold 471, uncuð 396, war 204, wod 250;dat.-e, iuele 343, wite 599, but dern 75 r. w. ern;acc.-e, erðliche 213, but brigt 55 r. w. fligt.ānas article unstressed is a 28, 46 &c., before consonants, an 391, 282 before vowels and h, twice 106, 596 before w, divided in a neilond 387, 414, while the numeral and indefinite pronoun is on 268, 530, (on) on 223, 635, ones. d. neut.264;āna, alone, is one 579, 580, 622:nānas adj. is no 148, 444 &c., non 64 &c., nones. d. neut.65, as pronoun, non 267, 271, 285, 494, 556, 597. Adjectives used as nouns with inflection ares. d.geuelike 214, 593, gode 65, nakede 165,pl.grete 400, sinfule 167, selcuðes 441, smale 399: nouns used as adjectives are flerd, fox 351. Comparatives and superlatives have-e,s.fairere 597, more 194, beste 514, firste 552, moste 384, swetteste 392,pl.eldere 171, 241, but best 667 r. w. nest, vuemest 639 r. w. gast, most 501 before vowel.The personal pronouns are ic 38 (6), before vowel, h or palatal g, i 37 (5) before consonants, we, wes (= we es) 651, urpl. g.285, 661, vs, ðu, tu 133 &c., ðe, te 142, gupl. d.549, 575. The pronoun of the third person iss. n.hem.2, 330, gef.175, 179, get (= ge it) 195, itneut.29, 450, itt 601,d.himm.5, 521, hiref.184, 499, ire 183,a.himm.13, 128, hiref.299;pl. n.he 264, 625,g.her 556,d.hem 281, 546,a.369, is 7, 137, 304. Reflexives are us 663, ðe 160, hims. d.64, 103, 109, himself 65, hire 372, hims. a.8 (13), hire 178, 365, hempl. a.413, 421, 484: definitive is himseluen 520: possessives ares.ðin 156, tin 161, ði, before consonant, 160, 478,pl.ðine 151, tine 159, ðin 477 before vowel;s.his 3 &c.,pl.hise 16 &c., his, before vowel, 44, 55; hire 179, 496; vre 19 &c., here 280, 427. The definite article is ðe without inflection, te 13, 623, de 165, 192, atte 134, 361, 586:s.ðat 18 &c., tat 18,pl.ðo 432, 604 are demonstratives. The compound demonstrative iss.ðis 77, tis 73,pl.ðise 398. The relatives are ðe 19; it means, of which 621, during which 201, and ðat 13, it means, in which 517, on which 206, about which 191, that which 184, 470, dat, for whom, 634. Interrogatives are wat 127, 133, 170, wos 628, wilc 4; the correlative is swilc 248, swilk 338. Indefinites are wo so 335, 577; wat 95; man 2, 194, 221, 304; sum 461; oni 378; oðress. g.273, oðers. d.378,a.267,pl.oðre 276 (6),oðer603; an oðer 10, 262; ilk 82, ilc 256, ilkines 180;eurilc257, eurilc 286; mani 429,pl.manie 441 (4), manikines 358; fele 297, 463; al 54 &c., all 211,pl.alle 5, 241.Only three verbs have the infinitive in-e, biswike 327 r. w. dernelike, chare 457 r. w. ware, rede 38 r. w. guðhede, one or two in-ien, luuien 135, ?hertien 276, the rest, in number 111, of which 18 are of the second weak conjugation, end in-en. Thedat. inf.is not inflected, its sign is to (31) or for to (6). Presents ares.1. haue 549, mene 248, seie 557 (4); 2. hauest137, forbredes, forgelues, forwurðes 138; 3. falleð 58 (4), wakeð 33, wuneð 401 (5) and over 200 others in-eð; hatieð 304, rotieð 311; forsaket 81, quenchet 256; atbrested 548, bekned 213, gingid 238, bilimpes 275; contract verbs, fleð 123, 165, teð 48 r. w. seð, 274, seð 49, sloð 329 r. w. loþ, contracted forms are abit 581 r. w. sit, bet 213, bit 195, 211, 370, 379 (read biteð in all these places), bit 330, bit 192 (read bideð), biwalt 521 r. w. bihalt, fet 214, 337 r. w. ket, 605, fint 209 (read findeð), flet 386 r. w. get, fret 319, 373 (read freteð in both places), gelt 316, geld 338, hitt 365, lat 327, 328, lið 11 (read lieð as in l. 15), seit 577, sit 520, 576, 580 r. w. abit, smit 391, underset 516 r. w. bet, stant 2;pl.1. hauen 176 (3), wunen 201, haue we 295, fele we 552, haue 659; 3. beren 278, cumen 276 (4), haten 299, noten 488, sundren 577, waken 453; sen 413, ten 266, hatien 305, cume 536:subjunctive s.3. fare 99, se 122, tide 499, but derie 186;pl.1. bimene we 663, leue we 590, luue we 587, 590, seke we 207, wende we 588:imperative s.2. bid 150, help 144, swic 149, herkne 506, newe 141, reche 585, sei 159, deme 145;pl.2. hereð 45, muneð 575. Past of Strong Verbs: I a.s.3. lai 28, 633;subj. s.2. soge 386; 3. sete 388: I b.s.3. bar 24, kam 28, 352, cam 564;pl.3. broken 242;subj. s.3. come 22: I c.s.3.wan 632, wurð 566: II.s.3. ros 31, 637, steg 639: III.s.3. ches 586: IV.s.3. sop 356, stod 557: V.s.2. hightest 133, hightes 135, 161; 3. fel 551, let 642, slep 635; ?subj. pl.1. helde we 173. Participle present: V. gangande 530; past: I b. broken 137, forbroken 108: I c. bred 117, bunden 443, doluen 27, forbroiden, forwurden 108, towrong 42 r. w. unstrong: II. fordriuen 411, sinen 12, writen 572: III. forloren 69: IV. faren 589: V. IV. waxen 445: V. biholden 512, fallen 570, sawen 599. Past of Weak Verbs:s.3. dennede 23, filstnede 30, seide 191, ðogte 354;pl.3. remeden 561, suggeden 559, wuneden 493. Participles present: cripelande 111, figtande 128, secande 536; past: cloðed 124, cristned 134, elded 139, eried 308, herd 459, idigt 364, ikindled 10, lered 239, offrigt 625, seid 549, set 220, tokned 627, told 621, 628, trendled 600; inflected are cloðedẹs. d.166, forbisnedes. d.464. Minor Groups: ogpr. s.263 (3), ogen 1pr. pl.210 (3),pr. pl.653; canpr. s.79, canne (= can he) 534, cunenpr. pl.457, cune 2pr. s. subj.148, cunnepr. s. subj.7 (3); darpr. s.647, dure 2pr. s. subj.145; salt 2pr. s.155, salpr. s.16 &c., sulen 1pr. pl.203, 292,pr. pl.485, 594, suldept. s.123; maipr. s.110 (9), maig 64, 400, 433, mugen 1pr. pl.323, 643,pr. pl.503, mugepr. s. subj.126, 187, migtept. s.21, 554, 556, migtenpt. pl.560; moten 1pr. pl.210, mote 2pr. s. subj.151; beninf.84 (4), to bendat. inf.263, 653, art 2pr. s.140, 162, ispr. s.10, 662, es 183, nes 518, beð 313, ben 1pr. pl.34, 204, be we 205, arnpr. pl.41 (11), aren 394, 415, ben 450, senden 63, 441, bepr. s. subj.21, 615, ben 1pr. pl. subj.207, 293, be we 589, 655, benpr. pl. subj.282, be 2pr. s. imp.163, waspt. s.26 &c., weren 1pt. pl.250,pt. pl.80, 559, 625, were 2pt. s. subj.134,pt. s. subj.61 (7), wore 578; wile 1pr. s.575, wille 37, wilepr. s.71 (12), wille 34 (5), wulle 634, wilenpr. pl.367, wullen 314, wilepr. s. subj.4, 327, 328, wuldest 2pt. s.385, wuldept. s.553, 2pt. s. subj.74,pt. s. subj.353, 354; doninf.330, 531, ðon 328, fordon 354, to dondat. inf.212, 515, 661, doðpr. s.141 (10), do we 1pr. pl. subj.172, 205, 657, dedept. s.171, donpp.663; goninf.155, 225, goðpr. s.66 (5), gonpr. pl.482, 491, 1pr. pl. subj.35, 254, go 2pr. s. imp.157, undergedept. s.568.Noteworthy among adverbs are lic, equally, 662, nede, of necessity, 129 (nīede), ðer wile, whilst, 648, welle, very, 18 (also in Layamon, 29622), which seems to have added a superfluous adverbial e; among prepositions, mitte 454, 546, one 334, 388, onẹ 420; conjunctions, ⁊ (ant), meaning if, 2, er, or, 99 &c., wiles, whilst, 88 (4), wor so, wheresoever, 602 (4).Vocabulary:The Scandinavian element is large: ai 46 (7), arn 41 &c., aren 394, 415, blast 541, bone 101, boðe 47, boðen 181, boden 525, brest 458 (OE.byrstwould in this text be birst), brennen 249, brenning 229, brinneð 227, bro 598 (OWScand. brá), calleð 527, call(ing) 563, costes 284, derflike 313, feg 160, fro 31 &c., gapeð 390, gres 182, heil 59, ille 410, ill(ing) 317, ket 336, lage 15 &c., leiðe 357, oc 55, 159, or 76, 116, 119, rapelike 178, reiseð 13, reisen 553, renneð 178, scaðe 447, skemt(ing) 332, skies 50, swideð 54, takeð 71, til 12, ðeðen 364, ðog 21 &c., (un)skil 331, wille 35, wrengðe 69, wrong 62, probably hileð 318, vncost 148, wore 578, possibly fikeð 532, listneð 306 (comp.hlystan), liuenoðe 200, (o) twinne 195; influenced in form are atbrested 548, atbrosten 458, come 664, frame 323 (fremu), in meaning, onde 310. French are bec 42, capun 300, caue 186, cete 397, cul 604, dragunes 622 (‘draguns,’ P. de Thaün), gin 521, grace 104, haleð 184, leun 2, market 378, panter 596, poure 144, pride 247, prophetes 555, rime 572, robb(inge) 657, simple 655, spuse 587, tireð 336, turtres 572, uenim 116 (venin); pre-Conquest Latin is crede 98. The proper name Moyses 553 is the Vulgate form.Dialect:The author of the Bestiary lived in East Anglia, sufficiently near its northern border to account for such rhymes as loð : sloð 328, 329, stedefast : gast 434, 435, vuemest (read-mast) : gast 639, 640. The large Scandinavian element also points to the northern part of East Anglia. How far he was responsible for the Northern or North Midland broken 242, offrigt 625, qual 598, sawen 599, senden 63, 441, soge 386, s as the regular and frequent representative ofsć, as in sadue, sal, sarpe &c., the 2, 3 pr. s. in-es, bilimpes 275, forbredes, forgelues, forwurðes 138, higtes135, 161, and the participles in-andeit is impossible to determine. But he certainly did not write gangande 530, secande 536, and transmission through a Northern or North Midland copy may accordingly be assumed. Our manuscript was written by a scribe of the Southern border of East Anglia. He has left his mark in a number of syncopated presents which spoil the metre and probably in the case of others where the full form is metrically admissible, in luuien 135, hatieð 304, rotieð 311, wulle 634, wullen 314, and probably in were 134 &c., since wore 578 r. w. more is the only form controlled by rhyme. He is also responsible for dede 171, stereð 309,æ+gasei, dei 576, meiden 23 &c., for vuemest 639, daies 109, 635, out 521, ovt 560, nout 11, 593, 622, nowt 192, 214, occasional alterations without any systematic attempt at revision. We may perhaps venture the guess that the poem was written in Lincolnshire and copied in Essex.Metre:Thetbaldus attempts a variety of metres, ‘temptans diversis si possem scribere metris;’ leonine hexameters for his Lion, Eagle, Siren, Onocentaur and Panther, leonine elegiacs for the Ant, Fox, Stag, Whale and Elephant, sapphics for the Serpent, catalectic dactylic tetrameter for the Spider, adonics for the Turtle. The English adapter emulates his versatility and moreover mixes different kinds of verse in the same article. In alliterative long line are ll. 1-24, 32-35, 106-151, 156-161, 164-166, 170-173, 175-179, 184-197, 199-204, 297-299, 304-315, 318, 356, 357, 360-370, 376-381, 441-448, 451, 458, 459. Of these the great majority are of the first kind described onp. 463, lines with alliteration only, as 2-8, 10, 11, 15, 18-21, 23, 106-111 &c. Of the second are 13, 16, 114, 134-136, 141, 150, 171, 173, 176, 185, 195, 312-315, 364, 370, 376, 379, 380, 459, of the third, 24, 112, of the fourth 12, 116, 118, 144, ?298, 305, 306, 362, 381, but groups of lines in this class, such as 26-31, 152-155 have attained to their full development as syllabic verse and are printed like the octosyllables and similar metres from which they are indistinguishable. Lines of the fifth class are discussed in the notes. They are numerous, indeed the parts written in alliterative verse are in much worse state than the rest of the text, probably because the scribe’s ignorance of the technique of the native metre gave him greater scope for alteration. The changes he has made are of the kind described onpp. 464, 465, prominent among them is the rearrangement of words, mostly in a prose order, which often results in the elimination of rhymes. These rhymes are mostly imperfect; inflectional as reiseð : makeð 13, drinkeð : neweð 118 &c., luken : egen 16, leuen : luuien 135, name : queðsipe 298, ouese : felde 362, or partial in correspondence of sound, as sinen : abuten 12, dure : were 134, herte : kirke 136, men : abuten 144,hulen : fules 305, wunder : hunger 306, mere :-mete459. The most frequent alliterative combination is 2 + 1, as at 4, 15, 18, 19, 106-109, 113, 115, 117, 365 (hitt,hole, biholdeð) &c., it occurs in at least one third of the lines; next in number is 1 + 1, as in 5, 10, 16, 20, 21, 23, 34, 35, 110, 196 (forwurðe,waxe), 458 (atbrosten,brest) &c., 2 + 2 is seen in 111, 123, 160, 363, 367, 1 + 2 in 2, 11, 114, 128, 135, crossed alliteration in 3, 6, 148, 157, 161, 170, 203, 360, 445 (fis,fuliwis,finnes,waxen), 448, distinct alliteration in 147, 165.The septenarius is the metre of ll. 205-216, 294, 295, 572-579, 585-594. For the structure of this verse, seep. 327; the following is a restoration and scansion of the passages in the Bestiary.205do wé | forðí | so dóð | ðis dér || ðánne | bé we | gléwe,Ón ðat | daí ðat | dóm sal | bén || ðát it | ús ne | réwe.Séke we | hére | sóules | fód || ðat wé | ben sík|er ðóre,Só ðis | wírm in | wínter | ís || ðan gé | ne tíl|eð móre.ðe mír|e sún|eð ðe bár|lic séd || ðanne gé | fíndeð | ðe wéte;210ðe óld|e lág|e we óg|en súnen || ðe né|we we mót|en séken.ðe córn | ðat gé | to cáu|e béreð || ál get | bíteð o|twínne;ðe lág|e us lér|eð gód | to dón || ant ús | forbéd|eð sínne:It bét|eð ús | érðlich|e bódes || ant bék|neð héu|enlíke;It féd|eð ðe líc|ham ánt | te góst || oc nógt | o géu|enlíke.215vre lóu|erd críst | it lén|e ús || ðát his | láge us | fédenú in | érd ant o | dómes | deí || ant tán|ne we háu|en néde.294ðús is | úre | lóuerdes | láge || lúue|líke to | fíllen;hérof | háue we | míkel | néd || ðat wé | ðar wíð | ne díllen.572In bók|e ís | ðe túr|tres líf || wríten | ál o | ríme;wu lá|gelík|e ge hóld|eð lúue || ál hir|e líf|tíme.géf ge | ónes | máke | háueð || fro hím | ne wíl|e séden:575múneð|, wímmen|, híre | líf || íc it | wíle gu | réden.bi hí|re mák|e ge sít | onígt, || o deí | ge góð | ant flégeð:wó so | séit he | súndren | ógt || i seí|e ðát | he légeð.Oc if hér|e mák|e wér|e déd || ant gé | wídu|e wóre,ðánne | flégeð ge | óne ant | fáreð || non óð|er wíl|e móre.585Líst ilk | léfful | mán her|tó || ant hér|of óft|e réche;vre sówl|e át|te kírk|e dúre || chés hire | críst to | méche.hé is | úre | sóule | spúse || lúue we | hím wið | mígte,ant wénd|e wé | néure | fro hím || be daí|e né | be nígte.ðog he bé | fro úr|e sígt|e fáren || bé we him | álle | tréwe:590non óð|er lóu|erd ne léu|e wé || ne lúu|e nón|e néwe.léue we | ðát he | líueð | aí || úp on | héuen|ríche,ant ðéð|en hé | sal cúm|en éft || ant bén | us ál|le bríche,fór to | démen | álle | mén || oc nógt | on géu|elíke;hise lóð|e súl|en to héll|e fáren || hise léu|e tó | his ríche.The writer handles this metre skilfully; the stresses coincide generally with the natural accent and the rhymes are good. The variations from the norm of the verse are those described onp. 328, but in proportion fewer.For the octosyllable seep. 564. In this metre are ll. 26, 27, 37-46, 48, 49, 54-59, 62-64, 68-71, 230-236, 238, 239, 250, 257-260, 262-271, 276, 278, 279, 281, 282, 284, 285, 288, 289, 292, 293, 322, 323, 325-331, 334-337, 341, 343-354, 359, 371, 372, 383-388, 390-402, 405-416, 419-424, 426-439, 454, 455, 463, 465, 466, 475, 476, 480-491, 494-496, 499-501, 508-511, 516-526, 528-533, 536-541, 546-549, 551-570, 580-583, 596-625, 627-648, 650-667. Of these some are to be emended, others are peculiar in scansion, as, ðo úr|e drígt|en déd | wás 26, ánt | his ég|en ár|en dím 44, His béc | is gét | bifór|en wróng 62, Bíll|eð tíl | his béc | bifóren 68, háueð | ðe wréng | ðe ál | forlóren 69, Ne háu|eð ðát | uením | non mígt 234, so hért | doð hís|e hórn|es ál 258, óc | on swímm|eð bí|forén || ant áll|e ðe ód|re fól|egén 268, 269, álle | ðe óð|re míd|e cúmen 276, bér|en him óf | ðat wát|er grúnd 278, ant bríng|ẹð us in sínn|ẹ ant tér | us slóð 329, ét|en ant drínk|en wíð | unskílle 331, máni | alsó | ðe fóx|es náme 345, wúr|ði árn | to háu|ẹn to sáme 346, dóð | ge hém | non óð|er gód 372, Céthe | gránde | ís a | gret fís 383, ðerforẹ óð|re físs|es tó | him drágen 393, wúneð | ðis fís | wið ðé | se grúnd 401, ne maí | it wún|en ðán | ðer ínne 406, aneí | lond he wén|en ðát | it ís 414, Of stón | mid stél|e ín | ðe túnder 419, wo só | him fól|ẹgeð fínd|eð sónde 431, ne cúm|en hé | nummór|e úp 455, Féle | men háu|en ðe tók|eníng 463, ðat wán|ne hír|e hárd|e tíde 499, slépeð | bi ðe tré | ál in | ðe sádue 524, ðán|ne cúm|eð ðér | on gángen 530, mánie | ant mík|le cúm|en sáken 536, ðis élp | he reís|en só | on stálle 547, Móy|ses wúld|e hím | up reísen 553, mígt|e hé | it nó | wigt fórðen 554, áft|er hím | prophét|es álle 555, ðo rém|ẹden he áll|e lúd|ẹre stéuẹne 561, hem tó | cam críst | urẹ héu|en kíng 564, ðre dág|es ál | he slép|en wílle 607, ðánne | áfter | ðe ðrídd|e daí 608, wið swét|nessẹ áls | ic ít | gu seíe 613, wor só | he wálk|eð ón | ðe lónde 617, wor só | he wálk|eð, wor só | he wúneð 618, ful wél | his lúu|ẹ he táun|ẹde mán 631, ðannẹ hé | was déd | in blód | ant bón 636, v́p | he rós | ant rém|ẹdẹ iwís 637, ínto | his gód | cundnéss|ẹafín644, it óg|en áll|e to bén | us mínde 653, gé | ne háu|eð in hír|ẹ non gálle 654, ðe wírm | ge lét|eð ant líu|ẹð bi séd 658, In wát|ẹr ge is wís | of héu|ẹkes cóme 664, In hól|ẹ of stón | ge mák|ẹð hirẹ nést 666.Verses of three measures are ll. 28-31, 47, 50-53, 60, 61, 65-67, 152-155, 162, 163, 167 (two lines), 168, 169, 180-183, 218-229, 237, 241-249 (241, 242 originally four lines, see note), 251-256, 272-275, 277, 280, 286, 287, 290, 291, 300-303, 316, 319, 320, 324, 332, 333, 338-340, 358, 373, 374, 389, 403, 404, 417, 418, 450, 456, 457, 461, 464, 467-474, 477, 478, 492, 493, 497, 498, 502, 503, 527, 534, 535, 542-545. Noteworthy are, bó|ðe bi nígt | ant bi daí 47, so rígt|e só | he cúnne 52, ánt | he bíll|eð ðer ón 67 (anapaest in last foot occurs several times in this metre), ðis líf | bitók | neð ðe stí 152, ðát | tu sált | ðurg gón 155, aí | ðe sín | fúle || bisétt|en hé | wíle 167, gáddr|eð ílk|ines séd 180, bóð|ẹ of wúd|ẹ ant of wéd 181, of córn | ánt | of grés 182, ðat man clép|ẹð físi | ologét 221, He ðrág|eð ðe nédd|rẹ of ðe stón 222, wiðínn|ẹ he haú|ẹð brenníng 229, bi swílc | átter | i méne 248, drínk|en hís | wissíng 255, it quénch|et ílc | sinịgíng 256, on óðr|es lénd|ebón 273, gef hím | ðat téð | bifóren 274, ?ant hélp|en hím | to hérten 277, hélp|en him át | his néde 290, god gíu|eð ðér|forẹ méde 291, ge fécch|eð óft|ẹ in ðe tún 301, frét|eð hí|re fílle 319, ánt for his | sínful|e wérk 340, bute frét|eð hír|e fílle 373, ðis fís | ðat is ðús | unríde 389, tíl | it cúm|ẹð ðetíme403, ðat stórm | stíreð | al ðe sé 404, síp|es ón | to fésten 417, ant áll|e úp | to gángen 418, súm ðing | tókneð | bi ðís 461, ant wík|ke ís | herẹ déde 468, ?on wérld|e wún|en hér 493, ðat he múg|en rís|en wíð 503. Verses of two measures are ll. 317, 449 (mánie | ant sílle), 452, 460.Common Metre consists of alternate octosyllable and three-bar lines arranged in stanzas of four lines, rhyming a : b : a : b. In this are ll. 73-104, 504-507, 512-515. Scan, ðó|re sát|anás | forsákeð 81, to ihés|u críst | him sélf | bitákeð 83, His múð | is gét | wél | unkúð 97, bídd|en bón|e gérn | to góde 101, ánt | his múð | ðus rígten 102, to dón | wel hís|e wíken 515. The stanza, ll. 89-92, is desperate.Syncope of the middle vowel takes place in filstnẹde 30, heuẹne 49, 51, 562, 565, 639, seuẹne 50 (but seuene 652),sinịging256, iuẹle 344, chauẹles 397, folẹgeð 431, 620, deuẹles 436, slumẹren 452, wunẹden 493, stedẹfast 509, suggẹden 559, sorgẹden 559, remẹden 561, steuẹne 561, taunẹde 631, heuẹkes 664: e is also slurred or lost in ouẹr 48, 629, 630, clepẹð 221, hauẹð 229, ogẹn 284, arẹn 394, forbisnẹde 464, bergẹs 481, cumẹð 543, oðẹ 549, makẹn 556, watẹr 664, makẹð 666; in many other cases there is the alternative of a three-syllable foot, as for instance, of an anapaestic last foot in 502, 604. Hiatus occurs in stille 28, golsipe 245, giuernesse 246, pride 247, 257, alle 264, 418, 540, nede 267, raðe 333, same 339, wulde 354, were 387, eure 402, ðanne 485, 511, name 489, wanne 499, helpe 538, 546, migte 556, oliue 583.Introduction:Before the middle of the second centuryA.D., there appeared at Alexandria a Greek book, in which marvellous accounts of the nature and properties of certain animals, plants, and stones were used as allegorical and mystical illustrations of the dogmas of the Christian faith. The natural history element was an amalgam of popular conceptions and travellers’ tales, sheltering under the authority ofὁ Φυσιολόγος, the Naturalist, by whom the compiler probably meant Aristotle, and from whom the book itself was in later times called Physiologus. The didactic portion was a product of Alexandrian Judaeo-Christian theology, inspired by similar moralisations in the Septuagint and influenced by the pervading atmosphere of Egyptian nature symbolism.In its primitive form the book is probably best represented by the version printed in Lauchert, pp. 229-270. It had an amazing success, it passed everywhere with the Christian faith and soon found translators into Ethiopic, Armenian, Syriac (more than once), and Arabic. There is evidence of a prose version in Latin as early as the fifth century; from Latin it passed into most of the literatures of Europe. But the metrical version of Thetbaldus appears to have driven out the older Latin versions, one of which, however, is the main source of the Anglo-Norman poem written by Philippe de Thaün on English ground about 1130A.D.1-35. Compare generally CM 18641-60.2.