Chalk Work.
The blackboard has been well called the great weapon of the modern educator; this is especially true in reference to instruction in an art dealing with lines, curves and figures.
Chalk-crayonFig. 6.
Fig. 6.
Many a man can chalk out on a blackboard, or on a piece of sheet-iron, or on the floor, just what he wants to show, and make his meaning very plain; hence, in every workshop, and many other places, a blackboard is more than useful, and it has been said that no draughting office is complete without one.
Fig. 6represents a chalk-crayon.
BlackboardsFig. 7.Fig. 8.
Fig. 7.Fig. 8.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 8.
Figs. 7 and 8need no explanation, as they represent two forms of the well-known blackboard.
Chalk lines have this advantage—they are easily altered or rubbed out when not needed any longer. The work executed upon a blackboard is mostly done by hand, without aid from instruments; a few tools, however, are useful—such as, 1, large wooden blackboard compasses holding a crayon, which are made and sold by the trade in size twelve inches to thirty inches in length; 2, a straight-edge; and 3, some crayons. With the compasses circles and part of the circle can be made, and with the straight-edge the larger lines can be drawn.
These instruments are shown onpage 29, and are, 1, compasses, for holding chalk for making circles; 2, a tee-square; 3, a straight-edge; 4, a protractor for measuring angles; 5, a triangle 60° and 30°; 6, a brass holder for crayons.
Blackboard Drawing.—The use of a blackboard comes principally and properly under the head offree-hand drawing, but its importance is such that a separate division of the volume is assigned to it.
Instruments
Thus, chalk-work may be considered the first lesson in “free-hand,” as all the examples can also be most profitably practiced with pencil and paper.
Very rapid drawing upon the board should not be encouraged, as it is likely not to be accurate enough; again, the board should be entirely free from grease. Cloths, sponges or chamois skin rubbers may be used to erase or change the chalk marks. Vertical lines should be drawn from above downward; short lines should be drawn with the fingers alone, those somewhat longer with the hand, using the wrist-joint; the still longer lines with the forearm, using the elbow-joint; those longer yet with the whole arm, using the shoulder-joint; lines should always be drawn with a uniform motion, slow enough for the eye to follow.
Practice in chalk-work should alternate with sketching in a sketchbook and with geometrical drawing—to be hereafter described. The student should practice a short time on the board, at least once a week; large sizes are the most profitable for the representations to be made; when drawing in different directions the hand should be turned, not the paper or board; the hand should never be allowed to obstruct the sight, hence the hand and fingers should be held in a position of freedom—with fingers not nearer than 11⁄2or 2 inches from the board.
Note.—The first lesson of any kind the author received in drawing was to make a straight line; this was effected by holding the pencil nearly erect and guiding it along by the aid of the little finger held pressed against the edge of a board; this was a useful item of knowledge, as proved by passing years.A well-known artist, in telling his early experience, said: “The first thing I was taught was to draw a line, divide it, erect a perpendicular from its center, and afterwards to divide the angle made by the perpendicular.” In answer to a question asking how long he was kept at the lines, he replied, “about two months—or a month or two,” indicating that even the longer time would have been well spent in learning to draw a straight line.
Note.—The first lesson of any kind the author received in drawing was to make a straight line; this was effected by holding the pencil nearly erect and guiding it along by the aid of the little finger held pressed against the edge of a board; this was a useful item of knowledge, as proved by passing years.
A well-known artist, in telling his early experience, said: “The first thing I was taught was to draw a line, divide it, erect a perpendicular from its center, and afterwards to divide the angle made by the perpendicular.” In answer to a question asking how long he was kept at the lines, he replied, “about two months—or a month or two,” indicating that even the longer time would have been well spent in learning to draw a straight line.
Every visible object is bounded by lines which enable the observer to determine its shape. If theselines are straight or curved, the shape of the object is regular; if broken, the shape of the object is irregular.
The elements, then, of form are lines, straight, curved, or broken, and these, therefore, furnish the beginning of all instruction in free-hand or mechanical drawing.
Fig. 15shows six lines—upright and perpendicular, with points or “dots” indicated at the top and bottom of each line; to draw these, proceed thus:
Straight linesFig. 15.Fig. 16.
Fig. 15.Fig. 16.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 16.
Fig. 16.
The learner should stand with his right shoulder opposite the board, and the weight of the hand and the arm should be allowed to fall naturally; now, make on the board two points, one being six inches above the other, these being merely “dots,” shown at the ends of the lines,figs. 15, etc., and made with two motions; the line between the points should now be drawn not too quickly from the upper to the lower point; three movements of the hand and arm complete the line; to draw the other five lines the movements have simply to be repeated.
If the student pronounces to himself “one,” “two,” “three,” at each motion, it will be helpful; in this exercise,fig. 15, the aim is to make six lines, each line being parallel to the first. Again, in the example, it is intended that the lower point should be made first, next the upper, and lastly the line drawn from the upper to the lower point, but the order may be reversed; atonethe upper point, attwothe lower, atthreethe stroke upwards to complete the line.
