Photograph by Grignon.Figure 33.—A new note in contemporary floor covering is achieved in this sculptured, leaf-design, Wilton broadloom. The leaf design is achieved in the weave. The interesting lamp has a brass mask mounted on wood.
Photograph by Grignon.Figure 33.—A new note in contemporary floor covering is achieved in this sculptured, leaf-design, Wilton broadloom. The leaf design is achieved in the weave. The interesting lamp has a brass mask mounted on wood.
Photograph by Grignon.
Figure 33.—A new note in contemporary floor covering is achieved in this sculptured, leaf-design, Wilton broadloom. The leaf design is achieved in the weave. The interesting lamp has a brass mask mounted on wood.
Unit VIII.—FLOOR COVERINGS AND FABRICS
Fibers used in the manufacture of home furnishing materials are both of animal and of vegetable origin. The former include the true and "wild" silks; wool, or sheep's hair; mohair, the hair of the Angora goat; horsehair, chiefly from the tail and mane; and in limited quantities the hair of the cow, pig, camel, and rabbit. Vegetable fibers include cotton, rayon, flax hemp, jute, ramie, kapok, palm fibers, moss, coir, and paper made from wood pulp. Their general characteristics are discussed here.
Silk.—True silk is produced by the mulberry silk moth of China. Just how ancient the art of sericulture and the spinning and weaving of silk may be we do not know; but there is no doubt that it had reached a state of considerable development 4,500 years ago. It reached Japan about 1,600 years ago, and India somewhat later. About the year A. D. 550 two Persian monks brought eggs of the silk worm from China to Constantinople in a hollow cane, and the western silk industry was started.
The "wild" silks are produced by other worms, feeding for the most part on other leaves than mulberry. Most of the so-calledtussahsilk comes from the oak-feeding tussah worm, a native of Mongolia. The fiber is coarser than that of true silk, and so difficult to dye effectively that fabrics woven from it are usually left in the natural ecru or pale brown color.
Wool.—The many varieties of sheep yield wools which differ markedly in fineness, length of staple (2 to 16 inches for use in textiles), strength, resilience, and spinning quality. Accordingly, wools are sorted and "blended" before spinning, to suit the requirements of the particular fabric to be woven. Carpetings require the fairly long staple and fairly coarse fiber found in wools from Scotland, Russia, Iceland, Australia, New Zealand, Egypt, China, India, and the East Indies. The unsurpassable carpet wools of Persia and Asia Minor are largely consumed locally. Carpet wools naturally differ widely in desirability and cost, as do the many processes necessary to prepare wool for the loom. These differences require emphasis from the salesman in the demonstration of concealed values.
Most carpet wools arrive at the factory in the fleece, matted, dirty, and greasy. They are blended according to formula; passed first through a machine which separates the tangled masses and beats out free dirt; then to the scouring baths, which remove all grease and other impurities; then, after passing through a series of powerful wringers, to the dryer; and finally to the picker, from which they emerge ready for spinning.
Worsted yarns, used in making fine Wiltons, body Brussels, Wilton velvets and some chenilles, result from a succession of processes in which the fibers are placed parallel, the short ones eliminated, and the long fibers combed and drawn out into a fine, even "roving," which is spun into a thread, two such threads then being tightly twisted together to form a single-ply worsted yarn. These single-ply yarns are then twisted together to form two-ply, three-ply, or four-ply yarns according to the specifications for a particular weave.
Woolen yarnsare made from short staple wool, and depend for their strength upon the minute serrations or scales on the surfaces of the wool fibers, which cause them to adhere, or felt, when held tightly together. The carding machine used in preparing these wools for spinning thoroughly intermixes the fibers instead of drawing them into parallel formations, as for worsteds. The loose roving is then spun into single strands, which are twisted into two-, three-, or four-ply yarns as in the case of worsteds.
Mohair.—The hair of the Angora goat is closely allied to wool, typically 7 to 8 inches long. It is lustrous, resilient, and enduring, but harder to spin than wool because the hair scales are not fully developed. Mohair fabrics have been used in the Orient since time immemorial, and they were popular in England in the early eighteenth century.