⁊= ant, with the subjunctiveshere,smakemeans if; some explain it by supposing ellipsis of ȝif.3.smel, sense of smell, power of smelling; Mätzner compares ‘Smel of neose is þe ueorðe of þe vif wittes,’ AR 104/17; ‘Þonne is þe hundes smel for-do,’ ON 822.Smake, perceive by smell; a rare transitive use; see 211/497 for the intransitive, give out a smell.4. ‘Qualicunque via descendit vallis ad ima,’ T.5. The second half line is short; read he self filleð.6.[dun]: supplied in Specimens with a reference to l. 22.7.deu: Holthausen suggests fen, mud, restoring the alliteration; comp. 195/630.he, the hunter.8.driueð dun, hastens down; comp. ‘se ferliche ha driuen dun to þe eorðe,’ HM 21/20, ‘driue adun swireforð,’ id. 23/32; with ‘ðeðen,’ 187/364.bergen: Holthausen conjectures dernen, which is apparently not used in ME. of living things: possibly dennen should be read as in l. 25; the writer is fond of such repetitions. There is nothing in T. corresponding to this line.10-13. ‘Natus non vigilat dum sol se tercio girat | Sed dans rugitum pater ejus suscitat illum,’ T.11.lið: read lieð, as in l. 15.12. Holthausen transposes, Til ðe sunne haueð ðries · sinen him abuten. But the inflectional rhyme is sufficient.13. Transpose, his faðer him reiseð.makeð: perhaps remeð; comp. 193/540.15.lage: a variant on ‘kinde,’ l. 10, characteristic, habit; comp. ‘þenne hafest þu þes hundes laȝe,’ OEH i. 25/4; ‘Ðe unwise man and forwened child habbeþ boðe on laȝe,’ OEH ii. 41/23, and see 20/63.16. ‘Qui quociens dormit nunquam sua lumina claudit,’ T. ‘Crederis esse leo vigilanti semper ocello,’ Ruodlieb iv. 85.17. This interpretation springs from, ‘Catulus leonis Iuda: ad praedam fili mi ascendisti: requiescens accubuisti ut leo, et quasi leaena, quis suscitabit eum?’ Gen. xlix. 9; see Honorius Augustod. 935 c.18.hil: comp. ‘Twen heuone hil and helle dik,’ GE 281.20.wu—liked, how (anticipating ‘hu,’ l. 22), when it pleased him; similar is ‘hu,’ 192/504.ligten: see 141/42 and comp. 199/79.21. Comp. ‘ah þurh þe mon ꝥ he wes | ischrudd ⁊ ihudd wið, | he bicherde þene feont, | ⁊ schrenchte þen alde deouel, | ⁊ teschrapet his heaued,’ SK 1181.derne, cunning.22. The missing half line may have been something like, to ðis dale niðer, as in l. 4.23.dennede him, hid himself as in a den, suggested by den in l. 8; comp. ‘caldeliche dennet in a beastes cribbe,’ OEH i. 277/29.24.to manne frame, for men’s benefit;manneispl. gen., but the original reading was probably manne to frame with the usualdative: comp. 15/110; ‘naht him to mede ac hus to freme ⁊ to fultume,’ OEH i. 217/17; ‘folce to frofre,’ Beowulf 14: see 3/37, 85/107, 86/126, 110/295, 186/323, 187/360.27.doluen, buried; comp. ‘Brend and doluen was ðat folc soth,’ GE 3685. so foralsowould improve the rhythm; comp. 177/33.29.it: formal subject; comp. ‘Til hit sprang dai liȝt,’ KH 124 note: similar is 114/90.30.filstnede, helped; a derivative beside the more common filsten; comp. ‘He badd hiss maȝȝstre fillstnenn himm,’ Orm i. 181/5236, 213/6170.32. A half line is missing, something like, liues louerd so he is, corresponding to ‘mortis vindex’ in T. Comp. 147/149.vs—holden, to hold us to life, maintain us alive, save us from death; add to before holden; comp. ‘Butt iff þatt Godd himm hullpe þær, | ⁊ helde himm þær to life,’ Orm ii. 63/12033: similarly ‘þa alde;þe to fehte heom scolde halden,’L 9458, the elders who had to keep them fighting. But this transitive use is rare.33.wakeð, keeps watch. ‘Tu nos custodis, tu nullo tempore dormis | Pervigil ut pastor ne demat de grege raptor,’ T. This is the explanation of natura iii.hirde: some such word as wakeman 113/56 would restore the alliteration.35.heren to, obey. OE.hīeranwith this meaning takes the dative, ‘Ne mæg nan mon twæm hlafordum hieran,’ Cura Past. 128/23, but it is rare in ME.nowor wille, nowhere, in no case, never, astray; comp. ‘ðo fleg agar fro sarray, | . . . | In ðe diserd, wil and weri,’ GE 28/973, 5; ‘In a foreste þay were gone wylle,’ Ysumbras 157.37.kindeis without rhyme and Holthausen suggests that a line like l. 263 or l. 653 has fallen out. T. has ‘Esse ferunt aquilam super omne volatile primam | Quae se sic renovat quando senecta gravat’: something like, ðe moste ðat on lift we finde, would correspond, comp. 188/384.39. ‘renovabitur ut aquilae iuventus tua,’ Ps. cii. 5.40.cumeð ut of elde, divests himself of old age.41.Siðen, after, practically means when; comp. ‘Siðen ghe brocte us to woa, | Adam gaf hire name eua,’ GE 237, not ‘since,’ Mätzner. It is an adverb at l. 70 and nine other places, meaning afterwards. Withunweldecomp. ‘Vn-welde woren and in win, | Here owen limes hem wið-in,’ GE 347.42.wrong, awry; OWScand. rangr; comp. ‘⁊ all þatt ohht iss wrang ⁊ crumb | Shall effnedd beon ⁊ rihhtedd,’ Orm i. 321/9207; see also 177/62, 178/69, 70: al to is then altogether, exceedingly. But Mätzner assumes a participle *to-wrungen, which is without parallel. T. has, corresponding to ll. 61, 62, ‘Est autem rostrum quo carpitur esca retortum,’ but nothing here; with ll. 41-43 comp. ‘Solet dici de Aquila dum senectute premitur, quod rostrum illius aduncetur et incurvetur, ita ut sumere cibum nequeat et macie languescat,’ H. de S. Victor, ii. 417.46. ‘Fons ubi sit quaerit qui nunquam surgere desit,’ T., from ‘fons aquarum, cuius non deficient aquae,’ Isa. lviii. 11.48.⁊rubricated as though beginning another line.teð, proceeds; comp. 184/266, 274; ‘To-warde egipte he gunne ten,’ GE 1953.50.seuene: he flies through seven to the highest, eighth, heaven; comp. ‘Eiȝte firmamenz þare beoth: swuche ase we i-seoth. | þe Ouemeste is þe riȝtte heouene: in ȝwan þe steorrene beoth. | for godes riche is þare a-boue: þat last with-outen ende | . . . | þare bi-neoþe beoth seoue firmamenz,’ SE. Legendary, 311/413.52. as directly in front as he is able.53.houeð, remains poised, floats; comp. 188/395, 189/409, Minot iii. 83.54.swideð—fligt, burns all his wings; comp. ‘In dai swiþe noht sunne (MS. sinne) þe sal,’ Surtees Psalter, MS. E. cxx. 6 (= ‘Per diem sol non uret te’). T. has, ‘Tunc sibi sol ambas incendit (a. l.accendit) fervidus alas. | Et minuit grandes alleviatque graves.’56. ‘ex calore poris apertis et pennis relaxatis subito descendens in fontem ruit,’ Bartolomeus Anglicus, lib. xii.57.mide, therewith; comp. 212/513 and see1/19 note.58.grund, bottom, see 188/401.59.heil ⁊ sund: comp. 184/279, 188/402; ‘Tel him ꝥ þou ert sund and hale,’ CM 5112; ‘hol and isunde,’ OEM 42/186.61. If his beak were not crooked; not ‘unzuverlässig,’ Mätzner, but as artificers still use true, noun and verb, in various expressions, as ‘out of true,’ ‘to true up,’ &c.62.biforn, in front, the upper mandible has curved over the lower, as S. Augustine explains, iv. 1. 839: it is mostly used with verbs of motion, as at 76/10.64.tilen, procure; comp. 179/103, 182/199; ‘In swinc ðu salt tilen ði mete,’ GE 363.65. with any benefit to himself. Comp. ‘Mare hit hem deð to herme þenne to gode,’ OEH i. 27/12; ‘hi þonne ne mihtan nawþer ne him sylfum, ne þære heorde . . . nænige gode beon,’ BH 45/14. ‘Vix valet ex aliquo sumere pauca cibo,’ T.67.billeð: comp. 186/316, 334, 338; ‘ad petram elidit, immo comminuit et conterit,’ Neckam, De Naturis Rerum, 72.69.wrengðe, distortion: derivative of wrong; apparently here only: see Archiv cxxvii. 47. Add al before forloren.70.rigte, straightened.75.sinnes dernwould in any other context mean sins done in secret, but T. has ‘Est homo peccatis que sunt ab origine matris | Qualis adest (a. l.idem est) aquila, sed renovatur ita,’ which requires the sense of original sin not manifest in word or deed. This is clearer in Philippe de Thaün, ‘Pur general pechié (i.e. the universal sin of the human race) | Est enfes baptizié, | E quant il est levez | Cum aigle est renuvez; | Quant il est baptiziez | Dunc est rejuveigniez: | Vertu e veement | En baptisteire prent,’ 78/2115-22. The infant is old in inherited sin, in baptism he renounces Satan and becomes a Christian, then he learns priest’s lore, pater noster and creed: ll. 93-102 are simply variations on the preceding. ‘Nubes transcendit solisque incendia sentit. | Mundum cum pompisdespiciendo suis. | Fit novus in Christo ter mersus gurgite vivo. | . . . | Os terit obliquum per verba precancia Christum,’ T.78.nimeð: see 213/539.79goes with l. 78, he must betake himself to the Church, before he can find repentance; his eyes were previously too dim to see his guilt.81. Transpose, ðore satanas forsakeð, and for l. 83 read to ihesu crist him self bitakeð: comp. ‘Ich wole ȝou nou bitake ihesu crist,’ E. E. Poems 106/165.84.mede, reward, gives a poor sense; beten his nede would suit the context; comp. 184/280, ‘For he wende bete his nede,’ Rel. Ant. ii. 278/10; ‘er he bete þy nede,’ Lib. Desconus, 1582.86.lereð&c., learns what the priest teaches, i.e. the articles of the faith.88.dreccheð, tarries: comp. ‘ne wold he ðor | Ouer on nigt drechen nunmor,’ GE 1420.89-92.This stanza is imperfect, ll. 89, 91 do not rhyme. The former is on an erasure. There is nothing corresponding in the original: it is probably due to the scribe.89.to godeward: not toward God;wardis a mere tag, as at 179/115, 180/146, 184/259, 194/588; comp. ‘frommard,’ 58/66 note, 70/165; ‘efterward,’ 77/63 note. For the construction comp. 89/28, 96/58, ‘ich hopie to mede,’ AR 148/16; ‘hopieð to here michele wisdome,’ VV 67/13, 131/18; SJ 29/16; ‘forðæm hie gemunon ðone tohopan þe hie to ðæm gestrionum habbað,’ Cura Past. 344/1.90.lereð: Emerson restores the rhyme by reading leteð; but ‘leten of’ is apparently always accompanied by an adverb of degree; see44/260 note.91.ðatapparently refers to ‘gode’ l. 89: in one edition of the Latin original ‘solis incendia’ is glossed ‘iusticie calores.’93.funt fat: probably here only in ME. for the usual fantston, as at 85/101; CM 29200: OE.fant-fæt.95. The punctuation of Mätzner and Morris, buten a litel; wat is tat? involves taking ‘litel’ as a little thing. The meaning appears to be, but a small something (= a slight imperfection) is that his mouth is still crooked. Comp. ‘And þeonne sum lutel hwat he mei leggen on þe,’ AR 346/22; ‘Ah ȝette me an hwet,’ SK 767.96.untrewe, with double meaning, crooked and unfaithful.97, 98.unkuð wið, unacquainted with, not knowing (insciens); comp. 191/469 and ‘uncuð . . . of,’ 188/396, apparently the only three places where the word has this meaning. Elsewhere uncuð with the dativemeans unknown (ignotus); comp. ‘hit is us uncuð ⁊ ungeliefedlic,’ Orosius 214/21.99. Whatever he does, under all circumstances; comp. 34/86 note.100. He shall find out what is wanting to him.101, 102. ‘Os terit obliquum per verba precancia Christum,’ T. Afterbone, a word of one syllable has dropped out, probably gern.103, 104. ‘Panis is est Christus, fit sine morte cibus,’ T.105. With this section should be compared OEH ii. 199, which deals with the same subject.106.o werlde, in the world: comp. 180/140.107.te name, a predicative phrase: him has fallen out before it. Comp. ‘fox is hire to name,’ 185/298 = fox is for name to her; ‘him . . . se gemyndega papa Petrus to naman scop,’ Bede 405/31 (‘cui papa memoratus Petri nomen imposuerat’). Mätzner quotes ‘þam is to naman nemned Drihten,’ Psal. lxvii. 4 (Dominus nomen est ei). A curious variation is seen in ‘þat lond þat is to water nemned,’ OEH ii. 177/3. The usual ‘bi name’ is at 176/24. For the noun toname, comp. ‘Ðes wimman hadde ec on toname magdalene,’ OEH ii. 143/12.108. A padded line; the last half was probably, ⁊ elde forwurðen.109.him: see80/47 note.ten: the bestiaries say forty.110.lene: read megre; ‘jejunans macie perhorret,’ T.iuele, with difficulty; an early instance of the meaning. ‘Vix movens sese veniensque tandem,’ T.111.craft . . . kiðeð: comp. ‘Who so kouth wele his craft þare might it kith,’ Minot v. 69 note.112.ðat . . . on, in which: see1/3 note.113. Narrow the hole is, but he forces himself to go through it: comp. ‘Long silence ⁊ wel iwust nedeð þe þouhtes up touward þer heouene,’ AR 72/17.Nimeð: see213/539 note. ‘Querit angustum lapidis foramen | . . . | Inde pertransit spoliatque carnem | Pelle vetusta,’ T.: ‘cumeð to ane þurlede ston ⁊ criepeð nedlinge þureh nerewe hole ⁊ bileueð hire hude baften hire,’ OEH ii. 199/25. Transpose him nedeð.115.wardis merely expletive; see178/89 note.116.or, previously, before drinking; comp. ‘siðen,’ 118.speweð: the explanation is in 181/159, 160: comp. ‘heo schal speowen al ut þet wunder,’ AR 346/6; ‘þet is þet beste þeonne speowen hit ut anon mid schrifte to þe preoste,’ id. 240/6; 119/91, 92, mostly with ut. Read here, Oc he speweð ut or. al ðe uenim ðor; for or : ðor comp. GE 4033 with 3845.118. Transpose, inog siðen drinkeð, making a rhyming line.120.of . . . naked, stripped of, without:nacodtakes the genitive. Read, Ðanne ðe neddre is newe. ⁊ of his hid naked: comp. 181/162.121. An abridged line; read, ⁊ in bodi ⁊ in brest. bare of his atter. Comp. ‘helden ham cleane ai fra fleschliche fulðen ibodi ⁊ ibreoste,’ HM 23/1. Forofcomp. ‘bare of euch blisse,’ SK 845; Minot vi. 25 note.123. Transpose, him fro.sulde, would be bound to, obliged to.124. Read, . cof ⁊ kene: comp. ‘Biforenn kafe ⁊ kene,’ Orm 19962. In AR 66/13 ‘þe coue,’ wrongly translated ‘the chough’ means, the keen one; similarly, ‘þe luðere coue deouel,’ id. 66/14.125.rigteð him: ‘Surgit in ipsum,’ T.126.to ded makenmay be a construction by analogy of don, bringen &c., but it is more likely that to has been wrongly repeated and should be omitted.forðen, further, effect; comp. 184/280, 192/533, 193/554; ‘for to forðen is fendes wil,’ GE 341.127.wat if: elliptical for, what results if? as at 181/170, what matters it if? Transpose, wurðe war, be on his guard: comp. 9/122, 48/330, 203/204.128.figteð: read fliteð, contends, offers resistance; comp. ‘Ierusalem ⁊ babilonie . . . fliteð eure ⁊ winneð,’ OEH ii. 51/10.fareð&c., advances fighting against him; ‘sequiturque multum,’ T. Foron, comp. ‘hie alle on þone Cyning wærun feohtende,’ AS. Chron. ed. Plummer, 48/4; ‘for to finde me a freke to feȝte on my fille,’ Anturs of Arther, 15/27.129. Aftersiðeninsert he seð · ðat, after he sees that he must needs.130. ‘Negligit corpus, facit inde scutum; | Verticis vero tenet usque curam, | Ne moriatur,’ T. Comp. ‘Ðare næddre ȝeapnesse is ðat hie lið al abuten itrand, ⁊ hire heaued on midden, for to berȝen ðat heaued,’ VV 101/19.131.litel—of, little he cares about, he does not much mind what happens to: see8/84 note.bute, if only.133-142 are based on ‘Fonte qui sacro semel es novatus, | Denuo peccans, silicernus extas. | Ergo sis semper imitator anguis, | Cum veterascis,’ T.134.Atte kirke dure, at the font, placed symbolically at the entrance to the church: comp. ‘heore godfaderes ⁊ heore godmoderes scullen onswerie for hem et þe chirche dure ⁊ beo in borȝes et þe fonstan,’ OEH i. 73/29.135. Transpose, on him to leuen. Forleuen . . . luuiensee143/73 note.136. Forbodes, hestes should probably be read; comp. 130/78; ‘þe heste of hali chirche,’ OEH i. 85/18.137-140. Re-arrange, If ðu hauest is broken. al ðu forbredes. | forwurðes ⁊ forwelkes. eche lif to wolden. | Elded art fro blis. so ðis wirm o werld is.forgelues: only here; it may be connected with OE.geolwian, and so mean, to spoil by becoming yellow, to fade. But it is suspect; possibly the original word was forwelkes, dost wither. There is nothing in the original to correspond with l. 138; the adapter had perhaps in mind ‘decidat, induret et arescat,’ Ps. lxxxix. 6.Eche lif to wolden, so far as the attainment of eternal life is concerned.Elded, severed by age, is the writer’s interpretation of silicernus. Silicernium, a funeral feast, is used in Terence, Andria iv. 2. 48, as an abusive term for an old man, hence L.L. silicernus, senex; but the Catholicon, citing this place in T., says ‘Item silicernus ponitur quandoque pro firmo et duro ut silex.’