To make these as shown infig. 16, proceed as follows: With the wordonemake a point, withtwoanother point six inches at the left, withthreedraw a straight line from the left point to the right. All added lines should be parallel: for practice, reverse the process thus,one, make a “point,” attwoanother point at the right, atthreedraw line to the left.
The student will note that the two motions—at the wordsoneandtwo—are to fix the positions of the ends of the lines; this practice will be found useful in the most advanced examples and an item of elementary practice never to be forgotten—like the help to be derived by the first round of a ladder.
Oblique linesFig. 17.Fig. 18.
Fig. 17.Fig. 18.
Fig. 17.
Fig. 17.
Fig. 18.
Fig. 18.
In drawing oblique straight lines as shown infig. 17, at the wordonelet the student make the lower point; at the wordtwothe upper, a little to theright of the lower; at the wordthreedraw a line quickly from the upper to the lower point. In pronouncing the wordsone,two,three, let the student make the additional parallel lines.
As shown infig. 18, at the wordonemake the lower point; at the wordtwothe upper point, a littleto the left; at the wordthreedraw a line rapidly from the upper to the lower point, and “timing” the process by repeatingone,two,three, make the additional parallel lines.
Broken lineFig. 19.
Fig. 19.
A broken line is composed of two or more straight lines at angles to each other (seefig. 19). To draw them begin (saying)one, make a point;twoa point below at the left;three, a point above at the left;four, draw a line from the left hand point to the lower point; at the wordfive, from the lower point to the upper right hand point. For practice draw numerous lines in the same way, keeping them parallel to each other, as shown infig. 20.
Fig. 20.Fig. 21.
Fig. 20.Fig. 21.
Fig. 20.
Fig. 20.
Fig. 21.
Fig. 21.
LinesFig. 22.Fig. 24.
Fig. 22.Fig. 24.
Fig. 22.
Fig. 22.
Fig. 24.
Fig. 24.
LinesFig. 23.Fig. 25.
Fig. 23.Fig. 25.
Fig. 23.
Fig. 23.
Fig. 25.
Fig. 25.
In example,fig. 21, the arrangement of the points is changed—let the student draw at the words, as follows:One, a point;two, a point above at the left;three, a point below at the left;four, draw from the point at the left to the upper point;five, from the upper point to the lower right hand point; continue to add parallel lines to complete the figure as shown.
Figs. 22and23are given as examples to practice, making first the points and then the connecting lines and afterward the parallel lines to complete the figures.
To draw curved lines, as shown infig. 24. At the wordone, point; at the wordtwo, point three inches directly above;three, at the same distance above again make a point; now draw a curve as shown, joining the middle point and the upper point; now draw the curve as shown below it; finally complete figure as shown.
Curved linesFig. 26.Fig. 27.
Fig. 26.Fig. 27.
Fig. 26.
Fig. 26.
Fig. 27.
Fig. 27.
LinesFig. 28.
Fig. 28.
CurvesFig. 29.Fig. 30.
Fig. 29.Fig. 30.
Fig. 29.
Fig. 29.
Fig. 30.
Fig. 30.
Figs. 25to30are to be practiced, making first the points and then connecting them by the curves to complete the figures.
When two or more students are working together, with each having a blackboard, the counting may be in concert—or a teacher could count for a class. In these line examples care should be used in making them of uniform length. There is a difference to be noted between a crooked line and a broken line, the latter being a straight line and the former deviating from it.
Square chalk crayons are the best for hand work, as lines of an even or uniform width can be drawn with them.
A very fine effect is produced by using two thicknesses of chalk, one being double the thickness of the other; the heavy lines being used on the shade side of objects will produce a good effect, giving thickness and body to the object.
Round chalk crayons are used in the compasses to draw circles, but hand lines drawn with them are not so neat as those produced with the square-shaped chalk.
To obliterate or remove the construction, or false lines made on the blackboard, a wooden handle two inches in diameter with a cone end 3 or 4 inches long, covered with chamois skin or soft cloth tightly wrapped round the cone and fastened with a tack or drawing pin, makes the best implement to erase lines not required, the point of the cone will remove these without destroying the lines or curves which meet them.
Sponges, chamois skin or cloth rubbers are used to rub out the chalk drawings and clean the blackboard.
The best height for a diagram on the blackboard is not higher than the head, nor lower than the elbow.
Horizontal lines should be made from the left to the right; the body and arm being moved with the hand, and kept in the same relative position with it, will steady the hand.
Curved lines to the left should be drawn first, enabling the eye to take in not only the curve in process of formation but that already made.
Passing the crayon in the hand, over the intended curve previous to marking it, will guide the eye and give confidence to the hand in chalking the curve.
A proper distance from the blackboard is essential, the face being about two feet away from it.
Draw with the whole arm extended from the shoulder-joint, not from the elbow or wrist.
Crayon holderFig. 31.
Fig. 31.
TERMS DEFINITIONS
ELECTRA.
ELECTRA.