There are wide differences in mohair upholstery fabrics, based upon the quality of wool, number of points per square inch, and height of pile.
Horsehair.—The hair of the horse's mane and tail is used as a single filament without spinning in the production of upholstery chair cloths, and for floor coverings. In the form of curled hair it is the most resilient and costly upholstery stuffer.
Pig's bristles and cow hair are used for the same purpose. The soft hair of the camel is used in weaving certain oriental rugs, and rabbit hair in certain felts.
Cotton.—This textile is in universal use and requires no comment. The silky appearance of some damasks and other cotton fabrics iscaused by mercerizing, a process of treating cotton in either fiber or fabric form with caustic alkali.
Rayon.—This term, which in French means ray or beam, has lately been applied to artificial silks produced by any of four different industrial processes. Viscose silk, made chiefly from sulfite pulp cellulose, constitutes the great bulk of the rayon production today. It is now often combined with natural fibers, particularly wool and cotton, in drapery and upholstery fabrics which afford the luster of rayon plus the strength of wool or cotton.
Flax.—This plant has been cultivated since the stone age, and was regarded as the most important plant of commerce until near the end of the eighteenth century, when it was superseded by cotton. Flax fiber yields linen; also from it is obtained the tow used as a stuffer in upholstering.
Hemp.—The fiber of this plant closely approaches flax in strength but not in luster. It is used to a very limited extent in drapery textiles and cheap carpets. The waste fibers are also known as tow, and sometimes used in place of flax tow.
Jute.—A plant, grown chiefly in India, the lustrous fiber of which is used to a considerable extent in the manufacture of cretonnes, damasks, and other decorative textiles.
Ramie.—This plant, also known as rhea and China grass and cultivated chiefly in China, yields a fiber of great strength and a luster about like that of mercerized cotton. It is used in the manufacture of grass cloth, and also of ramie velvets, which are firm but less lustrous than linen velvets.
Kapok.—A tree cultivated in Java for the production of down; called in commerce kapok or "silk-cotton." Before the commercial development of rayon it made considerable headway as a textile fiber, but now is used chiefly as a stuffer for mattresses and pillows. Kapok has great resiliency and resistance to water.
Palm fiber.—Shredded leaves of the palmetto, used as a stuffer in upholstering.
Moss.—The hairlike filament left after the soft outer tissue of southern moss has been removed; used as a stuffer.
Coir.—Fiber prepared from the husk of the cocoanut; used in making porch rugs and brush mats.
Paper.—Spun into coarse threads and used in the manufacture of so-called fiber rugs.
Hand-made tapestries are woven on a loom harnessed with thin warps, by passing a shuttle containing a colored yarn over and under the warp thread where the color is required to form the pattern.In every line of weft or filling, the shuttle must be changed every time a change of color is required by the cartoon, or colored drawing of the design from which the weaver works. He sees the face of the tapestry, if at all, only in a mirror placed in front of the loom. Tapestry weaving requires a high degree of artistic and technical skill; hand-made tapestries are costly.
Machine-made tapestries are produced on a Jacquard loom, of wool, cotton, silk, or rayon, or in mixtures of these fibers. They vary enormously in appearance and durability.
Although the term velvet and its French equivalent (velours) may be used interchangeably, the general custom is to call drapery fabrics velours, and upholstery fabrics velvets. Both are made in a great variety of plain, stripe, and brocaded effects, and with the pile all cut, all uncut (looped) or else partially cut. Machine-made velvets and velours are made from silk, rayon, cotton, linen, ramie and wool, usually 50 inches wide and in a range of prices and qualities practically unlimited. In some of the cheaper upholstery velours the design is embossed, or depressed by a stamping machine, but in others it is placed in relief by cutting away the pile of the ground.
Plushes are long-pile velvets, formerly of silk or wool but now mostly of mohair. Properly their pile is less close and firm than that of velvets, but some of the finest quality mohair plushes have a very close, erect pile. In ordinary qualities the pile leans sharply, and in the panne type it is so flat as to have somewhat the same effect as lustrous satin.