Manuscript:Arundel 292, British Museum: on vellum, 200 × 130 mm.: late thirteenth century. Its miscellaneous contents, English, Anglo-French, and Latin, are described in Altdeutsche Blätter, ii. 141-148. The Bestiary is written continuously, but the initials of the lines and, in the long metres, of the half lines are mostly rubricated. In most cases the long lines aredivided into half lines by a space and a stop, sometimes one or both are missing. At ll. 439, 493, two words are carried below the last full line of the folio. Final g of ll. 42, 43, 316, 317, 332, 333, 338, 339, 358, 359, 463, 464, 475, 476, 477, 478, 542, 543, 662 has a stroke or hook added, which appears to be merely ornamental: similarly the g of wrengðe 69, among 147, ðing 392, strong 509; h and b are much alike; ƿ is open at the top as in Genesis and Exodus. Latin headings are in red, some are on the margin, the others at the head of their sections. As will be seen from the footnotes, the manuscript was much corrected or altered over erasures, and that after it was finished, for the substituted words do not always fill the gaps left by the scraper. The first leaves of the exemplar were probably damaged at the lower margin, since defective or difficult passages occur at regular intervals, so l. 32, ll. 89-92, 120, 121, 143, 144, 173, 200, 201.Editions:Wright, T., Altdeutsche Blätter, Leipzig, 1836, 1840, ii. 99-120; Reliquiae Antiquae, London, 1841, i. 208-27. Mätzner, E., Altenglische Sprachproben, Berlin, 1867, i. 55-75. Morris, R., An Old English Miscellany, 1872, 1-25.Literature:(1)of the English Bestiary. Hallbeck, E., The Language of the M. E. Bestiary, Lund, 1905. Holthausen, F., Archiv, lxxxviii. 365-9 (emendations). (2)of the Bestiaries in general. A detailed bibliography will be found in Anglia, Beiblatt, x. 274-87, xii. 13-23, xiii. 18, 19, 236-9. The following will provide an introduction to the subject: Ahrens, K., Zur Geschichte des sogennanten Physiologus, Ploen, 1885; Carus, J. V., Geschichte der Zoologie, München, 1872; Land, J. N. P., Encyclopaedia Britannica,s.v.Physiologus; Lauchert, F., Geschichte des Physiologus, Strassburg, 1889; Mann, M. F., Französische Studien, vi. Heft 2, Heilbronn, 1888; Peters, E., Der Griechische Physiologus und seine orientalischen Uebersetzungen, Berlin, 1898.Source:With the exception of the last section, the English poem is generally an adaptation of the Latin Physiologus, written in a variety of verse forms as the concluding line informs us, by one Tebaldus or Thetbaldus, who is variously described in the headings as Italicus, Senensis, Placentinus episcopus, and is identified by some with the Abbot Theobald who presided over Monte Cassino from 1022 to 1035. The poem is extant in a large number of manuscripts and early printed editions, the first of which latter with place and date is that of Antwerp, 1487. It will be found printed in Hildeberti Turonensis Archiepiscopi Opera, ed. D. A. Beaugendre, Paris, 1708, p. 1174, from which it is repeated in Migne, P. L., tom. 171, p. 1218, and also as Appendix i,p. 201 in An Old English Miscellany, ed. Morris. The text is very unsettled, apparently scribes and editors felt themselves free to rewrite it on occasion. The passages where the English adapter notably departs from his original are pointed out in the notes. He was, no doubt, acquainted with one of the older Latin prose versions of Physiologus enumerated by M. F. Mann in Anglia vii. 443-6; there is no positive evidence that he knew the Bestiary of Philippe de Thaün.Phonology:Oralaisa, dareð 310, late 453;abefore nasals isa, bane 370, man 194, ðan 157, ðanne 13, wan 386, wanne 10, wankel 446;abefore lengthening groups iso, among 147, folde 33, fondeð 532, stonden 497, but gangen 110 (3 times), gangeð 153, 177, gangande 530, standen 531 with Anglian shortening; in gandre 532dis inorganic; funt 93 (OE.fant) descends from OE. *funt, its use here possibly influenced by Anglo-Fr. funt.æis mostlya(82 times), barlic 192, fast 161, fasteð 109, qual 598 r. w. al, togaddre 482, 525, ðat 3 &c., was 26 &c.; the exceptions mostly descend from OE. forms ine, or are due to analogy, defte 23 (gedeftan), dele 4 (comp.dell), festeð 438, festen 417, feste 143, 160 (comp.festeadv., Scandinavian influence is also possible), heruest 177 (herfest), meche 586 r. w. reche (gemečča, but make 574, 576, 578,gemaca), nese 3, 223 (næs-), resteð 178, 504 (restan), steppeð 6 (steppan), steppes 5 (stepe), weder 270, 521 (hweþer): togiddre 282 haseraised toibefore a dental, wos 628 is *hwāswith vowel fromhwā.eise, be 588, fel 109; before lengthening groups, felde 307, lengðe 437, trendled 606, but bi 4, 24 (bi); wilc 4, swilc 248, swilk 338, sille 449 (syllič) r. w. ille, represent forms withy; tetireð 318 (to-teran) hasifrom Fr. tirer, as in tireð 336, possibly helped by the contracted sing. 3,tyrþ; seie 613 (4) r. w. haliweie, seien 385 imitate other parts of the verb withoutc, similarly leigeð 272.iisi, biddan 101, is 384, 414 r. w. fis, 509 r. w. fuligewis, mirke 80 r. w. kirke, wile 71 r. w. bile, wille 607 r. w. stille; before lengthening groupsi, finden 7, singeð 448, but es 183 r. w. gres, nes 518, merk 341 r. w. werk (due to labial influence), wulle 634, wullen 314.oiso, bodes 136, nos 303 r. w. gōs; before lengthening groups, hornes 236, sorgeden 559 (withouti-umlaut), word 35, but forwurden 108, wulde 74 (4), wuldest 385 by consonant influence; ouese 362, eaves, is withouti-umlaut, comp.ofesc, owiscand modern Essex dialectal oavis, but in Layamon eouesen.uisu, cumeð 40 &c., dure 134, wude 181, wune 281; before lengthening groups, bunden 443, hunger 306, but towrong 42 r. w. strong, withobeforen, ðrist 231, 428 r. w. list (analogy ofþyrstan,þyrstig).yisi, dine 646 r. w. wiðerwine, fille 373 r. w. stille, mankin 168, 243 r. w. win, 569 r. w. dim, pit 624 r. w. offrigt,stireð 11 (4), unride 389, 507 r. w. wide, 522 r. w. side, wirm 106 (4); before lengthening groups, birdene 289, minde 263 (3); but dede 171, elp 522 (3) (comp. OE.elpend), stereð 309, furgdat.withufrom the nominative, hungren 428, hungreð 390 (analogy ofhungor), sundren 577 (analogy ofsundor), tunder 419 r. w. wunder (once ‘tunderi,’Oldest E.Texts 570; comp. also OWScand. tundr), vuemest 639 (ufemest), come 664 r. w. nome.āis regularlyo, cof 124, invariably non 494 r. w. bon, no 148, on 490 (7) r. w. gon, 635 r. w. bon, one (āna) 579 (3), ston 66 r. w. on; before two consonants, bitokneð 152, golsipe 245, gost 214; but a, an frequently, anoðer 262 (unstressed shortenedā), atter 121, 241 with shortenedāextending from the oblique cases (Bülbring § 344), gast 435 r. w. stedefast, 640 r. w. vuemest, which Morsbach, ME. Gr., § 135, anm. 8 deduces from shorteneda, nummore 208, 455, through loss of stress, comp. ‘wumme’ 235/21, 121/133.ǣ1ise, hete 56 r. w. wete, mene 248 r. w. ouerwene, rede 38 r. w. guðhede, stel 419 (stǣli), wete 190, 209; before two consonants, fles 114, 435, eure 402, neure 16, but haliweie 612, through association withhālig, most 501, moste 384 frommāst, goð 66 (5) withofrom the plural, oni 378 fromānig, ilk 82 (4), ilc 256, ilkines 180 fromylc.ǣ2is alsoe, dede 82 r. w. mede, forleteð 191, leteð 114, 658, let 156, sed 180 r. w. wed, 658 r. w. ned, slepen 452 r. w. waken, ðer 19 (17), ðere 207, 369, were 61 (8), weren 80 (4), wete 57 r. w. hete, 615 r. w. swete; before two consonants, neddre 107 (3), but lat 327, 328, lateð 271 r. w. wadeð, ðar 8 (7), ðore 81, 88 r. w. lore (þāra), wor 514 (5) fromhwāra, wore 578 r. w. more, broken 242 in both of whichorepresentsā.ēise, let 642, mede 84 r. w. dede, swetnesse 613; bokedat.665 has the vowel of the nominative, doð 141 (8) the vowel of the plural.īisiwithout exception.ōiso, but kam 29, 352, cam 564, te 107.ūisuwithout exception.ȳisi, briche 293, 592 r. w. heuenriche, fir 123, ðirl 112; before two consonants, filðe 156, wissing 246.eabeforer+ cons. isa, art 139, dar 647, narwe 113, sarpe 318; before lengthening groups, harde 499 (4), forðward 160, butein ern 73, ernes 37, flerd 351, middelerd 352 anduin wurð 566 (wearþ) by confusion with the present tense. Thei-umlaut isain chare 457, char 519 (see 359/4), warmen 421, but derne 21, 75, dernelike 326.eabeforel+ cons. isa, al 116 &c., fallen 56, galle 654, half 460, salt 155; before lengthening groupso, biholdeð 365, kold 495, holdeð 573, olde 581, told 459, twifold 322, wolden 139, wolde 482, but the contracted? bihalt 520, biwalt 521 have shorteneda; in helden 136eis probably miswritten foro: thei-umlaut isain falleð 58 (5), 526 r. w. calleð,ein elde 40, 108, elded 139, eldere 171, 241, unwelde 41, all before lengthening groups, welle 46, 253.eobeforer+ cons. is regularlye, berges 481, bergen 8, fer 265, herte 136 (3), stert 6, werc 340; before lengthening groups, erðe 20 (3) and its compounds. To thewurgroup belong forwurðes 138, forwurðe 196, wurðeð 59 and other forms ofweorþan, wurði 346, wurðlic 173, but not forwerpen 257, werpeð 236. Thei-umlaut is seen in hirde 33, 34 (hirde), tirgen 275 (not original); hertien 277 is very doubtful: awyrword is wurdi 145, without umlaut. Theu- andå-umlauts ofaare wanting, bale 172, 379, care 563, but heuekes 664:oin noule 444 (*nafola, contrast ‘neauele’ 120/98) is ascribed by Morsbach, ME. Gr. § 87, anm. 4, to the influence ofv, but a diphthong appears to have developed, the modern East Anglian dialectic word is nowle. Theu- andå-umlauts ofeare also wanting, forgelues 138, hert 218 (3), heuene 49 &c., werlde 106, fele 297, 463.eo,u- andå-umlaut ofiise, here 280 (5), senden 63, 441, seuene 50, 652, clepeð 221, leneð 510, 523, but limes 41 (3), niðer 4, 500, niðerward 444, siðen 227 r. w. swīðe, liuen 412: widue 578 is Anglianwidwe, but wude 181 (*wiudu) has normalu(Bülbring § 264).eaafter palatals isa, chaueles 397, sal 16 &c., sakeð 193, sadue 524 r. w. togaddre, but seftes 356; before nasal, same 193, 339, 346 r. w. name, and before lengthening group,oin sonde 431.ieafterġise, geld 338, gelt 316, bigeten 490, 494, forgeten 451, but giueð 291; aftersc, alsoe, seld 130 (butscildangives silden 34, sildeð 130), sending 339, seppande 356 (i-umlaut ofeaaftersc). EWS.giefis gef 274 (5), if 35 (9): if is used from l. 35 to l. 265 and once again at l. 578, gef, which is probably the author’s form, begins at l. 274.eoafterġisuin gungling 543, guðhede 39,iin ging 162, gingen 259, gingid 238, aftersc,u, sulde 123, suneð 193, sunen 210, 285 r. w. munen, sulen 203 (4).heomis hem 281 &c.ēais regularlye, ches 586, ded 26 (9), slep 635, lefful 585, queðsipe 298; thei-umlaut ise(Anglian), gemen 260, here 2 &c., leueð 85, nede 100 (9), nedeð 113, 164, remeð 527; before two consonants, bekneð 213.ēois alsoe, be 21 &c., bet 213, bitwen 281, crepeð 111 (3), deuel 164 (5), der 322 r. w. her (4), undergede 568 r. w. manhede, wel 600 (Ang.hwēl, Bülb. § 217) r. w. wel; before two consonants, brest 117 (4), helde 173, but diuel 21, an early instance of this shortening, cripelande 111 fromcrypel; thei-umlaut ise, strenen 485, ten 109.gesīeneis sene 356,gīet, get 62, 385 r. w. flet.ēaafter palatals ise, ger 492 r. w. her, sep 34, 483.a+gisag, dages 607, drageð 6, sage 475, but daies 109, 635; mugen 323 has the form of the subjunctivemugon; sei 159 descends fromsege, seieþ 347 fromsegeþ, seit 577 fromsegð.æ+gis divided betweenaiandei, dai 29 (7), 582 r. w. ai, daies 109, 635, faier 629, lai 28, 633, mai 110 (9), maig 64 (3), mainles 110; breid 548, breides 344 (bregd), dei216, 576, deies 309, meiden 23, 442, seide 191, 353, seid 549: fagen 394, 415 r. w. dragen is Anglianfagen; muge 126, 187 descends from LWS.muge.e+gisei, weie 4; forbredes 138 comes fromforbrēdan, agen 185, 457 fromagēn:e+his seen in hightes 135, 161, hightest 133.i+g: the spirant has been absorbed in lieð 15; finaligisi, mani 429, manie 441, wurði 346.i+hisig, idigt 364, sigte 92, wigt 235.o+hisog, ðogt 501, 559, but forbroiden 108, not from-brogden, but-brōden, with a variation which perhaps mimics the alternation of the ME. infinitives breden (brēdan) and breiden (bregdan), see NED.s.v.broiden.u+gisug, fugeles 308, mugen 503, 643, but the spirant has disappeared in fules 305, 312.y+hisig, drigten 26 (3), fligt 43, 54, offrigt 625 (late North.fryhta).ā+g,hisog, og 263 (3), ogen 210 (4), ogt 623 (āht), but ovt 560 r. w. ðogt 577, out 521, forms due to the scribe: steg 639 (stāh) has borrowede, as often elsewhere, from the third class of strong verbs.ǣ1+g,hisag, agte 477, er, meaning or, 99 (9) is descended fromǣgþer, while er, before, 191 (4) isǣr: neggen 122, negge 3 representgenēgan.ǣ2+gis seen in haliweie 612 (wǣg).ī+g: in sti 152 r. w. bi,ghas disappeared.ō+g,hisog, inog 118, ðogte 354, nogt 122 (9), but nout 11, 593, 622 r. w. ogt, nowt 192, 214, forms due to the scribe.ȳ+g, drie 615.ea+h,htis seen in magt (mæht) 426, magti 175, waxe 196, waxeð 124, waxen 445 (wæxan); thei-umlaut in migt 234, 532 r. w. wiht, migte 21 (3), nigt 47, but sloð 329 (WS.sliehþ) r. w. loð, corresponds to North.slāþ, influenced by OScand. slá.eo+htisigt, brigt 55 r. w. fligt, figtande 128, rigt 52, rigten 102, rigteð 125, but sexe 50 (Angliansex), bitwixen 293 (betweohs); without umlaut is seð 49 r. w. teð (WS.siehþ) as if fromsēoþ.ēa+g,hiseg(Anglian), egen 16 (5), heg 18, hege 562; eilond 387, 414 (īegland) is from Anglianēgland.ēo+gis alsoeg, fleges 366, flegeð 48 (3), legeð 350, 577;ēo+h, ligtlike 315; withouti-umlaut are fleð 123, 165 (comp.flēð, Durh. Rit.), teð 48 r. w. seð, 274, but ligten 20, 289.ā+wisow,ou,ov, knoweð 106, sowles 103, soule 158 (4), knov 133, but soge 386 as if from *sāhe, sawen 599, possibly miswritten for sowen.ī+w, appears in newe 60 (5), neweð 39 (5), newe 141, all from Anglian forms withēo.ō+w: nowor 35 represents *nōwar, nōwerfromnāhwǣr, nāhwār.ēa+wis seen in ðewes 143 and finally in deu 7:ēo+win rewen 437, rewe 206, reufulike 528, speweð 116, finally in gu 549 (4): tre 508, 516, 524, 551 r. w. we, is Angliantre(o): thei-umlaut is wanting in trewe 163, 589, untrewe 61, 96.In syllables without stressois levelled toe, wankel 446, hunger 203, siker 207, wunder 194, sumer 176, te 107.aappears forein mereman 442, influenced by man. Ane, generally unmetrical, has been inserted indeuẹles 436 (but deules 665), folegen 269, folẹgeð 431, 620 (but folgen 439, 643), fugeles 308, lagelike 573, steuẹne 561, husebondes 299, sineginge 149, wisedom 324, andisimilarly in hardilike 177, fulịgewis 508 (comp. fuliwis 445), haliweie 612 (‘haleweie,’ L 23072), sinịging 256:eis omitted in biforn 62, 68, 268, but metre requires everywhere biforen. The prefixbe-isbi-, bisetten 167:ge-isiin imong 476, it appears also in uniemete 459 (ungemǣte) with ie for i as in attrie 228, perhaps an Anglo-Norman interchange of these symbols. Butge-is generally lost, as in bodes 136, minde 263, vnride 389, unwelde 41.on-isain among 147,to-,tein tetireð 318. redi 125 (3) is a ME. formation fromgerǣde+ig, the termination in sille is-lic;-ungising, drowing 567, groning, woning 662, lesing 478.Geminated final consonants are invariably simplified as web 363, coc 300, stoc 224, fel 109, hil 18, spel 335, den 8, fen 630, mankin 168, sin(ful) 82, win 244, char 519, dar 647, fer 265, pit 624; often too medially asrr, chare 457, dure 145;nn, wiðerwine 645, cune 148, cunen 457;þþ, siðen 41 (5);cc, fecheð 179, reche 585, meche 586. Forw,uis written in sadue 524.ris doubled in warre 456; metathesis occurs in ðrist 231, 428.nis added in hauen 183, boðen 181, boden 525, doubled in drigtinnes 242, vnneðes 113, omitted in euelike 213, and frequent o foron.pis doubled in steppes 5, inserted in sampnen 484.fbetween vowels and vowellikes isu, rauen 311, geuelic 173, ouese 362, culuer 650, derue 205, oncevin weveð 360 (but weueð 363), otherwise it isf.fis doubled in offprep.104, 241, 264, 616, while the adverb appears as of 657.tis doubled in little 200, 432, beside litel 131, lost in beste 514, for itthis written in cethegrande 383:tsisscin giscing 245,cin milce 151.dis doubled in togaddre 482, gaddreð 180, omitted in selcuðes 441, as already in OE.selcūþand in sille 449, but alreadysyllicin OE. Ford,ðis written in ðon 328, faðer 13, queðsipe 298, seð 191, forþ,din boden 525, broder 287, dede 31, 625, filde 160, lodlike 357, swide 360, swideð 54, dat 634, de 165, dridde 29, drowing 567, wurden 250, mostly due to the scribe’s failure to complete ð:þistin forsaket 81, wit 136: after voicelesst,spronominal words begin withtinstead ofþ, tanne 216, tat 18, te 209, (at) te 134, 361, 586, ter 329, tin 161, tine 159, tis 73, 154, tu 133 (7), tus 77 &c., but de 192, once afterd, tu 150. In forðward 160,ðhas been wrongly inserted.sćiss, initially, sadue 524, sakeð 193, sal 16 &c., same 193 (3), sarpe 318, seftes 356, seld 130, sending 339, sep 34, seppande 356, silden 34, sinen 12, sipes 411, sonde 431, sop 356, sulde 123, suneð 193, sures 203, oncesc, scrifte 159, oncesk, skinbon 272, NED compares NFris. skenbiin, WFris. skynbonke; medially, golsipe 245, queðsipe 298, butssin wissing 246(*gewȳscung); finally, fis 383, fles 114, 435. The stopciskbeforeeandiand in combination with other consonants, forsaket 81, kinde 10, bitokneð 152, drink 158, but craft 111, in other positions mostlyc, cam 564, uncuð 396, blac 598, swic 149, but kam 29, 352, unkuð 97, swik 344, suk 454, smake 3 (ME. formation fromsmæcc):ccisck, necke 303.čisch, chaueles 397, ches 586, erðchine 308, chare 457, char 519, briche 293, 592, eche 139, quenchet 256, riche 480, but ic 38 &c., sekeð 46, kirke 78, Scand. in form, kolde 486, kold 495, mirke 80, merk 341 (see Björkman 146), micle 536, mikle 542 (comp. OWScand. mikil), wilc 4, swilc 248, swilk 338, ilik 343, lic 662.ččiscch, dreccheð 88, feccheð 301, but fecheð 179, reche 585, meche 586 and fetchen 265, witches 427, early instances of tch, but ?wikke 468.cwisqu,qw, quenchet 256, qwemeð 190, queðsipe 298, quike 253. Palatalgis writteng, bigeten 490, forgeten 451, gemen 260, geld 338, forgelues 138, ger 491, get 62, ging 162, gingen 259, gingid 238, giueð 291, gu 549, gungling 543, guðhede 39, undergede 568 (undereode); it is doubled in negge 3, neggen 122, lost in if 35 &c. The voiceless spirant is also represented byg, as in egen 16, ðogte 354, soge 386, furg 307, inog 118, ðurg 3: doubled in suggeden 559 (in Orm suhhghen), now dialectal, mostly Northern, sough, soo.his lost in ire 183, added in heten 421:hlisl, lene 110, lepeð 230, lides 16, list 585, listen 74, louerd 19, lude 377;hnisn, necke 303;hr,r, raðe 317, rem 13, remeð 527, rewen 437;hw,w, wan 386, wat 95, weder 270, wel 600, wete 190, wilc 4, wile 648, wite 599, wos 628, wu 20 &c., andquin qual (Northern).Accidence:Strong declension ofmasc.andneut.nouns. In thes. n. a.dine 646, heuenriche 18, 292, hirde 33, bale 379, golsipe 245, se 404, tre 508, 516, wete 190, 209 have e corresponding to their OE. vocalic ending, bodi 172, sti 152 have lost finalg; seppandẹ 356 and haliweie 612 r. w. seie have added e; mere 448 is shortened from meremenn.Gen.-es, bukes 330, foxes 314, sees 407, but heuenriche 558; brest 121, 160 is a composition form:dat.-e, bale 172, bile 70 and 15 others with vowel termination in thenom., hauen 183 has added n (nunnation, 457/11), dede 31, dele 4 and 31 others with inflection, of which ouese 362 is the only word of more than one syllable: without inflection are bodi 130 (3), drigtin 104, meiden 23, stel 419, der 322, 627, rem 13, 611 and 90 others mostly with long stem vowel or of more than one syllable; always o dei 576, bi dai 47 &c.; many examples are in rhyme as mod 249, 348, muð 395, ðogt 501, 559, wold 620. Thepl. n. a.of masculines ends in-es, chaueles 397, witches 427, daies 109, fodredes 361; there are no weak forms: neuters are limes 41, 63, sipes 411, 417, 454, bodes 136, 213, lides 16, sep 34, 483, ger 491, 492, ðing 358: datives have-es, berges 481,breides 344, briddes 660, finnes 445, ðewes 143, ðornes 237, limes 131, wiles 297, but der 603. Of thefem.nouns of the strong declension mire 175, neddre 107, 129, same 193, widue 578 have e corresponding to their OE. vocalic ending in thenom., dede 468, 469, sowle 586 have added e, all others are without e, culuer 650, ned 142, woning 662 (the verbal substantives are rarely inflected in any case). Genitives are sinnes 158, sowles 103: birde 117 (comp.byrdtīd), erðe 630, helle 638 (comp.hellewīte), heuene 638 (comp. heuen 170), kirke 134, 586, soule 158 may be genitives, but are more probably composition forms.Dat.-e, birdene 289, filde 160, godcundnesse 644, manhede 567, migte 587, werlde 106, sineginge 149, stefninge 451, but blis 140, 638, hid 120, magt 426, migt 416, tunder 419, werld 201, and the verbal nouns lesing 478, reming 542, sending 339, swiking 477, wissing 359 are without inflection. In theacc.forðward 160, migt 234, 532, ned 659, stund 309, 408 and the verbal nouns billing 316, 338, foxing 333, giscing 245, drowing 567, siniging 256, tokning 463, wissing 246, 255 are without inflection, bote 150, guðhede 39, nede 100, 216, 280, soule 172, 478, steringe 451 with 27 others have e, besides fille 319, 373, forbisne 322.Pl. n.are fedres 56;dat.harmdedes 299, misdedes 151, sinnes 75;a.forbisnes 219, kindes 218, seftes 356 (sometimesmasc.), sinnes 159, stefnes 448, agte 477. Nouns of the weak declension have-ein thenom., bane 370, sunne 12;d.make 576, erðchine 308;a.fode 64 (5), wille 330, but fod 207, licham 214 before a vowel: genitives are belles 541, huntes 548:pl. n.egen 44, 80, fleges 366, husebondes 299;dat.egen 16, 87;a.egen 55, willen 515. The minor declensions are represented by fet (steppes)pl. a.5; teðpl. a.318; mans. n.73, manness. g.148, mans. d.444,a.124, menpl. n.305, sipmen 451, mannepl. g.24, men ?pl. d.144, manne 359, menpl. a.428; bocs. n.350, bokes. d.38 (4); furgs. d.307; goss. a.302; nigtes. d.588, bi nigt 47, 150, o nigt 576, nigts. a.582;faðers. n.13, fader 30,s. d.640; broders. n.287,s. a.535; fends. n.349.Adjectives which in OE. end in a vowel have-ethroughout, briche 592, eche 139, minde 263, newe 210, softe 176, but swets. d. neut.231 (comp.swētnes,swōt) and merks. d. f.341 have lost e; those in-iglose g, attrie 228 (with ie for i), droui 407, holi 642, redi 311, weri 511. Weak inflections ares. voc.cristene 133,d.rigte 70, sinfule 340,a.olde 210, 581: strong ares. n. f.bare 121, ilike 442, like 444,s. d. m.rigte 435,s. d. f.quike 253; others are uninflected in the singular: mikels. n. m.565 hasd.mikle 542, but mikel 230,pl. n.mikle 433, 536: litels. n. neut.131 hass. a. f.little 200,pl. n.432. Thepl. n.has-e, kolde 486, leue, loðe 594, warre, wise 456; the exceptions are all predicative, fagen 394, 415, kold 495,siker 207, strong 63, twifold 471, uncuð 396, war 204, wod 250;dat.-e, iuele 343, wite 599, but dern 75 r. w. ern;acc.-e, erðliche 213, but brigt 55 r. w. fligt.ānas article unstressed is a 28, 46 &c., before consonants, an 391, 282 before vowels and h, twice 106, 596 before w, divided in a neilond 387, 414, while the numeral and indefinite pronoun is on 268, 530, (on) on 223, 635, ones. d. neut.264;āna, alone, is one 579, 580, 622:nānas adj. is no 148, 444 &c., non 64 &c., nones. d. neut.65, as pronoun, non 267, 271, 285, 494, 556, 597. Adjectives used as nouns with inflection ares. d.geuelike 214, 593, gode 65, nakede 165,pl.grete 400, sinfule 167, selcuðes 441, smale 399: nouns used as adjectives are flerd, fox 351. Comparatives and superlatives have-e,s.fairere 597, more 194, beste 514, firste 552, moste 384, swetteste 392,pl.eldere 171, 241, but best 667 r. w. nest, vuemest 639 r. w. gast, most 501 before vowel.The personal pronouns are ic 38 (6), before vowel, h or palatal g, i 37 (5) before consonants, we, wes (= we es) 651, urpl. g.285, 661, vs, ðu, tu 133 &c., ðe, te 142, gupl. d.549, 575. The pronoun of the third person iss. n.hem.2, 330, gef.175, 179, get (= ge it) 195, itneut.29, 450, itt 601,d.himm.5, 521, hiref.184, 499, ire 183,a.himm.13, 128, hiref.299;pl. n.he 264, 625,g.her 556,d.hem 281, 546,a.369, is 7, 137, 304. Reflexives are us 663, ðe 160, hims. d.64, 103, 109, himself 65, hire 372, hims. a.8 (13), hire 178, 365, hempl. a.413, 421, 484: definitive is himseluen 520: possessives ares.ðin 156, tin 161, ði, before consonant, 160, 478,pl.ðine 151, tine 159, ðin 477 before vowel;s.his 3 &c.,pl.hise 16 &c., his, before vowel, 44, 55; hire 179, 496; vre 19 &c., here 280, 427. The definite article is ðe without inflection, te 13, 623, de 165, 192, atte 134, 361, 586:s.ðat 18 &c., tat 18,pl.ðo 432, 604 are demonstratives. The compound demonstrative iss.ðis 77, tis 73,pl.ðise 398. The relatives are ðe 19; it means, of which 621, during which 201, and ðat 13, it means, in which 517, on which 206, about which 191, that which 184, 470, dat, for whom, 634. Interrogatives are wat 127, 133, 170, wos 628, wilc 4; the correlative is swilc 248, swilk 338. Indefinites are wo so 335, 577; wat 95; man 2, 194, 221, 304; sum 461; oni 378; oðress. g.273, oðers. d.378,a.267,pl.oðre 276 (6),oðer603; an oðer 10, 262; ilk 82, ilc 256, ilkines 180;eurilc257, eurilc 286; mani 429,pl.manie 441 (4), manikines 358; fele 297, 463; al 54 &c., all 211,pl.alle 5, 241.Only three verbs have the infinitive in-e, biswike 327 r. w. dernelike, chare 457 r. w. ware, rede 38 r. w. guðhede, one or two in-ien, luuien 135, ?hertien 276, the rest, in number 111, of which 18 are of the second weak conjugation, end in-en. Thedat. inf.is not inflected, its sign is to (31) or for to (6). Presents ares.1. haue 549, mene 248, seie 557 (4); 2. hauest137, forbredes, forgelues, forwurðes 138; 3. falleð 58 (4), wakeð 33, wuneð 401 (5) and over 200 others in-eð; hatieð 304, rotieð 311; forsaket 81, quenchet 256; atbrested 548, bekned 213, gingid 238, bilimpes 275; contract verbs, fleð 123, 165, teð 48 r. w. seð, 274, seð 49, sloð 329 r. w. loþ, contracted forms are abit 581 r. w. sit, bet 213, bit 195, 211, 370, 379 (read biteð in all these places), bit 330, bit 192 (read bideð), biwalt 521 r. w. bihalt, fet 214, 337 r. w. ket, 605, fint 209 (read findeð), flet 386 r. w. get, fret 319, 373 (read freteð in both places), gelt 316, geld 338, hitt 365, lat 327, 328, lið 11 (read lieð as in l. 15), seit 577, sit 520, 576, 580 r. w. abit, smit 391, underset 516 r. w. bet, stant 2;pl.1. hauen 176 (3), wunen 201, haue we 295, fele we 552, haue 659; 3. beren 278, cumen 276 (4), haten 299, noten 488, sundren 577, waken 453; sen 413, ten 266, hatien 305, cume 536:subjunctive s.3. fare 99, se 122, tide 499, but derie 186;pl.1. bimene we 663, leue we 590, luue we 587, 590, seke we 207, wende we 588:imperative s.2. bid 150, help 144, swic 149, herkne 506, newe 141, reche 585, sei 159, deme 145;pl.2. hereð 45, muneð 575. Past of Strong Verbs: I a.s.3. lai 28, 633;subj. s.2. soge 386; 3. sete 388: I b.s.3. bar 24, kam 28, 352, cam 564;pl.3. broken 242;subj. s.3. come 22: I c.s.3.wan 632, wurð 566: II.s.3. ros 31, 637, steg 639: III.s.3. ches 586: IV.s.3. sop 356, stod 557: V.s.2. hightest 133, hightes 135, 161; 3. fel 551, let 642, slep 635; ?subj. pl.1. helde we 173. Participle present: V. gangande 530; past: I b. broken 137, forbroken 108: I c. bred 117, bunden 443, doluen 27, forbroiden, forwurden 108, towrong 42 r. w. unstrong: II. fordriuen 411, sinen 12, writen 572: III. forloren 69: IV. faren 589: V. IV. waxen 445: V. biholden 512, fallen 570, sawen 599. Past of Weak Verbs:s.3. dennede 23, filstnede 30, seide 191, ðogte 354;pl.3. remeden 561, suggeden 559, wuneden 493. Participles present: cripelande 111, figtande 128, secande 536; past: cloðed 124, cristned 134, elded 139, eried 308, herd 459, idigt 364, ikindled 10, lered 239, offrigt 625, seid 549, set 220, tokned 627, told 621, 628, trendled 600; inflected are cloðedẹs. d.166, forbisnedes. d.464. Minor Groups: ogpr. s.263 (3), ogen 1pr. pl.210 (3),pr. pl.653; canpr. s.79, canne (= can he) 534, cunenpr. pl.457, cune 2pr. s. subj.148, cunnepr. s. subj.7 (3); darpr. s.647, dure 2pr. s. subj.145; salt 2pr. s.155, salpr. s.16 &c., sulen 1pr. pl.203, 292,pr. pl.485, 594, suldept. s.123; maipr. s.110 (9), maig 64, 400, 433, mugen 1pr. pl.323, 643,pr. pl.503, mugepr. s. subj.126, 187, migtept. s.21, 554, 556, migtenpt. pl.560; moten 1pr. pl.210, mote 2pr. s. subj.151; beninf.84 (4), to bendat. inf.263, 653, art 2pr. s.140, 162, ispr. s.10, 662, es 183, nes 518, beð 313, ben 1pr. pl.34, 204, be we 205, arnpr. pl.41 (11), aren 394, 415, ben 450, senden 63, 441, bepr. s. subj.21, 615, ben 1pr. pl. subj.207, 293, be we 589, 655, benpr. pl. subj.282, be 2pr. s. imp.163, waspt. s.26 &c., weren 1pt. pl.250,pt. pl.80, 559, 625, were 2pt. s. subj.134,pt. s. subj.61 (7), wore 578; wile 1pr. s.575, wille 37, wilepr. s.71 (12), wille 34 (5), wulle 634, wilenpr. pl.367, wullen 314, wilepr. s. subj.4, 327, 328, wuldest 2pt. s.385, wuldept. s.553, 2pt. s. subj.74,pt. s. subj.353, 354; doninf.330, 531, ðon 328, fordon 354, to dondat. inf.212, 515, 661, doðpr. s.141 (10), do we 1pr. pl. subj.172, 205, 657, dedept. s.171, donpp.663; goninf.155, 225, goðpr. s.66 (5), gonpr. pl.482, 491, 1pr. pl. subj.35, 254, go 2pr. s. imp.157, undergedept. s.568.Noteworthy among adverbs are lic, equally, 662, nede, of necessity, 129 (nīede), ðer wile, whilst, 648, welle, very, 18 (also in Layamon, 29622), which seems to have added a superfluous adverbial e; among prepositions, mitte 454, 546, one 334, 388, onẹ 420; conjunctions, ⁊ (ant), meaning if, 2, er, or, 99 &c., wiles, whilst, 88 (4), wor so, wheresoever, 602 (4).Vocabulary:The Scandinavian element is large: ai 46 (7), arn 41 &c., aren 394, 415, blast 541, bone 101, boðe 47, boðen 181, boden 525, brest 458 (OE.byrstwould in this text be birst), brennen 249, brenning 229, brinneð 227, bro 598 (OWScand. brá), calleð 527, call(ing) 563, costes 284, derflike 313, feg 160, fro 31 &c., gapeð 390, gres 182, heil 59, ille 410, ill(ing) 317, ket 336, lage 15 &c., leiðe 357, oc 55, 159, or 76, 116, 119, rapelike 178, reiseð 13, reisen 553, renneð 178, scaðe 447, skemt(ing) 332, skies 50, swideð 54, takeð 71, til 12, ðeðen 364, ðog 21 &c., (un)skil 331, wille 35, wrengðe 69, wrong 62, probably hileð 318, vncost 148, wore 578, possibly fikeð 532, listneð 306 (comp.hlystan), liuenoðe 200, (o) twinne 195; influenced in form are atbrested 548, atbrosten 458, come 664, frame 323 (fremu), in meaning, onde 310. French are bec 42, capun 300, caue 186, cete 397, cul 604, dragunes 622 (‘draguns,’ P. de Thaün), gin 521, grace 104, haleð 184, leun 2, market 378, panter 596, poure 144, pride 247, prophetes 555, rime 572, robb(inge) 657, simple 655, spuse 587, tireð 336, turtres 572, uenim 116 (venin); pre-Conquest Latin is crede 98. The proper name Moyses 553 is the Vulgate form.Dialect:The author of the Bestiary lived in East Anglia, sufficiently near its northern border to account for such rhymes as loð : sloð 328, 329, stedefast : gast 434, 435, vuemest (read-mast) : gast 639, 640. The large Scandinavian element also points to the northern part of East Anglia. How far he was responsible for the Northern or North Midland broken 242, offrigt 625, qual 598, sawen 599, senden 63, 441, soge 386, s as the regular and frequent representative ofsć, as in sadue, sal, sarpe &c., the 2, 3 pr. s. in-es, bilimpes 275, forbredes, forgelues, forwurðes 138, higtes135, 161, and the participles in-andeit is impossible to determine. But he certainly did not write gangande 530, secande 536, and transmission through a Northern or North Midland copy may accordingly be assumed. Our manuscript was written by a scribe of the Southern border of East Anglia. He has left his mark in a number of syncopated presents which spoil the metre and probably in the case of others where the full form is metrically admissible, in luuien 135, hatieð 304, rotieð 311, wulle 634, wullen 314, and probably in were 134 &c., since wore 578 r. w. more is the only form controlled by rhyme. He is also responsible for dede 171, stereð 309,æ+gasei, dei 576, meiden 23 &c., for vuemest 639, daies 109, 635, out 521, ovt 560, nout 11, 593, 622, nowt 192, 214, occasional alterations without any systematic attempt at revision. We may perhaps venture the guess that the poem was written in Lincolnshire and copied in Essex.Metre:Thetbaldus attempts a variety of metres, ‘temptans diversis si possem scribere metris;’ leonine hexameters for his Lion, Eagle, Siren, Onocentaur and Panther, leonine elegiacs for the Ant, Fox, Stag, Whale and Elephant, sapphics for the Serpent, catalectic dactylic tetrameter for the Spider, adonics for the Turtle. The English adapter emulates his versatility and moreover mixes different kinds of verse in the same article. In alliterative long line are ll. 1-24, 32-35, 106-151, 156-161, 164-166, 170-173, 175-179, 184-197, 199-204, 297-299, 304-315, 318, 356, 357, 360-370, 376-381, 441-448, 451, 458, 459. Of these the great majority are of the first kind described onp. 463, lines with alliteration only, as 2-8, 10, 11, 15, 18-21, 23, 106-111 &c. Of the second are 13, 16, 114, 134-136, 141, 150, 171, 173, 176, 185, 195, 312-315, 364, 370, 376, 379, 380, 459, of the third, 24, 112, of the fourth 12, 116, 118, 144, ?298, 305, 306, 362, 381, but groups of lines in this class, such as 26-31, 152-155 have attained to their full development as syllabic verse and are printed like the octosyllables and similar metres from which they are indistinguishable. Lines of the fifth class are discussed in the notes. They are numerous, indeed the parts written in alliterative verse are in much worse state than the rest of the text, probably because the scribe’s ignorance of the technique of the native metre gave him greater scope for alteration. The changes he has made are of the kind described onpp. 464, 465, prominent among them is the rearrangement of words, mostly in a prose order, which often results in the elimination of rhymes. These rhymes are mostly imperfect; inflectional as reiseð : makeð 13, drinkeð : neweð 118 &c., luken : egen 16, leuen : luuien 135, name : queðsipe 298, ouese : felde 362, or partial in correspondence of sound, as sinen : abuten 12, dure : were 134, herte : kirke 136, men : abuten 144,hulen : fules 305, wunder : hunger 306, mere :-mete459. The most frequent alliterative combination is 2 + 1, as at 4, 15, 18, 19, 106-109, 113, 115, 117, 365 (hitt,hole, biholdeð) &c., it occurs in at least one third of the lines; next in number is 1 + 1, as in 5, 10, 16, 20, 21, 23, 34, 35, 110, 196 (forwurðe,waxe), 458 (atbrosten,brest) &c., 2 + 2 is seen in 111, 123, 160, 363, 367, 1 + 2 in 2, 11, 114, 128, 135, crossed alliteration in 3, 6, 148, 157, 161, 170, 203, 360, 445 (fis,fuliwis,finnes,waxen), 448, distinct alliteration in 147, 165.The septenarius is the metre of ll. 205-216, 294, 295, 572-579, 585-594. For the structure of this verse, seep. 327; the following is a restoration and scansion of the passages in the Bestiary.205do wé | forðí | so dóð | ðis dér || ðánne | bé we | gléwe,Ón ðat | daí ðat | dóm sal | bén || ðát it | ús ne | réwe.Séke we | hére | sóules | fód || ðat wé | ben sík|er ðóre,Só ðis | wírm in | wínter | ís || ðan gé | ne tíl|eð móre.ðe mír|e sún|eð ðe bár|lic séd || ðanne gé | fíndeð | ðe wéte;210ðe óld|e lág|e we óg|en súnen || ðe né|we we mót|en séken.ðe córn | ðat gé | to cáu|e béreð || ál get | bíteð o|twínne;ðe lág|e us lér|eð gód | to dón || ant ús | forbéd|eð sínne:It bét|eð ús | érðlich|e bódes || ant bék|neð héu|enlíke;It féd|eð ðe líc|ham ánt | te góst || oc nógt | o géu|enlíke.215vre lóu|erd críst | it lén|e ús || ðát his | láge us | fédenú in | érd ant o | dómes | deí || ant tán|ne we háu|en néde.294ðús is | úre | lóuerdes | láge || lúue|líke to | fíllen;hérof | háue we | míkel | néd || ðat wé | ðar wíð | ne díllen.572In bók|e ís | ðe túr|tres líf || wríten | ál o | ríme;wu lá|gelík|e ge hóld|eð lúue || ál hir|e líf|tíme.géf ge | ónes | máke | háueð || fro hím | ne wíl|e séden:575múneð|, wímmen|, híre | líf || íc it | wíle gu | réden.bi hí|re mák|e ge sít | onígt, || o deí | ge góð | ant flégeð:wó so | séit he | súndren | ógt || i seí|e ðát | he légeð.Oc if hér|e mák|e wér|e déd || ant gé | wídu|e wóre,ðánne | flégeð ge | óne ant | fáreð || non óð|er wíl|e móre.585Líst ilk | léfful | mán her|tó || ant hér|of óft|e réche;vre sówl|e át|te kírk|e dúre || chés hire | críst to | méche.hé is | úre | sóule | spúse || lúue we | hím wið | mígte,ant wénd|e wé | néure | fro hím || be daí|e né | be nígte.