These terms are now loosely used. "Frieze" in French means curled or frizzed, and the word properly refers to a class of plushes in which the pile has been completely or partially frizzled. It is now applied to a variety of texture effects in velvet and plush, among them uncut patterns on a cut-pile ground; cut patterns on an uncut ground; plain velvets with alternating lines of cut and uncut pile; and uncut velvets.
Satins and sateens are made in the same way; the former of silk and the latter of cotton, plain or mercerized. The weave is technically a twill, but so modified that the diagonal lines are not visible, and the whole surface is smooth and lustrous.
It is difficult to define these weaves in a few words, and quite impossible to describe the extraordinary variety of textile effects produced by modern manufacturers, both in the basic weaves and in combination of two or more techniques.
Photo by Grignon.Figure 34.—Authenticity is stressed in this handsome sofa upholstered in a fabric which is an exact reproduction of a print used more than a century ago. The monotone print is in a soft brown tone. Accompanying the sofa is a duck-foot cocktail table with removable glass tray, and lovely gold framed portrait of Jenny Lind. The Axminster rug is a "texture chintz" in a tile green with small red, beige, and brown flowers.
Photo by Grignon.Figure 34.—Authenticity is stressed in this handsome sofa upholstered in a fabric which is an exact reproduction of a print used more than a century ago. The monotone print is in a soft brown tone. Accompanying the sofa is a duck-foot cocktail table with removable glass tray, and lovely gold framed portrait of Jenny Lind. The Axminster rug is a "texture chintz" in a tile green with small red, beige, and brown flowers.
Photo by Grignon.
Figure 34.—Authenticity is stressed in this handsome sofa upholstered in a fabric which is an exact reproduction of a print used more than a century ago. The monotone print is in a soft brown tone. Accompanying the sofa is a duck-foot cocktail table with removable glass tray, and lovely gold framed portrait of Jenny Lind. The Axminster rug is a "texture chintz" in a tile green with small red, beige, and brown flowers.
Damasksare pileless figured fabrics in which the pattern is produced by exposing the warp threads, and the ground by exposing the weft threads; or the reverse. They may be made with both warp and weft in the satin weave, in which case the only contrast between pattern and ground is that caused by the direction of the lines; or with warp satin figures on a weft ground of taffeta or twill weave; or with weft satin figures on a ground of contrasting weave. Warp and weft may be of exactly the same color; or of two tones of one hue; or of two different hues. More than two colors are possible only through the device of striping, where warp threads of additional hues are introduced to form stripes which necessarily run the wholelength of the piece. Damasks are made of silk, rayon, wool, cotton, mohair, linen, or jute, or in mixtures of two or more of these fibers.
Armureslook like twilled weave damasks, except that they have small raised patterns produced by floating warp threads.
Brocadesare embroidery effects produced by floating wefts on the surface of damask, satin, taffeta, and other weaves. Gold or silver metal threads are sometimes introduced in the figures.
Brocateleswere originally somewhat coarse fabrics of silk and wool or silk and cotton with designs produced by the brocade weave. The term is now also applied to a type of heavy satin damask in which the satin figure is on a lustrous ground of the same or contrasting color.
Printed fabrics.—Both hand-and machine-made printed fabrics are produced in an enormous variety; on linen, cotton, silk, rayon, mohair, wool, and jute grounds; and on plain twill, rep, damask, velvet, and other grounds.
1.Printed linensare made on grounds which vary in fineness and smoothness according to the scale and decorative character of the design. Hand-blocked linens vary in price with the quality of materials and craftsmanship, and also with the number of blockings required to form the design. In recent years both linen and cotton grounds have to some extent been machine-printed with wooden rollers instead of copper or brass, and against a padded backing, which has resulted in improving both line and coloring, and in giving them much the appearance of hand-blocked fabrics.2.Cretonnesare made both by hand-and by roller-printing processes on unglazed cotton ground of widely varying texture and decorative effect, and at prices ranging from a few cents per yard for the cheapest roller-printed fabrics up to $15 or more for the elaborately hand-blocked effects. Thick and heavy cretonnes are made for wall panels and furniture coverings, and a few splendid figure panels are available in Gothic, heraldic, andmille fleurdesigns which resemble the old painted tapestries of fifteenth century France.3.Chintzesare printed on a fine cotton holland. Glazed chintzes have a varnish-like glow and considerable stiffness; semi-glazed are less glossy and more soft and pliable; unglazed closely resemble good cretonne, but the texture is finer.4.Warp-printsorshadow printsare made by a process similar to that employed in drum-painting velvet carpets. Designs produced by this technique necessarily lack definition, and have a soft and shadowy appearance which cannot be produced by hand or roller printing. The most effective warp prints are of plain or mercerized cotton.