ðog he bé | fro úr|e sígt|e fáren || bé we him | álle | tréwe:590non óð|er lóu|erd ne léu|e wé || ne lúu|e nón|e néwe.léue we | ðát he | líueð | aí || úp on | héuen|ríche,ant ðéð|en hé | sal cúm|en éft || ant bén | us ál|le bríche,fór to | démen | álle | mén || oc nógt | on géu|elíke;hise lóð|e súl|en to héll|e fáren || hise léu|e tó | his ríche.The writer handles this metre skilfully; the stresses coincide generally with the natural accent and the rhymes are good. The variations from the norm of the verse are those described onp. 328, but in proportion fewer.For the octosyllable seep. 564. In this metre are ll. 26, 27, 37-46, 48, 49, 54-59, 62-64, 68-71, 230-236, 238, 239, 250, 257-260, 262-271, 276, 278, 279, 281, 282, 284, 285, 288, 289, 292, 293, 322, 323, 325-331, 334-337, 341, 343-354, 359, 371, 372, 383-388, 390-402, 405-416, 419-424, 426-439, 454, 455, 463, 465, 466, 475, 476, 480-491, 494-496, 499-501, 508-511, 516-526, 528-533, 536-541, 546-549, 551-570, 580-583, 596-625, 627-648, 650-667. Of these some are to be emended, others are peculiar in scansion, as, ðo úr|e drígt|en déd | wás 26, ánt | his ég|en ár|en dím 44, His béc | is gét | bifór|en wróng 62, Bíll|eð tíl | his béc | bifóren 68, háueð | ðe wréng | ðe ál | forlóren 69, Ne háu|eð ðát | uením | non mígt 234, so hért | doð hís|e hórn|es ál 258, óc | on swímm|eð bí|forén || ant áll|e ðe ód|re fól|egén 268, 269, álle | ðe óð|re míd|e cúmen 276, bér|en him óf | ðat wát|er grúnd 278, ant bríng|ẹð us in sínn|ẹ ant tér | us slóð 329, ét|en ant drínk|en wíð | unskílle 331, máni | alsó | ðe fóx|es náme 345, wúr|ði árn | to háu|ẹn to sáme 346, dóð | ge hém | non óð|er gód 372, Céthe | gránde | ís a | gret fís 383, ðerforẹ óð|re físs|es tó | him drágen 393, wúneð | ðis fís | wið ðé | se grúnd 401, ne maí | it wún|en ðán | ðer ínne 406, aneí | lond he wén|en ðát | it ís 414, Of stón | mid stél|e ín | ðe túnder 419, wo só | him fól|ẹgeð fínd|eð sónde 431, ne cúm|en hé | nummór|e úp 455, Féle | men háu|en ðe tók|eníng 463, ðat wán|ne hír|e hárd|e tíde 499, slépeð | bi ðe tré | ál in | ðe sádue 524, ðán|ne cúm|eð ðér | on gángen 530, mánie | ant mík|le cúm|en sáken 536, ðis élp | he reís|en só | on stálle 547, Móy|ses wúld|e hím | up reísen 553, mígt|e hé | it nó | wigt fórðen 554, áft|er hím | prophét|es álle 555, ðo rém|ẹden he áll|e lúd|ẹre stéuẹne 561, hem tó | cam críst | urẹ héu|en kíng 564, ðre dág|es ál | he slép|en wílle 607, ðánne | áfter | ðe ðrídd|e daí 608, wið swét|nessẹ áls | ic ít | gu seíe 613, wor só | he wálk|eð ón | ðe lónde 617, wor só | he wálk|eð, wor só | he wúneð 618, ful wél | his lúu|ẹ he táun|ẹde mán 631, ðannẹ hé | was déd | in blód | ant bón 636, v́p | he rós | ant rém|ẹdẹ iwís 637, ínto | his gód | cundnéss|ẹafín644, it óg|en áll|e to bén | us mínde 653, gé | ne háu|eð in hír|ẹ non gálle 654, ðe wírm | ge lét|eð ant líu|ẹð bi séd 658, In wát|ẹr ge is wís | of héu|ẹkes cóme 664, In hól|ẹ of stón | ge mák|ẹð hirẹ nést 666.Verses of three measures are ll. 28-31, 47, 50-53, 60, 61, 65-67, 152-155, 162, 163, 167 (two lines), 168, 169, 180-183, 218-229, 237, 241-249 (241, 242 originally four lines, see note), 251-256, 272-275, 277, 280, 286, 287, 290, 291, 300-303, 316, 319, 320, 324, 332, 333, 338-340, 358, 373, 374, 389, 403, 404, 417, 418, 450, 456, 457, 461, 464, 467-474, 477, 478, 492, 493, 497, 498, 502, 503, 527, 534, 535, 542-545. Noteworthy are, bó|ðe bi nígt | ant bi daí 47, so rígt|e só | he cúnne 52, ánt | he bíll|eð ðer ón 67 (anapaest in last foot occurs several times in this metre), ðis líf | bitók | neð ðe stí 152, ðát | tu sált | ðurg gón 155, aí | ðe sín | fúle || bisétt|en hé | wíle 167, gáddr|eð ílk|ines séd 180, bóð|ẹ of wúd|ẹ ant of wéd 181, of córn | ánt | of grés 182, ðat man clép|ẹð físi | ologét 221, He ðrág|eð ðe nédd|rẹ of ðe stón 222, wiðínn|ẹ he haú|ẹð brenníng 229, bi swílc | átter | i méne 248, drínk|en hís | wissíng 255, it quénch|et ílc | sinịgíng 256, on óðr|es lénd|ebón 273, gef hím | ðat téð | bifóren 274, ?ant hélp|en hím | to hérten 277, hélp|en him át | his néde 290, god gíu|eð ðér|forẹ méde 291, ge fécch|eð óft|ẹ in ðe tún 301, frét|eð hí|re fílle 319, ánt for his | sínful|e wérk 340, bute frét|eð hír|e fílle 373, ðis fís | ðat is ðús | unríde 389, tíl | it cúm|ẹð ðetíme403, ðat stórm | stíreð | al ðe sé 404, síp|es ón | to fésten 417, ant áll|e úp | to gángen 418, súm ðing | tókneð | bi ðís 461, ant wík|ke ís | herẹ déde 468, ?on wérld|e wún|en hér 493, ðat he múg|en rís|en wíð 503. Verses of two measures are ll. 317, 449 (mánie | ant sílle), 452, 460.Common Metre consists of alternate octosyllable and three-bar lines arranged in stanzas of four lines, rhyming a : b : a : b. In this are ll. 73-104, 504-507, 512-515. Scan, ðó|re sát|anás | forsákeð 81, to ihés|u críst | him sélf | bitákeð 83, His múð | is gét | wél | unkúð 97, bídd|en bón|e gérn | to góde 101, ánt | his múð | ðus rígten 102, to dón | wel hís|e wíken 515. The stanza, ll. 89-92, is desperate.Syncope of the middle vowel takes place in filstnẹde 30, heuẹne 49, 51, 562, 565, 639, seuẹne 50 (but seuene 652),sinịging256, iuẹle 344, chauẹles 397, folẹgeð 431, 620, deuẹles 436, slumẹren 452, wunẹden 493, stedẹfast 509, suggẹden 559, sorgẹden 559, remẹden 561, steuẹne 561, taunẹde 631, heuẹkes 664: e is also slurred or lost in ouẹr 48, 629, 630, clepẹð 221, hauẹð 229, ogẹn 284, arẹn 394, forbisnẹde 464, bergẹs 481, cumẹð 543, oðẹ 549, makẹn 556, watẹr 664, makẹð 666; in many other cases there is the alternative of a three-syllable foot, as for instance, of an anapaestic last foot in 502, 604. Hiatus occurs in stille 28, golsipe 245, giuernesse 246, pride 247, 257, alle 264, 418, 540, nede 267, raðe 333, same 339, wulde 354, were 387, eure 402, ðanne 485, 511, name 489, wanne 499, helpe 538, 546, migte 556, oliue 583.Introduction:Before the middle of the second centuryA.D., there appeared at Alexandria a Greek book, in which marvellous accounts of the nature and properties of certain animals, plants, and stones were used as allegorical and mystical illustrations of the dogmas of the Christian faith. The natural history element was an amalgam of popular conceptions and travellers’ tales, sheltering under the authority ofὁ Φυσιολόγος, the Naturalist, by whom the compiler probably meant Aristotle, and from whom the book itself was in later times called Physiologus. The didactic portion was a product of Alexandrian Judaeo-Christian theology, inspired by similar moralisations in the Septuagint and influenced by the pervading atmosphere of Egyptian nature symbolism.In its primitive form the book is probably best represented by the version printed in Lauchert, pp. 229-270. It had an amazing success, it passed everywhere with the Christian faith and soon found translators into Ethiopic, Armenian, Syriac (more than once), and Arabic. There is evidence of a prose version in Latin as early as the fifth century; from Latin it passed into most of the literatures of Europe. But the metrical version of Thetbaldus appears to have driven out the older Latin versions, one of which, however, is the main source of the Anglo-Norman poem written by Philippe de Thaün on English ground about 1130A.D.
Manuscript:Arundel 292, British Museum: on vellum, 200 × 130 mm.: late thirteenth century. Its miscellaneous contents, English, Anglo-French, and Latin, are described in Altdeutsche Blätter, ii. 141-148. The Bestiary is written continuously, but the initials of the lines and, in the long metres, of the half lines are mostly rubricated. In most cases the long lines aredivided into half lines by a space and a stop, sometimes one or both are missing. At ll. 439, 493, two words are carried below the last full line of the folio. Final g of ll. 42, 43, 316, 317, 332, 333, 338, 339, 358, 359, 463, 464, 475, 476, 477, 478, 542, 543, 662 has a stroke or hook added, which appears to be merely ornamental: similarly the g of wrengðe 69, among 147, ðing 392, strong 509; h and b are much alike; ƿ is open at the top as in Genesis and Exodus. Latin headings are in red, some are on the margin, the others at the head of their sections. As will be seen from the footnotes, the manuscript was much corrected or altered over erasures, and that after it was finished, for the substituted words do not always fill the gaps left by the scraper. The first leaves of the exemplar were probably damaged at the lower margin, since defective or difficult passages occur at regular intervals, so l. 32, ll. 89-92, 120, 121, 143, 144, 173, 200, 201.
Editions:Wright, T., Altdeutsche Blätter, Leipzig, 1836, 1840, ii. 99-120; Reliquiae Antiquae, London, 1841, i. 208-27. Mätzner, E., Altenglische Sprachproben, Berlin, 1867, i. 55-75. Morris, R., An Old English Miscellany, 1872, 1-25.
Literature:(1)of the English Bestiary. Hallbeck, E., The Language of the M. E. Bestiary, Lund, 1905. Holthausen, F., Archiv, lxxxviii. 365-9 (emendations). (2)of the Bestiaries in general. A detailed bibliography will be found in Anglia, Beiblatt, x. 274-87, xii. 13-23, xiii. 18, 19, 236-9. The following will provide an introduction to the subject: Ahrens, K., Zur Geschichte des sogennanten Physiologus, Ploen, 1885; Carus, J. V., Geschichte der Zoologie, München, 1872; Land, J. N. P., Encyclopaedia Britannica,s.v.Physiologus; Lauchert, F., Geschichte des Physiologus, Strassburg, 1889; Mann, M. F., Französische Studien, vi. Heft 2, Heilbronn, 1888; Peters, E., Der Griechische Physiologus und seine orientalischen Uebersetzungen, Berlin, 1898.
Source:With the exception of the last section, the English poem is generally an adaptation of the Latin Physiologus, written in a variety of verse forms as the concluding line informs us, by one Tebaldus or Thetbaldus, who is variously described in the headings as Italicus, Senensis, Placentinus episcopus, and is identified by some with the Abbot Theobald who presided over Monte Cassino from 1022 to 1035. The poem is extant in a large number of manuscripts and early printed editions, the first of which latter with place and date is that of Antwerp, 1487. It will be found printed in Hildeberti Turonensis Archiepiscopi Opera, ed. D. A. Beaugendre, Paris, 1708, p. 1174, from which it is repeated in Migne, P. L., tom. 171, p. 1218, and also as Appendix i,p. 201 in An Old English Miscellany, ed. Morris. The text is very unsettled, apparently scribes and editors felt themselves free to rewrite it on occasion. The passages where the English adapter notably departs from his original are pointed out in the notes. He was, no doubt, acquainted with one of the older Latin prose versions of Physiologus enumerated by M. F. Mann in Anglia vii. 443-6; there is no positive evidence that he knew the Bestiary of Philippe de Thaün.
Phonology:Oralaisa, dareð 310, late 453;abefore nasals isa, bane 370, man 194, ðan 157, ðanne 13, wan 386, wanne 10, wankel 446;abefore lengthening groups iso, among 147, folde 33, fondeð 532, stonden 497, but gangen 110 (3 times), gangeð 153, 177, gangande 530, standen 531 with Anglian shortening; in gandre 532dis inorganic; funt 93 (OE.fant) descends from OE. *funt, its use here possibly influenced by Anglo-Fr. funt.æis mostlya(82 times), barlic 192, fast 161, fasteð 109, qual 598 r. w. al, togaddre 482, 525, ðat 3 &c., was 26 &c.; the exceptions mostly descend from OE. forms ine, or are due to analogy, defte 23 (gedeftan), dele 4 (comp.dell), festeð 438, festen 417, feste 143, 160 (comp.festeadv., Scandinavian influence is also possible), heruest 177 (herfest), meche 586 r. w. reche (gemečča, but make 574, 576, 578,gemaca), nese 3, 223 (næs-), resteð 178, 504 (restan), steppeð 6 (steppan), steppes 5 (stepe), weder 270, 521 (hweþer): togiddre 282 haseraised toibefore a dental, wos 628 is *hwāswith vowel fromhwā.eise, be 588, fel 109; before lengthening groups, felde 307, lengðe 437, trendled 606, but bi 4, 24 (bi); wilc 4, swilc 248, swilk 338, sille 449 (syllič) r. w. ille, represent forms withy; tetireð 318 (to-teran) hasifrom Fr. tirer, as in tireð 336, possibly helped by the contracted sing. 3,tyrþ; seie 613 (4) r. w. haliweie, seien 385 imitate other parts of the verb withoutc, similarly leigeð 272.iisi, biddan 101, is 384, 414 r. w. fis, 509 r. w. fuligewis, mirke 80 r. w. kirke, wile 71 r. w. bile, wille 607 r. w. stille; before lengthening groupsi, finden 7, singeð 448, but es 183 r. w. gres, nes 518, merk 341 r. w. werk (due to labial influence), wulle 634, wullen 314.oiso, bodes 136, nos 303 r. w. gōs; before lengthening groups, hornes 236, sorgeden 559 (withouti-umlaut), word 35, but forwurden 108, wulde 74 (4), wuldest 385 by consonant influence; ouese 362, eaves, is withouti-umlaut, comp.ofesc, owiscand modern Essex dialectal oavis, but in Layamon eouesen.uisu, cumeð 40 &c., dure 134, wude 181, wune 281; before lengthening groups, bunden 443, hunger 306, but towrong 42 r. w. strong, withobeforen, ðrist 231, 428 r. w. list (analogy ofþyrstan,þyrstig).yisi, dine 646 r. w. wiðerwine, fille 373 r. w. stille, mankin 168, 243 r. w. win, 569 r. w. dim, pit 624 r. w. offrigt,stireð 11 (4), unride 389, 507 r. w. wide, 522 r. w. side, wirm 106 (4); before lengthening groups, birdene 289, minde 263 (3); but dede 171, elp 522 (3) (comp. OE.elpend), stereð 309, furgdat.withufrom the nominative, hungren 428, hungreð 390 (analogy ofhungor), sundren 577 (analogy ofsundor), tunder 419 r. w. wunder (once ‘tunderi,’Oldest E.Texts 570; comp. also OWScand. tundr), vuemest 639 (ufemest), come 664 r. w. nome.āis regularlyo, cof 124, invariably non 494 r. w. bon, no 148, on 490 (7) r. w. gon, 635 r. w. bon, one (āna) 579 (3), ston 66 r. w. on; before two consonants, bitokneð 152, golsipe 245, gost 214; but a, an frequently, anoðer 262 (unstressed shortenedā), atter 121, 241 with shortenedāextending from the oblique cases (Bülbring § 344), gast 435 r. w. stedefast, 640 r. w. vuemest, which Morsbach, ME. Gr., § 135, anm. 8 deduces from shorteneda, nummore 208, 455, through loss of stress, comp. ‘wumme’ 235/21, 121/133.ǣ1ise, hete 56 r. w. wete, mene 248 r. w. ouerwene, rede 38 r. w. guðhede, stel 419 (stǣli), wete 190, 209; before two consonants, fles 114, 435, eure 402, neure 16, but haliweie 612, through association withhālig, most 501, moste 384 frommāst, goð 66 (5) withofrom the plural, oni 378 fromānig, ilk 82 (4), ilc 256, ilkines 180 fromylc.ǣ2is alsoe, dede 82 r. w. mede, forleteð 191, leteð 114, 658, let 156, sed 180 r. w. wed, 658 r. w. ned, slepen 452 r. w. waken, ðer 19 (17), ðere 207, 369, were 61 (8), weren 80 (4), wete 57 r. w. hete, 615 r. w. swete; before two consonants, neddre 107 (3), but lat 327, 328, lateð 271 r. w. wadeð, ðar 8 (7), ðore 81, 88 r. w. lore (þāra), wor 514 (5) fromhwāra, wore 578 r. w. more, broken 242 in both of whichorepresentsā.ēise, let 642, mede 84 r. w. dede, swetnesse 613; bokedat.665 has the vowel of the nominative, doð 141 (8) the vowel of the plural.īisiwithout exception.ōiso, but kam 29, 352, cam 564, te 107.ūisuwithout exception.ȳisi, briche 293, 592 r. w. heuenriche, fir 123, ðirl 112; before two consonants, filðe 156, wissing 246.
eabeforer+ cons. isa, art 139, dar 647, narwe 113, sarpe 318; before lengthening groups, harde 499 (4), forðward 160, butein ern 73, ernes 37, flerd 351, middelerd 352 anduin wurð 566 (wearþ) by confusion with the present tense. Thei-umlaut isain chare 457, char 519 (see 359/4), warmen 421, but derne 21, 75, dernelike 326.eabeforel+ cons. isa, al 116 &c., fallen 56, galle 654, half 460, salt 155; before lengthening groupso, biholdeð 365, kold 495, holdeð 573, olde 581, told 459, twifold 322, wolden 139, wolde 482, but the contracted? bihalt 520, biwalt 521 have shorteneda; in helden 136eis probably miswritten foro: thei-umlaut isain falleð 58 (5), 526 r. w. calleð,ein elde 40, 108, elded 139, eldere 171, 241, unwelde 41, all before lengthening groups, welle 46, 253.eobeforer+ cons. is regularlye, berges 481, bergen 8, fer 265, herte 136 (3), stert 6, werc 340; before lengthening groups, erðe 20 (3) and its compounds. To thewurgroup belong forwurðes 138, forwurðe 196, wurðeð 59 and other forms ofweorþan, wurði 346, wurðlic 173, but not forwerpen 257, werpeð 236. Thei-umlaut is seen in hirde 33, 34 (hirde), tirgen 275 (not original); hertien 277 is very doubtful: awyrword is wurdi 145, without umlaut. Theu- andå-umlauts ofaare wanting, bale 172, 379, care 563, but heuekes 664:oin noule 444 (*nafola, contrast ‘neauele’ 120/98) is ascribed by Morsbach, ME. Gr. § 87, anm. 4, to the influence ofv, but a diphthong appears to have developed, the modern East Anglian dialectic word is nowle. Theu- andå-umlauts ofeare also wanting, forgelues 138, hert 218 (3), heuene 49 &c., werlde 106, fele 297, 463.eo,u- andå-umlaut ofiise, here 280 (5), senden 63, 441, seuene 50, 652, clepeð 221, leneð 510, 523, but limes 41 (3), niðer 4, 500, niðerward 444, siðen 227 r. w. swīðe, liuen 412: widue 578 is Anglianwidwe, but wude 181 (*wiudu) has normalu(Bülbring § 264).eaafter palatals isa, chaueles 397, sal 16 &c., sakeð 193, sadue 524 r. w. togaddre, but seftes 356; before nasal, same 193, 339, 346 r. w. name, and before lengthening group,oin sonde 431.ieafterġise, geld 338, gelt 316, bigeten 490, 494, forgeten 451, but giueð 291; aftersc, alsoe, seld 130 (butscildangives silden 34, sildeð 130), sending 339, seppande 356 (i-umlaut ofeaaftersc). EWS.giefis gef 274 (5), if 35 (9): if is used from l. 35 to l. 265 and once again at l. 578, gef, which is probably the author’s form, begins at l. 274.eoafterġisuin gungling 543, guðhede 39,iin ging 162, gingen 259, gingid 238, aftersc,u, sulde 123, suneð 193, sunen 210, 285 r. w. munen, sulen 203 (4).heomis hem 281 &c.
ēais regularlye, ches 586, ded 26 (9), slep 635, lefful 585, queðsipe 298; thei-umlaut ise(Anglian), gemen 260, here 2 &c., leueð 85, nede 100 (9), nedeð 113, 164, remeð 527; before two consonants, bekneð 213.ēois alsoe, be 21 &c., bet 213, bitwen 281, crepeð 111 (3), deuel 164 (5), der 322 r. w. her (4), undergede 568 r. w. manhede, wel 600 (Ang.hwēl, Bülb. § 217) r. w. wel; before two consonants, brest 117 (4), helde 173, but diuel 21, an early instance of this shortening, cripelande 111 fromcrypel; thei-umlaut ise, strenen 485, ten 109.gesīeneis sene 356,gīet, get 62, 385 r. w. flet.ēaafter palatals ise, ger 492 r. w. her, sep 34, 483.
a+gisag, dages 607, drageð 6, sage 475, but daies 109, 635; mugen 323 has the form of the subjunctivemugon; sei 159 descends fromsege, seieþ 347 fromsegeþ, seit 577 fromsegð.æ+gis divided betweenaiandei, dai 29 (7), 582 r. w. ai, daies 109, 635, faier 629, lai 28, 633, mai 110 (9), maig 64 (3), mainles 110; breid 548, breides 344 (bregd), dei216, 576, deies 309, meiden 23, 442, seide 191, 353, seid 549: fagen 394, 415 r. w. dragen is Anglianfagen; muge 126, 187 descends from LWS.muge.e+gisei, weie 4; forbredes 138 comes fromforbrēdan, agen 185, 457 fromagēn:e+his seen in hightes 135, 161, hightest 133.i+g: the spirant has been absorbed in lieð 15; finaligisi, mani 429, manie 441, wurði 346.i+hisig, idigt 364, sigte 92, wigt 235.o+hisog, ðogt 501, 559, but forbroiden 108, not from-brogden, but-brōden, with a variation which perhaps mimics the alternation of the ME. infinitives breden (brēdan) and breiden (bregdan), see NED.s.v.broiden.u+gisug, fugeles 308, mugen 503, 643, but the spirant has disappeared in fules 305, 312.y+hisig, drigten 26 (3), fligt 43, 54, offrigt 625 (late North.fryhta).ā+g,hisog, og 263 (3), ogen 210 (4), ogt 623 (āht), but ovt 560 r. w. ðogt 577, out 521, forms due to the scribe: steg 639 (stāh) has borrowede, as often elsewhere, from the third class of strong verbs.ǣ1+g,hisag, agte 477, er, meaning or, 99 (9) is descended fromǣgþer, while er, before, 191 (4) isǣr: neggen 122, negge 3 representgenēgan.ǣ2+gis seen in haliweie 612 (wǣg).ī+g: in sti 152 r. w. bi,ghas disappeared.ō+g,hisog, inog 118, ðogte 354, nogt 122 (9), but nout 11, 593, 622 r. w. ogt, nowt 192, 214, forms due to the scribe.ȳ+g, drie 615.ea+h,htis seen in magt (mæht) 426, magti 175, waxe 196, waxeð 124, waxen 445 (wæxan); thei-umlaut in migt 234, 532 r. w. wiht, migte 21 (3), nigt 47, but sloð 329 (WS.sliehþ) r. w. loð, corresponds to North.slāþ, influenced by OScand. slá.eo+htisigt, brigt 55 r. w. fligt, figtande 128, rigt 52, rigten 102, rigteð 125, but sexe 50 (Angliansex), bitwixen 293 (betweohs); without umlaut is seð 49 r. w. teð (WS.siehþ) as if fromsēoþ.ēa+g,hiseg(Anglian), egen 16 (5), heg 18, hege 562; eilond 387, 414 (īegland) is from Anglianēgland.ēo+gis alsoeg, fleges 366, flegeð 48 (3), legeð 350, 577;ēo+h, ligtlike 315; withouti-umlaut are fleð 123, 165 (comp.flēð, Durh. Rit.), teð 48 r. w. seð, 274, but ligten 20, 289.ā+wisow,ou,ov, knoweð 106, sowles 103, soule 158 (4), knov 133, but soge 386 as if from *sāhe, sawen 599, possibly miswritten for sowen.ī+w, appears in newe 60 (5), neweð 39 (5), newe 141, all from Anglian forms withēo.ō+w: nowor 35 represents *nōwar, nōwerfromnāhwǣr, nāhwār.ēa+wis seen in ðewes 143 and finally in deu 7:ēo+win rewen 437, rewe 206, reufulike 528, speweð 116, finally in gu 549 (4): tre 508, 516, 524, 551 r. w. we, is Angliantre(o): thei-umlaut is wanting in trewe 163, 589, untrewe 61, 96.
In syllables without stressois levelled toe, wankel 446, hunger 203, siker 207, wunder 194, sumer 176, te 107.aappears forein mereman 442, influenced by man. Ane, generally unmetrical, has been inserted indeuẹles 436 (but deules 665), folegen 269, folẹgeð 431, 620 (but folgen 439, 643), fugeles 308, lagelike 573, steuẹne 561, husebondes 299, sineginge 149, wisedom 324, andisimilarly in hardilike 177, fulịgewis 508 (comp. fuliwis 445), haliweie 612 (‘haleweie,’ L 23072), sinịging 256:eis omitted in biforn 62, 68, 268, but metre requires everywhere biforen. The prefixbe-isbi-, bisetten 167:ge-isiin imong 476, it appears also in uniemete 459 (ungemǣte) with ie for i as in attrie 228, perhaps an Anglo-Norman interchange of these symbols. Butge-is generally lost, as in bodes 136, minde 263, vnride 389, unwelde 41.on-isain among 147,to-,tein tetireð 318. redi 125 (3) is a ME. formation fromgerǣde+ig, the termination in sille is-lic;-ungising, drowing 567, groning, woning 662, lesing 478.
Geminated final consonants are invariably simplified as web 363, coc 300, stoc 224, fel 109, hil 18, spel 335, den 8, fen 630, mankin 168, sin(ful) 82, win 244, char 519, dar 647, fer 265, pit 624; often too medially asrr, chare 457, dure 145;nn, wiðerwine 645, cune 148, cunen 457;þþ, siðen 41 (5);cc, fecheð 179, reche 585, meche 586. Forw,uis written in sadue 524.ris doubled in warre 456; metathesis occurs in ðrist 231, 428.nis added in hauen 183, boðen 181, boden 525, doubled in drigtinnes 242, vnneðes 113, omitted in euelike 213, and frequent o foron.pis doubled in steppes 5, inserted in sampnen 484.fbetween vowels and vowellikes isu, rauen 311, geuelic 173, ouese 362, culuer 650, derue 205, oncevin weveð 360 (but weueð 363), otherwise it isf.fis doubled in offprep.104, 241, 264, 616, while the adverb appears as of 657.tis doubled in little 200, 432, beside litel 131, lost in beste 514, for itthis written in cethegrande 383:tsisscin giscing 245,cin milce 151.dis doubled in togaddre 482, gaddreð 180, omitted in selcuðes 441, as already in OE.selcūþand in sille 449, but alreadysyllicin OE. Ford,ðis written in ðon 328, faðer 13, queðsipe 298, seð 191, forþ,din boden 525, broder 287, dede 31, 625, filde 160, lodlike 357, swide 360, swideð 54, dat 634, de 165, dridde 29, drowing 567, wurden 250, mostly due to the scribe’s failure to complete ð:þistin forsaket 81, wit 136: after voicelesst,spronominal words begin withtinstead ofþ, tanne 216, tat 18, te 209, (at) te 134, 361, 586, ter 329, tin 161, tine 159, tis 73, 154, tu 133 (7), tus 77 &c., but de 192, once afterd, tu 150. In forðward 160,ðhas been wrongly inserted.sćiss, initially, sadue 524, sakeð 193, sal 16 &c., same 193 (3), sarpe 318, seftes 356, seld 130, sending 339, sep 34, seppande 356, silden 34, sinen 12, sipes 411, sonde 431, sop 356, sulde 123, suneð 193, sures 203, oncesc, scrifte 159, oncesk, skinbon 272, NED compares NFris. skenbiin, WFris. skynbonke; medially, golsipe 245, queðsipe 298, butssin wissing 246(*gewȳscung); finally, fis 383, fles 114, 435. The stopciskbeforeeandiand in combination with other consonants, forsaket 81, kinde 10, bitokneð 152, drink 158, but craft 111, in other positions mostlyc, cam 564, uncuð 396, blac 598, swic 149, but kam 29, 352, unkuð 97, swik 344, suk 454, smake 3 (ME. formation fromsmæcc):ccisck, necke 303.čisch, chaueles 397, ches 586, erðchine 308, chare 457, char 519, briche 293, 592, eche 139, quenchet 256, riche 480, but ic 38 &c., sekeð 46, kirke 78, Scand. in form, kolde 486, kold 495, mirke 80, merk 341 (see Björkman 146), micle 536, mikle 542 (comp. OWScand. mikil), wilc 4, swilc 248, swilk 338, ilik 343, lic 662.ččiscch, dreccheð 88, feccheð 301, but fecheð 179, reche 585, meche 586 and fetchen 265, witches 427, early instances of tch, but ?wikke 468.cwisqu,qw, quenchet 256, qwemeð 190, queðsipe 298, quike 253. Palatalgis writteng, bigeten 490, forgeten 451, gemen 260, geld 338, forgelues 138, ger 491, get 62, ging 162, gingen 259, gingid 238, giueð 291, gu 549, gungling 543, guðhede 39, undergede 568 (undereode); it is doubled in negge 3, neggen 122, lost in if 35 &c. The voiceless spirant is also represented byg, as in egen 16, ðogte 354, soge 386, furg 307, inog 118, ðurg 3: doubled in suggeden 559 (in Orm suhhghen), now dialectal, mostly Northern, sough, soo.his lost in ire 183, added in heten 421:hlisl, lene 110, lepeð 230, lides 16, list 585, listen 74, louerd 19, lude 377;hnisn, necke 303;hr,r, raðe 317, rem 13, remeð 527, rewen 437;hw,w, wan 386, wat 95, weder 270, wel 600, wete 190, wilc 4, wile 648, wite 599, wos 628, wu 20 &c., andquin qual (Northern).
Accidence:Strong declension ofmasc.andneut.nouns. In thes. n. a.dine 646, heuenriche 18, 292, hirde 33, bale 379, golsipe 245, se 404, tre 508, 516, wete 190, 209 have e corresponding to their OE. vocalic ending, bodi 172, sti 152 have lost finalg; seppandẹ 356 and haliweie 612 r. w. seie have added e; mere 448 is shortened from meremenn.Gen.-es, bukes 330, foxes 314, sees 407, but heuenriche 558; brest 121, 160 is a composition form:dat.-e, bale 172, bile 70 and 15 others with vowel termination in thenom., hauen 183 has added n (nunnation, 457/11), dede 31, dele 4 and 31 others with inflection, of which ouese 362 is the only word of more than one syllable: without inflection are bodi 130 (3), drigtin 104, meiden 23, stel 419, der 322, 627, rem 13, 611 and 90 others mostly with long stem vowel or of more than one syllable; always o dei 576, bi dai 47 &c.; many examples are in rhyme as mod 249, 348, muð 395, ðogt 501, 559, wold 620. Thepl. n. a.of masculines ends in-es, chaueles 397, witches 427, daies 109, fodredes 361; there are no weak forms: neuters are limes 41, 63, sipes 411, 417, 454, bodes 136, 213, lides 16, sep 34, 483, ger 491, 492, ðing 358: datives have-es, berges 481,breides 344, briddes 660, finnes 445, ðewes 143, ðornes 237, limes 131, wiles 297, but der 603. Of thefem.nouns of the strong declension mire 175, neddre 107, 129, same 193, widue 578 have e corresponding to their OE. vocalic ending in thenom., dede 468, 469, sowle 586 have added e, all others are without e, culuer 650, ned 142, woning 662 (the verbal substantives are rarely inflected in any case). Genitives are sinnes 158, sowles 103: birde 117 (comp.byrdtīd), erðe 630, helle 638 (comp.hellewīte), heuene 638 (comp. heuen 170), kirke 134, 586, soule 158 may be genitives, but are more probably composition forms.Dat.-e, birdene 289, filde 160, godcundnesse 644, manhede 567, migte 587, werlde 106, sineginge 149, stefninge 451, but blis 140, 638, hid 120, magt 426, migt 416, tunder 419, werld 201, and the verbal nouns lesing 478, reming 542, sending 339, swiking 477, wissing 359 are without inflection. In theacc.forðward 160, migt 234, 532, ned 659, stund 309, 408 and the verbal nouns billing 316, 338, foxing 333, giscing 245, drowing 567, siniging 256, tokning 463, wissing 246, 255 are without inflection, bote 150, guðhede 39, nede 100, 216, 280, soule 172, 478, steringe 451 with 27 others have e, besides fille 319, 373, forbisne 322.Pl. n.are fedres 56;dat.harmdedes 299, misdedes 151, sinnes 75;a.forbisnes 219, kindes 218, seftes 356 (sometimesmasc.), sinnes 159, stefnes 448, agte 477. Nouns of the weak declension have-ein thenom., bane 370, sunne 12;d.make 576, erðchine 308;a.fode 64 (5), wille 330, but fod 207, licham 214 before a vowel: genitives are belles 541, huntes 548:pl. n.egen 44, 80, fleges 366, husebondes 299;dat.egen 16, 87;a.egen 55, willen 515. The minor declensions are represented by fet (steppes)pl. a.5; teðpl. a.318; mans. n.73, manness. g.148, mans. d.444,a.124, menpl. n.305, sipmen 451, mannepl. g.24, men ?pl. d.144, manne 359, menpl. a.428; bocs. n.350, bokes. d.38 (4); furgs. d.307; goss. a.302; nigtes. d.588, bi nigt 47, 150, o nigt 576, nigts. a.582;faðers. n.13, fader 30,s. d.640; broders. n.287,s. a.535; fends. n.349.
Adjectives which in OE. end in a vowel have-ethroughout, briche 592, eche 139, minde 263, newe 210, softe 176, but swets. d. neut.231 (comp.swētnes,swōt) and merks. d. f.341 have lost e; those in-iglose g, attrie 228 (with ie for i), droui 407, holi 642, redi 311, weri 511. Weak inflections ares. voc.cristene 133,d.rigte 70, sinfule 340,a.olde 210, 581: strong ares. n. f.bare 121, ilike 442, like 444,s. d. m.rigte 435,s. d. f.quike 253; others are uninflected in the singular: mikels. n. m.565 hasd.mikle 542, but mikel 230,pl. n.mikle 433, 536: litels. n. neut.131 hass. a. f.little 200,pl. n.432. Thepl. n.has-e, kolde 486, leue, loðe 594, warre, wise 456; the exceptions are all predicative, fagen 394, 415, kold 495,siker 207, strong 63, twifold 471, uncuð 396, war 204, wod 250;dat.-e, iuele 343, wite 599, but dern 75 r. w. ern;acc.-e, erðliche 213, but brigt 55 r. w. fligt.ānas article unstressed is a 28, 46 &c., before consonants, an 391, 282 before vowels and h, twice 106, 596 before w, divided in a neilond 387, 414, while the numeral and indefinite pronoun is on 268, 530, (on) on 223, 635, ones. d. neut.264;āna, alone, is one 579, 580, 622:nānas adj. is no 148, 444 &c., non 64 &c., nones. d. neut.65, as pronoun, non 267, 271, 285, 494, 556, 597. Adjectives used as nouns with inflection ares. d.geuelike 214, 593, gode 65, nakede 165,pl.grete 400, sinfule 167, selcuðes 441, smale 399: nouns used as adjectives are flerd, fox 351. Comparatives and superlatives have-e,s.fairere 597, more 194, beste 514, firste 552, moste 384, swetteste 392,pl.eldere 171, 241, but best 667 r. w. nest, vuemest 639 r. w. gast, most 501 before vowel.
The personal pronouns are ic 38 (6), before vowel, h or palatal g, i 37 (5) before consonants, we, wes (= we es) 651, urpl. g.285, 661, vs, ðu, tu 133 &c., ðe, te 142, gupl. d.549, 575. The pronoun of the third person iss. n.hem.2, 330, gef.175, 179, get (= ge it) 195, itneut.29, 450, itt 601,d.himm.5, 521, hiref.184, 499, ire 183,a.himm.13, 128, hiref.299;pl. n.he 264, 625,g.her 556,d.hem 281, 546,a.369, is 7, 137, 304. Reflexives are us 663, ðe 160, hims. d.64, 103, 109, himself 65, hire 372, hims. a.8 (13), hire 178, 365, hempl. a.413, 421, 484: definitive is himseluen 520: possessives ares.ðin 156, tin 161, ði, before consonant, 160, 478,pl.ðine 151, tine 159, ðin 477 before vowel;s.his 3 &c.,pl.hise 16 &c., his, before vowel, 44, 55; hire 179, 496; vre 19 &c., here 280, 427. The definite article is ðe without inflection, te 13, 623, de 165, 192, atte 134, 361, 586:s.ðat 18 &c., tat 18,pl.ðo 432, 604 are demonstratives. The compound demonstrative iss.ðis 77, tis 73,pl.ðise 398. The relatives are ðe 19; it means, of which 621, during which 201, and ðat 13, it means, in which 517, on which 206, about which 191, that which 184, 470, dat, for whom, 634. Interrogatives are wat 127, 133, 170, wos 628, wilc 4; the correlative is swilc 248, swilk 338. Indefinites are wo so 335, 577; wat 95; man 2, 194, 221, 304; sum 461; oni 378; oðress. g.273, oðers. d.378,a.267,pl.oðre 276 (6),oðer603; an oðer 10, 262; ilk 82, ilc 256, ilkines 180;eurilc257, eurilc 286; mani 429,pl.manie 441 (4), manikines 358; fele 297, 463; al 54 &c., all 211,pl.alle 5, 241.