1.Printed linensare made on grounds which vary in fineness and smoothness according to the scale and decorative character of the design. Hand-blocked linens vary in price with the quality of materials and craftsmanship, and also with the number of blockings required to form the design. In recent years both linen and cotton grounds have to some extent been machine-printed with wooden rollers instead of copper or brass, and against a padded backing, which has resulted in improving both line and coloring, and in giving them much the appearance of hand-blocked fabrics.
2.Cretonnesare made both by hand-and by roller-printing processes on unglazed cotton ground of widely varying texture and decorative effect, and at prices ranging from a few cents per yard for the cheapest roller-printed fabrics up to $15 or more for the elaborately hand-blocked effects. Thick and heavy cretonnes are made for wall panels and furniture coverings, and a few splendid figure panels are available in Gothic, heraldic, andmille fleurdesigns which resemble the old painted tapestries of fifteenth century France.
3.Chintzesare printed on a fine cotton holland. Glazed chintzes have a varnish-like glow and considerable stiffness; semi-glazed are less glossy and more soft and pliable; unglazed closely resemble good cretonne, but the texture is finer.
4.Warp-printsorshadow printsare made by a process similar to that employed in drum-painting velvet carpets. Designs produced by this technique necessarily lack definition, and have a soft and shadowy appearance which cannot be produced by hand or roller printing. The most effective warp prints are of plain or mercerized cotton.
Embroideries.—Embroideries are justly considered important today. The art of the needle worker ranks close to that of the weaver of fine rugs and tapestries. Two only of its many forms are mentioned here.
1.Crewel workis customarily worked with colored worsted yarns on a plain linen ground, sometimes completely covered, but usually left open to form a background for the pattern. The stitches are varied in direction and character in order to give interest and richness to the texture. Most of the crewel work sold in the stores today is made with the bonnaz embroidery machine, which closely simulates the decorative effect of needlework.2.Needlepointembroidery is worked on open canvas. The fine or "petit point" (little point) is formed by stitches taken diagonally from one opening in the canvas to the next. The coarse or "gros (big) point" is made by similar stitches twice the length, and with thicker yarns.Practically everything written about upholstery fabrics stresses their decorative value or their appropriateness to other furnishings in the room. Little is reported about their physical structure or durability. Those desiring to make a comparison of fabrics for breaking strength, weight per square yard, fabric balance, and resistance to abrasion will do well to secure a copy of Circular No. 483, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The title is "Proposed Minimum Requirements of Three Types of Upholstery Fabrics Based on Analysis of 62 Materials." Copy may be secured from Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., price 5 cents.
1.Crewel workis customarily worked with colored worsted yarns on a plain linen ground, sometimes completely covered, but usually left open to form a background for the pattern. The stitches are varied in direction and character in order to give interest and richness to the texture. Most of the crewel work sold in the stores today is made with the bonnaz embroidery machine, which closely simulates the decorative effect of needlework.
2.Needlepointembroidery is worked on open canvas. The fine or "petit point" (little point) is formed by stitches taken diagonally from one opening in the canvas to the next. The coarse or "gros (big) point" is made by similar stitches twice the length, and with thicker yarns.
Practically everything written about upholstery fabrics stresses their decorative value or their appropriateness to other furnishings in the room. Little is reported about their physical structure or durability. Those desiring to make a comparison of fabrics for breaking strength, weight per square yard, fabric balance, and resistance to abrasion will do well to secure a copy of Circular No. 483, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The title is "Proposed Minimum Requirements of Three Types of Upholstery Fabrics Based on Analysis of 62 Materials." Copy may be secured from Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., price 5 cents.