Only three verbs have the infinitive in-e, biswike 327 r. w. dernelike, chare 457 r. w. ware, rede 38 r. w. guðhede, one or two in-ien, luuien 135, ?hertien 276, the rest, in number 111, of which 18 are of the second weak conjugation, end in-en. Thedat. inf.is not inflected, its sign is to (31) or for to (6). Presents ares.1. haue 549, mene 248, seie 557 (4); 2. hauest137, forbredes, forgelues, forwurðes 138; 3. falleð 58 (4), wakeð 33, wuneð 401 (5) and over 200 others in-eð; hatieð 304, rotieð 311; forsaket 81, quenchet 256; atbrested 548, bekned 213, gingid 238, bilimpes 275; contract verbs, fleð 123, 165, teð 48 r. w. seð, 274, seð 49, sloð 329 r. w. loþ, contracted forms are abit 581 r. w. sit, bet 213, bit 195, 211, 370, 379 (read biteð in all these places), bit 330, bit 192 (read bideð), biwalt 521 r. w. bihalt, fet 214, 337 r. w. ket, 605, fint 209 (read findeð), flet 386 r. w. get, fret 319, 373 (read freteð in both places), gelt 316, geld 338, hitt 365, lat 327, 328, lið 11 (read lieð as in l. 15), seit 577, sit 520, 576, 580 r. w. abit, smit 391, underset 516 r. w. bet, stant 2;pl.1. hauen 176 (3), wunen 201, haue we 295, fele we 552, haue 659; 3. beren 278, cumen 276 (4), haten 299, noten 488, sundren 577, waken 453; sen 413, ten 266, hatien 305, cume 536:subjunctive s.3. fare 99, se 122, tide 499, but derie 186;pl.1. bimene we 663, leue we 590, luue we 587, 590, seke we 207, wende we 588:imperative s.2. bid 150, help 144, swic 149, herkne 506, newe 141, reche 585, sei 159, deme 145;pl.2. hereð 45, muneð 575. Past of Strong Verbs: I a.s.3. lai 28, 633;subj. s.2. soge 386; 3. sete 388: I b.s.3. bar 24, kam 28, 352, cam 564;pl.3. broken 242;subj. s.3. come 22: I c.s.3.wan 632, wurð 566: II.s.3. ros 31, 637, steg 639: III.s.3. ches 586: IV.s.3. sop 356, stod 557: V.s.2. hightest 133, hightes 135, 161; 3. fel 551, let 642, slep 635; ?subj. pl.1. helde we 173. Participle present: V. gangande 530; past: I b. broken 137, forbroken 108: I c. bred 117, bunden 443, doluen 27, forbroiden, forwurden 108, towrong 42 r. w. unstrong: II. fordriuen 411, sinen 12, writen 572: III. forloren 69: IV. faren 589: V. IV. waxen 445: V. biholden 512, fallen 570, sawen 599. Past of Weak Verbs:s.3. dennede 23, filstnede 30, seide 191, ðogte 354;pl.3. remeden 561, suggeden 559, wuneden 493. Participles present: cripelande 111, figtande 128, secande 536; past: cloðed 124, cristned 134, elded 139, eried 308, herd 459, idigt 364, ikindled 10, lered 239, offrigt 625, seid 549, set 220, tokned 627, told 621, 628, trendled 600; inflected are cloðedẹs. d.166, forbisnedes. d.464. Minor Groups: ogpr. s.263 (3), ogen 1pr. pl.210 (3),pr. pl.653; canpr. s.79, canne (= can he) 534, cunenpr. pl.457, cune 2pr. s. subj.148, cunnepr. s. subj.7 (3); darpr. s.647, dure 2pr. s. subj.145; salt 2pr. s.155, salpr. s.16 &c., sulen 1pr. pl.203, 292,pr. pl.485, 594, suldept. s.123; maipr. s.110 (9), maig 64, 400, 433, mugen 1pr. pl.323, 643,pr. pl.503, mugepr. s. subj.126, 187, migtept. s.21, 554, 556, migtenpt. pl.560; moten 1pr. pl.210, mote 2pr. s. subj.151; beninf.84 (4), to bendat. inf.263, 653, art 2pr. s.140, 162, ispr. s.10, 662, es 183, nes 518, beð 313, ben 1pr. pl.34, 204, be we 205, arnpr. pl.41 (11), aren 394, 415, ben 450, senden 63, 441, bepr. s. subj.21, 615, ben 1pr. pl. subj.207, 293, be we 589, 655, benpr. pl. subj.282, be 2pr. s. imp.163, waspt. s.26 &c., weren 1pt. pl.250,pt. pl.80, 559, 625, were 2pt. s. subj.134,pt. s. subj.61 (7), wore 578; wile 1pr. s.575, wille 37, wilepr. s.71 (12), wille 34 (5), wulle 634, wilenpr. pl.367, wullen 314, wilepr. s. subj.4, 327, 328, wuldest 2pt. s.385, wuldept. s.553, 2pt. s. subj.74,pt. s. subj.353, 354; doninf.330, 531, ðon 328, fordon 354, to dondat. inf.212, 515, 661, doðpr. s.141 (10), do we 1pr. pl. subj.172, 205, 657, dedept. s.171, donpp.663; goninf.155, 225, goðpr. s.66 (5), gonpr. pl.482, 491, 1pr. pl. subj.35, 254, go 2pr. s. imp.157, undergedept. s.568.
Noteworthy among adverbs are lic, equally, 662, nede, of necessity, 129 (nīede), ðer wile, whilst, 648, welle, very, 18 (also in Layamon, 29622), which seems to have added a superfluous adverbial e; among prepositions, mitte 454, 546, one 334, 388, onẹ 420; conjunctions, ⁊ (ant), meaning if, 2, er, or, 99 &c., wiles, whilst, 88 (4), wor so, wheresoever, 602 (4).
Vocabulary:The Scandinavian element is large: ai 46 (7), arn 41 &c., aren 394, 415, blast 541, bone 101, boðe 47, boðen 181, boden 525, brest 458 (OE.byrstwould in this text be birst), brennen 249, brenning 229, brinneð 227, bro 598 (OWScand. brá), calleð 527, call(ing) 563, costes 284, derflike 313, feg 160, fro 31 &c., gapeð 390, gres 182, heil 59, ille 410, ill(ing) 317, ket 336, lage 15 &c., leiðe 357, oc 55, 159, or 76, 116, 119, rapelike 178, reiseð 13, reisen 553, renneð 178, scaðe 447, skemt(ing) 332, skies 50, swideð 54, takeð 71, til 12, ðeðen 364, ðog 21 &c., (un)skil 331, wille 35, wrengðe 69, wrong 62, probably hileð 318, vncost 148, wore 578, possibly fikeð 532, listneð 306 (comp.hlystan), liuenoðe 200, (o) twinne 195; influenced in form are atbrested 548, atbrosten 458, come 664, frame 323 (fremu), in meaning, onde 310. French are bec 42, capun 300, caue 186, cete 397, cul 604, dragunes 622 (‘draguns,’ P. de Thaün), gin 521, grace 104, haleð 184, leun 2, market 378, panter 596, poure 144, pride 247, prophetes 555, rime 572, robb(inge) 657, simple 655, spuse 587, tireð 336, turtres 572, uenim 116 (venin); pre-Conquest Latin is crede 98. The proper name Moyses 553 is the Vulgate form.
Dialect:The author of the Bestiary lived in East Anglia, sufficiently near its northern border to account for such rhymes as loð : sloð 328, 329, stedefast : gast 434, 435, vuemest (read-mast) : gast 639, 640. The large Scandinavian element also points to the northern part of East Anglia. How far he was responsible for the Northern or North Midland broken 242, offrigt 625, qual 598, sawen 599, senden 63, 441, soge 386, s as the regular and frequent representative ofsć, as in sadue, sal, sarpe &c., the 2, 3 pr. s. in-es, bilimpes 275, forbredes, forgelues, forwurðes 138, higtes135, 161, and the participles in-andeit is impossible to determine. But he certainly did not write gangande 530, secande 536, and transmission through a Northern or North Midland copy may accordingly be assumed. Our manuscript was written by a scribe of the Southern border of East Anglia. He has left his mark in a number of syncopated presents which spoil the metre and probably in the case of others where the full form is metrically admissible, in luuien 135, hatieð 304, rotieð 311, wulle 634, wullen 314, and probably in were 134 &c., since wore 578 r. w. more is the only form controlled by rhyme. He is also responsible for dede 171, stereð 309,æ+gasei, dei 576, meiden 23 &c., for vuemest 639, daies 109, 635, out 521, ovt 560, nout 11, 593, 622, nowt 192, 214, occasional alterations without any systematic attempt at revision. We may perhaps venture the guess that the poem was written in Lincolnshire and copied in Essex.
Metre:Thetbaldus attempts a variety of metres, ‘temptans diversis si possem scribere metris;’ leonine hexameters for his Lion, Eagle, Siren, Onocentaur and Panther, leonine elegiacs for the Ant, Fox, Stag, Whale and Elephant, sapphics for the Serpent, catalectic dactylic tetrameter for the Spider, adonics for the Turtle. The English adapter emulates his versatility and moreover mixes different kinds of verse in the same article. In alliterative long line are ll. 1-24, 32-35, 106-151, 156-161, 164-166, 170-173, 175-179, 184-197, 199-204, 297-299, 304-315, 318, 356, 357, 360-370, 376-381, 441-448, 451, 458, 459. Of these the great majority are of the first kind described onp. 463, lines with alliteration only, as 2-8, 10, 11, 15, 18-21, 23, 106-111 &c. Of the second are 13, 16, 114, 134-136, 141, 150, 171, 173, 176, 185, 195, 312-315, 364, 370, 376, 379, 380, 459, of the third, 24, 112, of the fourth 12, 116, 118, 144, ?298, 305, 306, 362, 381, but groups of lines in this class, such as 26-31, 152-155 have attained to their full development as syllabic verse and are printed like the octosyllables and similar metres from which they are indistinguishable. Lines of the fifth class are discussed in the notes. They are numerous, indeed the parts written in alliterative verse are in much worse state than the rest of the text, probably because the scribe’s ignorance of the technique of the native metre gave him greater scope for alteration. The changes he has made are of the kind described onpp. 464, 465, prominent among them is the rearrangement of words, mostly in a prose order, which often results in the elimination of rhymes. These rhymes are mostly imperfect; inflectional as reiseð : makeð 13, drinkeð : neweð 118 &c., luken : egen 16, leuen : luuien 135, name : queðsipe 298, ouese : felde 362, or partial in correspondence of sound, as sinen : abuten 12, dure : were 134, herte : kirke 136, men : abuten 144,hulen : fules 305, wunder : hunger 306, mere :-mete459. The most frequent alliterative combination is 2 + 1, as at 4, 15, 18, 19, 106-109, 113, 115, 117, 365 (hitt,hole, biholdeð) &c., it occurs in at least one third of the lines; next in number is 1 + 1, as in 5, 10, 16, 20, 21, 23, 34, 35, 110, 196 (forwurðe,waxe), 458 (atbrosten,brest) &c., 2 + 2 is seen in 111, 123, 160, 363, 367, 1 + 2 in 2, 11, 114, 128, 135, crossed alliteration in 3, 6, 148, 157, 161, 170, 203, 360, 445 (fis,fuliwis,finnes,waxen), 448, distinct alliteration in 147, 165.
The septenarius is the metre of ll. 205-216, 294, 295, 572-579, 585-594. For the structure of this verse, seep. 327; the following is a restoration and scansion of the passages in the Bestiary.
205do wé | forðí | so dóð | ðis dér || ðánne | bé we | gléwe,Ón ðat | daí ðat | dóm sal | bén || ðát it | ús ne | réwe.Séke we | hére | sóules | fód || ðat wé | ben sík|er ðóre,Só ðis | wírm in | wínter | ís || ðan gé | ne tíl|eð móre.ðe mír|e sún|eð ðe bár|lic séd || ðanne gé | fíndeð | ðe wéte;210ðe óld|e lág|e we óg|en súnen || ðe né|we we mót|en séken.ðe córn | ðat gé | to cáu|e béreð || ál get | bíteð o|twínne;ðe lág|e us lér|eð gód | to dón || ant ús | forbéd|eð sínne:It bét|eð ús | érðlich|e bódes || ant bék|neð héu|enlíke;It féd|eð ðe líc|ham ánt | te góst || oc nógt | o géu|enlíke.215vre lóu|erd críst | it lén|e ús || ðát his | láge us | fédenú in | érd ant o | dómes | deí || ant tán|ne we háu|en néde.
205do wé | forðí | so dóð | ðis dér || ðánne | bé we | gléwe,
Ón ðat | daí ðat | dóm sal | bén || ðát it | ús ne | réwe.
Séke we | hére | sóules | fód || ðat wé | ben sík|er ðóre,
Só ðis | wírm in | wínter | ís || ðan gé | ne tíl|eð móre.
ðe mír|e sún|eð ðe bár|lic séd || ðanne gé | fíndeð | ðe wéte;
210ðe óld|e lág|e we óg|en súnen || ðe né|we we mót|en séken.
ðe córn | ðat gé | to cáu|e béreð || ál get | bíteð o|twínne;
ðe lág|e us lér|eð gód | to dón || ant ús | forbéd|eð sínne:
It bét|eð ús | érðlich|e bódes || ant bék|neð héu|enlíke;
It féd|eð ðe líc|ham ánt | te góst || oc nógt | o géu|enlíke.
215vre lóu|erd críst | it lén|e ús || ðát his | láge us | féde
nú in | érd ant o | dómes | deí || ant tán|ne we háu|en néde.
294ðús is | úre | lóuerdes | láge || lúue|líke to | fíllen;hérof | háue we | míkel | néd || ðat wé | ðar wíð | ne díllen.
294ðús is | úre | lóuerdes | láge || lúue|líke to | fíllen;
hérof | háue we | míkel | néd || ðat wé | ðar wíð | ne díllen.
572In bók|e ís | ðe túr|tres líf || wríten | ál o | ríme;wu lá|gelík|e ge hóld|eð lúue || ál hir|e líf|tíme.géf ge | ónes | máke | háueð || fro hím | ne wíl|e séden:575múneð|, wímmen|, híre | líf || íc it | wíle gu | réden.bi hí|re mák|e ge sít | onígt, || o deí | ge góð | ant flégeð:wó so | séit he | súndren | ógt || i seí|e ðát | he légeð.Oc if hér|e mák|e wér|e déd || ant gé | wídu|e wóre,ðánne | flégeð ge | óne ant | fáreð || non óð|er wíl|e móre.
572In bók|e ís | ðe túr|tres líf || wríten | ál o | ríme;
wu lá|gelík|e ge hóld|eð lúue || ál hir|e líf|tíme.
géf ge | ónes | máke | háueð || fro hím | ne wíl|e séden:
575múneð|, wímmen|, híre | líf || íc it | wíle gu | réden.
bi hí|re mák|e ge sít | onígt, || o deí | ge góð | ant flégeð:
wó so | séit he | súndren | ógt || i seí|e ðát | he légeð.
Oc if hér|e mák|e wér|e déd || ant gé | wídu|e wóre,
ðánne | flégeð ge | óne ant | fáreð || non óð|er wíl|e móre.
585Líst ilk | léfful | mán her|tó || ant hér|of óft|e réche;vre sówl|e át|te kírk|e dúre || chés hire | críst to | méche.hé is | úre | sóule | spúse || lúue we | hím wið | mígte,ant wénd|e wé | néure | fro hím || be daí|e né | be nígte.ðog he bé | fro úr|e sígt|e fáren || bé we him | álle | tréwe:590non óð|er lóu|erd ne léu|e wé || ne lúu|e nón|e néwe.léue we | ðát he | líueð | aí || úp on | héuen|ríche,ant ðéð|en hé | sal cúm|en éft || ant bén | us ál|le bríche,fór to | démen | álle | mén || oc nógt | on géu|elíke;hise lóð|e súl|en to héll|e fáren || hise léu|e tó | his ríche.
585Líst ilk | léfful | mán her|tó || ant hér|of óft|e réche;
vre sówl|e át|te kírk|e dúre || chés hire | críst to | méche.
hé is | úre | sóule | spúse || lúue we | hím wið | mígte,
ant wénd|e wé | néure | fro hím || be daí|e né | be nígte.
ðog he bé | fro úr|e sígt|e fáren || bé we him | álle | tréwe:
590non óð|er lóu|erd ne léu|e wé || ne lúu|e nón|e néwe.
léue we | ðát he | líueð | aí || úp on | héuen|ríche,
ant ðéð|en hé | sal cúm|en éft || ant bén | us ál|le bríche,
fór to | démen | álle | mén || oc nógt | on géu|elíke;
hise lóð|e súl|en to héll|e fáren || hise léu|e tó | his ríche.
The writer handles this metre skilfully; the stresses coincide generally with the natural accent and the rhymes are good. The variations from the norm of the verse are those described onp. 328, but in proportion fewer.
For the octosyllable seep. 564. In this metre are ll. 26, 27, 37-46, 48, 49, 54-59, 62-64, 68-71, 230-236, 238, 239, 250, 257-260, 262-271, 276, 278, 279, 281, 282, 284, 285, 288, 289, 292, 293, 322, 323, 325-331, 334-337, 341, 343-354, 359, 371, 372, 383-388, 390-402, 405-416, 419-424, 426-439, 454, 455, 463, 465, 466, 475, 476, 480-491, 494-496, 499-501, 508-511, 516-526, 528-533, 536-541, 546-549, 551-570, 580-583, 596-625, 627-648, 650-667. Of these some are to be emended, others are peculiar in scansion, as, ðo úr|e drígt|en déd | wás 26, ánt | his ég|en ár|en dím 44, His béc | is gét | bifór|en wróng 62, Bíll|eð tíl | his béc | bifóren 68, háueð | ðe wréng | ðe ál | forlóren 69, Ne háu|eð ðát | uením | non mígt 234, so hért | doð hís|e hórn|es ál 258, óc | on swímm|eð bí|forén || ant áll|e ðe ód|re fól|egén 268, 269, álle | ðe óð|re míd|e cúmen 276, bér|en him óf | ðat wát|er grúnd 278, ant bríng|ẹð us in sínn|ẹ ant tér | us slóð 329, ét|en ant drínk|en wíð | unskílle 331, máni | alsó | ðe fóx|es náme 345, wúr|ði árn | to háu|ẹn to sáme 346, dóð | ge hém | non óð|er gód 372, Céthe | gránde | ís a | gret fís 383, ðerforẹ óð|re físs|es tó | him drágen 393, wúneð | ðis fís | wið ðé | se grúnd 401, ne maí | it wún|en ðán | ðer ínne 406, aneí | lond he wén|en ðát | it ís 414, Of stón | mid stél|e ín | ðe túnder 419, wo só | him fól|ẹgeð fínd|eð sónde 431, ne cúm|en hé | nummór|e úp 455, Féle | men háu|en ðe tók|eníng 463, ðat wán|ne hír|e hárd|e tíde 499, slépeð | bi ðe tré | ál in | ðe sádue 524, ðán|ne cúm|eð ðér | on gángen 530, mánie | ant mík|le cúm|en sáken 536, ðis élp | he reís|en só | on stálle 547, Móy|ses wúld|e hím | up reísen 553, mígt|e hé | it nó | wigt fórðen 554, áft|er hím | prophét|es álle 555, ðo rém|ẹden he áll|e lúd|ẹre stéuẹne 561, hem tó | cam críst | urẹ héu|en kíng 564, ðre dág|es ál | he slép|en wílle 607, ðánne | áfter | ðe ðrídd|e daí 608, wið swét|nessẹ áls | ic ít | gu seíe 613, wor só | he wálk|eð ón | ðe lónde 617, wor só | he wálk|eð, wor só | he wúneð 618, ful wél | his lúu|ẹ he táun|ẹde mán 631, ðannẹ hé | was déd | in blód | ant bón 636, v́p | he rós | ant rém|ẹdẹ iwís 637, ínto | his gód | cundnéss|ẹafín644, it óg|en áll|e to bén | us mínde 653, gé | ne háu|eð in hír|ẹ non gálle 654, ðe wírm | ge lét|eð ant líu|ẹð bi séd 658, In wát|ẹr ge is wís | of héu|ẹkes cóme 664, In hól|ẹ of stón | ge mák|ẹð hirẹ nést 666.
Verses of three measures are ll. 28-31, 47, 50-53, 60, 61, 65-67, 152-155, 162, 163, 167 (two lines), 168, 169, 180-183, 218-229, 237, 241-249 (241, 242 originally four lines, see note), 251-256, 272-275, 277, 280, 286, 287, 290, 291, 300-303, 316, 319, 320, 324, 332, 333, 338-340, 358, 373, 374, 389, 403, 404, 417, 418, 450, 456, 457, 461, 464, 467-474, 477, 478, 492, 493, 497, 498, 502, 503, 527, 534, 535, 542-545. Noteworthy are, bó|ðe bi nígt | ant bi daí 47, so rígt|e só | he cúnne 52, ánt | he bíll|eð ðer ón 67 (anapaest in last foot occurs several times in this metre), ðis líf | bitók | neð ðe stí 152, ðát | tu sált | ðurg gón 155, aí | ðe sín | fúle || bisétt|en hé | wíle 167, gáddr|eð ílk|ines séd 180, bóð|ẹ of wúd|ẹ ant of wéd 181, of córn | ánt | of grés 182, ðat man clép|ẹð físi | ologét 221, He ðrág|eð ðe nédd|rẹ of ðe stón 222, wiðínn|ẹ he haú|ẹð brenníng 229, bi swílc | átter | i méne 248, drínk|en hís | wissíng 255, it quénch|et ílc | sinịgíng 256, on óðr|es lénd|ebón 273, gef hím | ðat téð | bifóren 274, ?ant hélp|en hím | to hérten 277, hélp|en him át | his néde 290, god gíu|eð ðér|forẹ méde 291, ge fécch|eð óft|ẹ in ðe tún 301, frét|eð hí|re fílle 319, ánt for his | sínful|e wérk 340, bute frét|eð hír|e fílle 373, ðis fís | ðat is ðús | unríde 389, tíl | it cúm|ẹð ðetíme403, ðat stórm | stíreð | al ðe sé 404, síp|es ón | to fésten 417, ant áll|e úp | to gángen 418, súm ðing | tókneð | bi ðís 461, ant wík|ke ís | herẹ déde 468, ?on wérld|e wún|en hér 493, ðat he múg|en rís|en wíð 503. Verses of two measures are ll. 317, 449 (mánie | ant sílle), 452, 460.
Common Metre consists of alternate octosyllable and three-bar lines arranged in stanzas of four lines, rhyming a : b : a : b. In this are ll. 73-104, 504-507, 512-515. Scan, ðó|re sát|anás | forsákeð 81, to ihés|u críst | him sélf | bitákeð 83, His múð | is gét | wél | unkúð 97, bídd|en bón|e gérn | to góde 101, ánt | his múð | ðus rígten 102, to dón | wel hís|e wíken 515. The stanza, ll. 89-92, is desperate.