It is well to remember that the foundation of every decorating scheme rightly should be the floor-covering. One's rugs or carpetings may contrast with the wall treatment, or they may complement it, but next to the room itself they are the largest color expanse. A good deal of thought needs to be given to the floor covering's selection. One can well afford to invest slightly more in this decorative accessory and obtain the soft new colors which lend so much charm to furniture groupings.
Floor coverings of proper texture and pattern can lend much sparkle and life to a room or they can ruin one's most carefully selected ensemble if they are drab and listless.
Floor coverings are divided into two groups: The soft-surface fabrics are made from a variety of textile fibers including wool whichis the one most widely used; and the hard surface fabrics, including linoleum and the felt-base prints.
Soft-surface floor coverings are made both by hand and by machinery. The first class includes all Oriental rugs; European hand-knotted rugs; floor tapestries; and a few hooked, braided, and woven hand-craft rugs of limited production. The second class includes a wide range, of fabrics, nearly all of which are produced by the chenille, Wilton, Axminster, drum print, roller print, or ingrain processes.
Rugs are woven in quantity in Persia, Turkey, India, and China, with a smaller production in Turkestan, Greece, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan. With few exceptions, the finer rugs come from Persia. Small rugs, woven primarily for individual or family use, are made throughout the rug-weaving countries. Small rugs made primarily for export, and the larger room-size rugs, usually called carpets, are woven chiefly in a few great production districts of the four countries first named.
In all oriental rugs the pile is knotted by hand, and in most weaves the wool is also scoured, carded, spun, and dyed by hand. Aniline dyes are used in many of the cheaper rugs—particularly in those woven outside of Persia—and either a superior quality of chemical dyes or the old vegetable dyes in the better rugs. All rugs except the poorest and cheapest are fast in color, unless they have been "painted."
Most oriental rugs are carefully made of good wool, and their durability under reasonable conditions of service is guaranteed by responsible dealers. The widespread notion that any oriental rug, however cheap and however abused in service, will wear indefinitely is of course absurd. Rugs are made of wool, not of concrete. Even in the Orient they wear out in time, notwithstanding the fact that they are not touched by heavy shoes. In the matter of durability oriental rugs have no inherent advantage over domestics. Everything depends upon the choice of wools and skill in handling.
The term "antique" is applied by collectors to pieces 100 years or more in age. Few such rugs are now in the hands of dealers.
Prices are based on the age or rarity of the individual specimen rather than on intrinsic excellence, as is the case with antique furniture or rare books. Only the expert is competent to recognize an antique rug or to judge of its quality or value.
Many rug merchants, department stores, and furniture stores advertise and sell as antiques any unwashed rugs which have been more or less aged and softened by use in the Orient, and which conform measurably in technique and character of design to antique standards. It is also a common practice to sell as antiques purely modern unwashed pieces reproduced in the old designs, particularly if such pieces have been aged artificially by some such method as exposure to bazaar traffic for a few weeks or months. Both practices are discountenanced by dealers of the highest standing, who apply to rugs of these kinds the term "semi-antique."
"Washing" and "Painting" of orientals.—Oriental rugs are usually woven in relatively bright, strong colors. In order to soften these colors to a point where they can be used effectively in the decoration of modern American homes, most rugs upon arrival in this country are given a treatment known to the trade as "washing" before they are offered for sale. (This is the same treatment given to "sheen type" domestics.) The mild reagents employed soften all the colors of good rugs without bleaching them or impairing their fastness to light. Poor wool is sometimes injured, and poor dyes bleached by the washing process; but the statement frequently encountered in books and magazines that any washed rug is undesirable is utter nonsense. The fact is, that, genuine antique rugs aside, most of the fine oriental rugs in this country are washed rugs, and innumerable fine homes use them. The high luster imparted to the wool as a part of the washing process is not permanent, and tends to disappear under the hard service requirements of small American homes.
Many rugs are retouched with dyestuffs, or "painted," after they have been washed; that is, parts of the design are treated with dyes applied with the brush by hand in order to alter certain colors, usually by deepening their tone. The dyes cannot be boiled into the wool or "fixed," and will fade under strong light.