Syncope of the middle vowel takes place in filstnẹde 30, heuẹne 49, 51, 562, 565, 639, seuẹne 50 (but seuene 652),sinịging256, iuẹle 344, chauẹles 397, folẹgeð 431, 620, deuẹles 436, slumẹren 452, wunẹden 493, stedẹfast 509, suggẹden 559, sorgẹden 559, remẹden 561, steuẹne 561, taunẹde 631, heuẹkes 664: e is also slurred or lost in ouẹr 48, 629, 630, clepẹð 221, hauẹð 229, ogẹn 284, arẹn 394, forbisnẹde 464, bergẹs 481, cumẹð 543, oðẹ 549, makẹn 556, watẹr 664, makẹð 666; in many other cases there is the alternative of a three-syllable foot, as for instance, of an anapaestic last foot in 502, 604. Hiatus occurs in stille 28, golsipe 245, giuernesse 246, pride 247, 257, alle 264, 418, 540, nede 267, raðe 333, same 339, wulde 354, were 387, eure 402, ðanne 485, 511, name 489, wanne 499, helpe 538, 546, migte 556, oliue 583.
Introduction:Before the middle of the second centuryA.D., there appeared at Alexandria a Greek book, in which marvellous accounts of the nature and properties of certain animals, plants, and stones were used as allegorical and mystical illustrations of the dogmas of the Christian faith. The natural history element was an amalgam of popular conceptions and travellers’ tales, sheltering under the authority ofὁ Φυσιολόγος, the Naturalist, by whom the compiler probably meant Aristotle, and from whom the book itself was in later times called Physiologus. The didactic portion was a product of Alexandrian Judaeo-Christian theology, inspired by similar moralisations in the Septuagint and influenced by the pervading atmosphere of Egyptian nature symbolism.
In its primitive form the book is probably best represented by the version printed in Lauchert, pp. 229-270. It had an amazing success, it passed everywhere with the Christian faith and soon found translators into Ethiopic, Armenian, Syriac (more than once), and Arabic. There is evidence of a prose version in Latin as early as the fifth century; from Latin it passed into most of the literatures of Europe. But the metrical version of Thetbaldus appears to have driven out the older Latin versions, one of which, however, is the main source of the Anglo-Norman poem written by Philippe de Thaün on English ground about 1130A.D.
1-35. Compare generally CM 18641-60.
2.⁊= ant, with the subjunctiveshere,smakemeans if; some explain it by supposing ellipsis of ȝif.
3.smel, sense of smell, power of smelling; Mätzner compares ‘Smel of neose is þe ueorðe of þe vif wittes,’ AR 104/17; ‘Þonne is þe hundes smel for-do,’ ON 822.Smake, perceive by smell; a rare transitive use; see 211/497 for the intransitive, give out a smell.
4. ‘Qualicunque via descendit vallis ad ima,’ T.
5. The second half line is short; read he self filleð.
6.[dun]: supplied in Specimens with a reference to l. 22.
7.deu: Holthausen suggests fen, mud, restoring the alliteration; comp. 195/630.he, the hunter.
8.driueð dun, hastens down; comp. ‘se ferliche ha driuen dun to þe eorðe,’ HM 21/20, ‘driue adun swireforð,’ id. 23/32; with ‘ðeðen,’ 187/364.bergen: Holthausen conjectures dernen, which is apparently not used in ME. of living things: possibly dennen should be read as in l. 25; the writer is fond of such repetitions. There is nothing in T. corresponding to this line.
10-13. ‘Natus non vigilat dum sol se tercio girat | Sed dans rugitum pater ejus suscitat illum,’ T.
11.lið: read lieð, as in l. 15.
12. Holthausen transposes, Til ðe sunne haueð ðries · sinen him abuten. But the inflectional rhyme is sufficient.
13. Transpose, his faðer him reiseð.makeð: perhaps remeð; comp. 193/540.
15.lage: a variant on ‘kinde,’ l. 10, characteristic, habit; comp. ‘þenne hafest þu þes hundes laȝe,’ OEH i. 25/4; ‘Ðe unwise man and forwened child habbeþ boðe on laȝe,’ OEH ii. 41/23, and see 20/63.
16. ‘Qui quociens dormit nunquam sua lumina claudit,’ T. ‘Crederis esse leo vigilanti semper ocello,’ Ruodlieb iv. 85.
17. This interpretation springs from, ‘Catulus leonis Iuda: ad praedam fili mi ascendisti: requiescens accubuisti ut leo, et quasi leaena, quis suscitabit eum?’ Gen. xlix. 9; see Honorius Augustod. 935 c.
18.hil: comp. ‘Twen heuone hil and helle dik,’ GE 281.
20.wu—liked, how (anticipating ‘hu,’ l. 22), when it pleased him; similar is ‘hu,’ 192/504.ligten: see 141/42 and comp. 199/79.
21. Comp. ‘ah þurh þe mon ꝥ he wes | ischrudd ⁊ ihudd wið, | he bicherde þene feont, | ⁊ schrenchte þen alde deouel, | ⁊ teschrapet his heaued,’ SK 1181.derne, cunning.
22. The missing half line may have been something like, to ðis dale niðer, as in l. 4.
23.dennede him, hid himself as in a den, suggested by den in l. 8; comp. ‘caldeliche dennet in a beastes cribbe,’ OEH i. 277/29.
24.to manne frame, for men’s benefit;manneispl. gen., but the original reading was probably manne to frame with the usualdative: comp. 15/110; ‘naht him to mede ac hus to freme ⁊ to fultume,’ OEH i. 217/17; ‘folce to frofre,’ Beowulf 14: see 3/37, 85/107, 86/126, 110/295, 186/323, 187/360.
27.doluen, buried; comp. ‘Brend and doluen was ðat folc soth,’ GE 3685. so foralsowould improve the rhythm; comp. 177/33.
29.it: formal subject; comp. ‘Til hit sprang dai liȝt,’ KH 124 note: similar is 114/90.
30.filstnede, helped; a derivative beside the more common filsten; comp. ‘He badd hiss maȝȝstre fillstnenn himm,’ Orm i. 181/5236, 213/6170.
32. A half line is missing, something like, liues louerd so he is, corresponding to ‘mortis vindex’ in T. Comp. 147/149.vs—holden, to hold us to life, maintain us alive, save us from death; add to before holden; comp. ‘Butt iff þatt Godd himm hullpe þær, | ⁊ helde himm þær to life,’ Orm ii. 63/12033: similarly ‘þa alde;þe to fehte heom scolde halden,’L 9458, the elders who had to keep them fighting. But this transitive use is rare.
33.wakeð, keeps watch. ‘Tu nos custodis, tu nullo tempore dormis | Pervigil ut pastor ne demat de grege raptor,’ T. This is the explanation of natura iii.hirde: some such word as wakeman 113/56 would restore the alliteration.
35.heren to, obey. OE.hīeranwith this meaning takes the dative, ‘Ne mæg nan mon twæm hlafordum hieran,’ Cura Past. 128/23, but it is rare in ME.nowor wille, nowhere, in no case, never, astray; comp. ‘ðo fleg agar fro sarray, | . . . | In ðe diserd, wil and weri,’ GE 28/973, 5; ‘In a foreste þay were gone wylle,’ Ysumbras 157.
37.kindeis without rhyme and Holthausen suggests that a line like l. 263 or l. 653 has fallen out. T. has ‘Esse ferunt aquilam super omne volatile primam | Quae se sic renovat quando senecta gravat’: something like, ðe moste ðat on lift we finde, would correspond, comp. 188/384.
39. ‘renovabitur ut aquilae iuventus tua,’ Ps. cii. 5.
40.cumeð ut of elde, divests himself of old age.
41.Siðen, after, practically means when; comp. ‘Siðen ghe brocte us to woa, | Adam gaf hire name eua,’ GE 237, not ‘since,’ Mätzner. It is an adverb at l. 70 and nine other places, meaning afterwards. Withunweldecomp. ‘Vn-welde woren and in win, | Here owen limes hem wið-in,’ GE 347.
42.wrong, awry; OWScand. rangr; comp. ‘⁊ all þatt ohht iss wrang ⁊ crumb | Shall effnedd beon ⁊ rihhtedd,’ Orm i. 321/9207; see also 177/62, 178/69, 70: al to is then altogether, exceedingly. But Mätzner assumes a participle *to-wrungen, which is without parallel. T. has, corresponding to ll. 61, 62, ‘Est autem rostrum quo carpitur esca retortum,’ but nothing here; with ll. 41-43 comp. ‘Solet dici de Aquila dum senectute premitur, quod rostrum illius aduncetur et incurvetur, ita ut sumere cibum nequeat et macie languescat,’ H. de S. Victor, ii. 417.
46. ‘Fons ubi sit quaerit qui nunquam surgere desit,’ T., from ‘fons aquarum, cuius non deficient aquae,’ Isa. lviii. 11.
48.⁊rubricated as though beginning another line.teð, proceeds; comp. 184/266, 274; ‘To-warde egipte he gunne ten,’ GE 1953.
50.seuene: he flies through seven to the highest, eighth, heaven; comp. ‘Eiȝte firmamenz þare beoth: swuche ase we i-seoth. | þe Ouemeste is þe riȝtte heouene: in ȝwan þe steorrene beoth. | for godes riche is þare a-boue: þat last with-outen ende | . . . | þare bi-neoþe beoth seoue firmamenz,’ SE. Legendary, 311/413.
52. as directly in front as he is able.
53.houeð, remains poised, floats; comp. 188/395, 189/409, Minot iii. 83.
54.swideð—fligt, burns all his wings; comp. ‘In dai swiþe noht sunne (MS. sinne) þe sal,’ Surtees Psalter, MS. E. cxx. 6 (= ‘Per diem sol non uret te’). T. has, ‘Tunc sibi sol ambas incendit (a. l.accendit) fervidus alas. | Et minuit grandes alleviatque graves.’
56. ‘ex calore poris apertis et pennis relaxatis subito descendens in fontem ruit,’ Bartolomeus Anglicus, lib. xii.
57.mide, therewith; comp. 212/513 and see1/19 note.
58.grund, bottom, see 188/401.
59.heil ⁊ sund: comp. 184/279, 188/402; ‘Tel him ꝥ þou ert sund and hale,’ CM 5112; ‘hol and isunde,’ OEM 42/186.
61. If his beak were not crooked; not ‘unzuverlässig,’ Mätzner, but as artificers still use true, noun and verb, in various expressions, as ‘out of true,’ ‘to true up,’ &c.
62.biforn, in front, the upper mandible has curved over the lower, as S. Augustine explains, iv. 1. 839: it is mostly used with verbs of motion, as at 76/10.
64.tilen, procure; comp. 179/103, 182/199; ‘In swinc ðu salt tilen ði mete,’ GE 363.
65. with any benefit to himself. Comp. ‘Mare hit hem deð to herme þenne to gode,’ OEH i. 27/12; ‘hi þonne ne mihtan nawþer ne him sylfum, ne þære heorde . . . nænige gode beon,’ BH 45/14. ‘Vix valet ex aliquo sumere pauca cibo,’ T.
67.billeð: comp. 186/316, 334, 338; ‘ad petram elidit, immo comminuit et conterit,’ Neckam, De Naturis Rerum, 72.
69.wrengðe, distortion: derivative of wrong; apparently here only: see Archiv cxxvii. 47. Add al before forloren.
70.rigte, straightened.
75.sinnes dernwould in any other context mean sins done in secret, but T. has ‘Est homo peccatis que sunt ab origine matris | Qualis adest (a. l.idem est) aquila, sed renovatur ita,’ which requires the sense of original sin not manifest in word or deed. This is clearer in Philippe de Thaün, ‘Pur general pechié (i.e. the universal sin of the human race) | Est enfes baptizié, | E quant il est levez | Cum aigle est renuvez; | Quant il est baptiziez | Dunc est rejuveigniez: | Vertu e veement | En baptisteire prent,’ 78/2115-22. The infant is old in inherited sin, in baptism he renounces Satan and becomes a Christian, then he learns priest’s lore, pater noster and creed: ll. 93-102 are simply variations on the preceding. ‘Nubes transcendit solisque incendia sentit. | Mundum cum pompisdespiciendo suis. | Fit novus in Christo ter mersus gurgite vivo. | . . . | Os terit obliquum per verba precancia Christum,’ T.
78.nimeð: see 213/539.
79goes with l. 78, he must betake himself to the Church, before he can find repentance; his eyes were previously too dim to see his guilt.
81. Transpose, ðore satanas forsakeð, and for l. 83 read to ihesu crist him self bitakeð: comp. ‘Ich wole ȝou nou bitake ihesu crist,’ E. E. Poems 106/165.
84.mede, reward, gives a poor sense; beten his nede would suit the context; comp. 184/280, ‘For he wende bete his nede,’ Rel. Ant. ii. 278/10; ‘er he bete þy nede,’ Lib. Desconus, 1582.
86.lereð&c., learns what the priest teaches, i.e. the articles of the faith.
88.dreccheð, tarries: comp. ‘ne wold he ðor | Ouer on nigt drechen nunmor,’ GE 1420.
89-92.This stanza is imperfect, ll. 89, 91 do not rhyme. The former is on an erasure. There is nothing corresponding in the original: it is probably due to the scribe.
89.to godeward: not toward God;wardis a mere tag, as at 179/115, 180/146, 184/259, 194/588; comp. ‘frommard,’ 58/66 note, 70/165; ‘efterward,’ 77/63 note. For the construction comp. 89/28, 96/58, ‘ich hopie to mede,’ AR 148/16; ‘hopieð to here michele wisdome,’ VV 67/13, 131/18; SJ 29/16; ‘forðæm hie gemunon ðone tohopan þe hie to ðæm gestrionum habbað,’ Cura Past. 344/1.
90.lereð: Emerson restores the rhyme by reading leteð; but ‘leten of’ is apparently always accompanied by an adverb of degree; see44/260 note.
91.ðatapparently refers to ‘gode’ l. 89: in one edition of the Latin original ‘solis incendia’ is glossed ‘iusticie calores.’
93.funt fat: probably here only in ME. for the usual fantston, as at 85/101; CM 29200: OE.fant-fæt.
95. The punctuation of Mätzner and Morris, buten a litel; wat is tat? involves taking ‘litel’ as a little thing. The meaning appears to be, but a small something (= a slight imperfection) is that his mouth is still crooked. Comp. ‘And þeonne sum lutel hwat he mei leggen on þe,’ AR 346/22; ‘Ah ȝette me an hwet,’ SK 767.
96.untrewe, with double meaning, crooked and unfaithful.
97, 98.unkuð wið, unacquainted with, not knowing (insciens); comp. 191/469 and ‘uncuð . . . of,’ 188/396, apparently the only three places where the word has this meaning. Elsewhere uncuð with the dativemeans unknown (ignotus); comp. ‘hit is us uncuð ⁊ ungeliefedlic,’ Orosius 214/21.
99. Whatever he does, under all circumstances; comp. 34/86 note.
100. He shall find out what is wanting to him.
101, 102. ‘Os terit obliquum per verba precancia Christum,’ T. Afterbone, a word of one syllable has dropped out, probably gern.
103, 104. ‘Panis is est Christus, fit sine morte cibus,’ T.
105. With this section should be compared OEH ii. 199, which deals with the same subject.
106.o werlde, in the world: comp. 180/140.
107.te name, a predicative phrase: him has fallen out before it. Comp. ‘fox is hire to name,’ 185/298 = fox is for name to her; ‘him . . . se gemyndega papa Petrus to naman scop,’ Bede 405/31 (‘cui papa memoratus Petri nomen imposuerat’). Mätzner quotes ‘þam is to naman nemned Drihten,’ Psal. lxvii. 4 (Dominus nomen est ei). A curious variation is seen in ‘þat lond þat is to water nemned,’ OEH ii. 177/3. The usual ‘bi name’ is at 176/24. For the noun toname, comp. ‘Ðes wimman hadde ec on toname magdalene,’ OEH ii. 143/12.
108. A padded line; the last half was probably, ⁊ elde forwurðen.
109.him: see80/47 note.ten: the bestiaries say forty.
110.lene: read megre; ‘jejunans macie perhorret,’ T.iuele, with difficulty; an early instance of the meaning. ‘Vix movens sese veniensque tandem,’ T.
111.craft . . . kiðeð: comp. ‘Who so kouth wele his craft þare might it kith,’ Minot v. 69 note.
112.ðat . . . on, in which: see1/3 note.
113. Narrow the hole is, but he forces himself to go through it: comp. ‘Long silence ⁊ wel iwust nedeð þe þouhtes up touward þer heouene,’ AR 72/17.Nimeð: see213/539 note. ‘Querit angustum lapidis foramen | . . . | Inde pertransit spoliatque carnem | Pelle vetusta,’ T.: ‘cumeð to ane þurlede ston ⁊ criepeð nedlinge þureh nerewe hole ⁊ bileueð hire hude baften hire,’ OEH ii. 199/25. Transpose him nedeð.
115.wardis merely expletive; see178/89 note.
116.or, previously, before drinking; comp. ‘siðen,’ 118.speweð: the explanation is in 181/159, 160: comp. ‘heo schal speowen al ut þet wunder,’ AR 346/6; ‘þet is þet beste þeonne speowen hit ut anon mid schrifte to þe preoste,’ id. 240/6; 119/91, 92, mostly with ut. Read here, Oc he speweð ut or. al ðe uenim ðor; for or : ðor comp. GE 4033 with 3845.
118. Transpose, inog siðen drinkeð, making a rhyming line.
120.of . . . naked, stripped of, without:nacodtakes the genitive. Read, Ðanne ðe neddre is newe. ⁊ of his hid naked: comp. 181/162.
121. An abridged line; read, ⁊ in bodi ⁊ in brest. bare of his atter. Comp. ‘helden ham cleane ai fra fleschliche fulðen ibodi ⁊ ibreoste,’ HM 23/1. Forofcomp. ‘bare of euch blisse,’ SK 845; Minot vi. 25 note.
123. Transpose, him fro.sulde, would be bound to, obliged to.
124. Read, . cof ⁊ kene: comp. ‘Biforenn kafe ⁊ kene,’ Orm 19962. In AR 66/13 ‘þe coue,’ wrongly translated ‘the chough’ means, the keen one; similarly, ‘þe luðere coue deouel,’ id. 66/14.
125.rigteð him: ‘Surgit in ipsum,’ T.
126.to ded makenmay be a construction by analogy of don, bringen &c., but it is more likely that to has been wrongly repeated and should be omitted.forðen, further, effect; comp. 184/280, 192/533, 193/554; ‘for to forðen is fendes wil,’ GE 341.
127.wat if: elliptical for, what results if? as at 181/170, what matters it if? Transpose, wurðe war, be on his guard: comp. 9/122, 48/330, 203/204.
128.figteð: read fliteð, contends, offers resistance; comp. ‘Ierusalem ⁊ babilonie . . . fliteð eure ⁊ winneð,’ OEH ii. 51/10.fareð&c., advances fighting against him; ‘sequiturque multum,’ T. Foron, comp. ‘hie alle on þone Cyning wærun feohtende,’ AS. Chron. ed. Plummer, 48/4; ‘for to finde me a freke to feȝte on my fille,’ Anturs of Arther, 15/27.
129. Aftersiðeninsert he seð · ðat, after he sees that he must needs.
130. ‘Negligit corpus, facit inde scutum; | Verticis vero tenet usque curam, | Ne moriatur,’ T. Comp. ‘Ðare næddre ȝeapnesse is ðat hie lið al abuten itrand, ⁊ hire heaued on midden, for to berȝen ðat heaued,’ VV 101/19.
131.litel—of, little he cares about, he does not much mind what happens to: see8/84 note.bute, if only.
133-142 are based on ‘Fonte qui sacro semel es novatus, | Denuo peccans, silicernus extas. | Ergo sis semper imitator anguis, | Cum veterascis,’ T.
134.Atte kirke dure, at the font, placed symbolically at the entrance to the church: comp. ‘heore godfaderes ⁊ heore godmoderes scullen onswerie for hem et þe chirche dure ⁊ beo in borȝes et þe fonstan,’ OEH i. 73/29.
135. Transpose, on him to leuen. Forleuen . . . luuiensee143/73 note.
136. Forbodes, hestes should probably be read; comp. 130/78; ‘þe heste of hali chirche,’ OEH i. 85/18.
137-140. Re-arrange, If ðu hauest is broken. al ðu forbredes. | forwurðes ⁊ forwelkes. eche lif to wolden. | Elded art fro blis. so ðis wirm o werld is.forgelues: only here; it may be connected with OE.geolwian, and so mean, to spoil by becoming yellow, to fade. But it is suspect; possibly the original word was forwelkes, dost wither. There is nothing in the original to correspond with l. 138; the adapter had perhaps in mind ‘decidat, induret et arescat,’ Ps. lxxxix. 6.Eche lif to wolden, so far as the attainment of eternal life is concerned.Elded, severed by age, is the writer’s interpretation of silicernus. Silicernium, a funeral feast, is used in Terence, Andria iv. 2. 48, as an abusive term for an old man, hence L.L. silicernus, senex; but the Catholicon, citing this place in T., says ‘Item silicernus ponitur quandoque pro firmo et duro ut silex.’