Most oriental rug names do not show quality.—The name borne by an oriental rug ordinarily indicates the city or district of its origin, and throws little or no light on the excellence of the individual specimen. There is a widespread but totally erroneous idea that all rugs having the same name are alike in quality. The fact is that except for a few Turkish, Indian, and Chinese weaves, orientalrugs are not standardized, and that two Kerman rugs, for example, may differ as widely in quality as two Detroit automobiles. In buying oriental rugs, as in most other commodities, the consumer gets only that which he pays for.
Other things being equal, the cost of a rug per square foot increases directly with fineness of knotting. Other variable factors include the character of the wool and dyes; artistic and technical skill of designer and weaver; local conditions in the production district; and the interplay of supply and demand in the American wholesale market.
Carpet weaving was introduced to Europe by the Moors after their conquest of Granada, and established in Holland in the sixteenth century, and at Wilton and Axminster in England, and Paris in France, in the seventeenth century. Machine-spun yarns are now used in making these fabrics, but aside from this the processes are essentially the same as those employed in the Orient. Pile carpets are made in commercial quantities in Great Britain, Holland, Germany, France, and Spain and can be produced in any desired size, shape, pattern, coloring, or height of pile. Qualities vary widely in wool, knotting, and weavers' skill, and sell in the United States for anywhere from $20 to $200 or more per square yard. The time required for delivery varies from 3 to 12 months or more, depending upon size, character of design, and fineness of knotting.
Spanish rugs, like many of those made in China, are often embossed or chiseled, in order to add interest to the texture and to soften the relationship of strong juxtaposed colors.
See discussion of tapestries, under "Drapery and Upholstery Fabrics," page155.
As applied to floor coverings the term chenille (from the Frenchchenille, a fuzzy worm, or caterpillar) designates a power-loom fabric capable of producing rugs in any desired size, shape, design, or coloring. This makes it the most practical weave for special order work. This technique, which is completely different from that used in the production of Wilton or Axminster carpetings, was developed in Great Britain during the first half of the nineteenth century, and until a comparatively recent date the great bulk ofthe chenille rugs used in this country was imported. Under pressure of war conditions a large number of looms were set up here in 1915 and 1916, and we are now the leading manufacturers of practically all grades of chenille carpetings.
Chenilles without seams can be made here in any width up to 30 feet, and in any length or shape. There are many qualities, varying in character and quantity of wool, fineness of tufting, and height of pile, which may be anywhere from ¼ to 1 inch or more. In hand-tufted carpets the character of the design makes little difference in production costs, and the only limitations on the pattern are those imposed by fineness of knotting. In chenille, on the contrary, production cost increases rapidly with increasing intricacy of design, so that the square yard price for any given quality might be half again as much, or even two or three times as much, for a rug of elaborate design as for a plain rug of the same size. Special order rugs require from 1 to 5 months for delivery, according to size and character of design.
Wiltons are woven of either worsted or woolen yarns on a jacquard Wilton loom. The essential facts concerning this weave from the consumer's viewpoint are:(a)the jacquard device makes possible the production of patterns revealing very intricate and perfectly clean detail, equal to that found in fine Persian carpets.(b)The pile is erect, with maximum wear at the point of maximum resistance, thus ensuring great durability.(c)Beneath the pile there is an elastic cushion of firm yarns, which adds greatly to the durability of the fabric. This cushion results from the unique Wilton technique, which carries from three to six differently colored yarns between each pair of warp threads throughout the entire length of the carpet, bringing one only to the surface for each tuft, while the others remain in the back.
All carpets of this weave are by no means equal in quality, durability, and value. In fact, Wiltons vary widely in all respects save that of the type of loom on which they are woven. They differ in the cost, fineness, manner of blending, and spinning, and in quantity of wool, which is the physical basis of excellence; in the use of worsted and woolen yarns; in height of pile; and in the number of points or tufts, per square inch (ranging from about 60 to 128 points per square inch); in quality and cost of dyestuffs; in perfection of finish; and in rigidity of inspection standards.
Customers cannot be stirred to enthusiasm by such statements as that a given rug is a 2-sheet, 131-2 pick, 256 pitch, 6-frame Wilton. Many women can, however, be interested in a picture of a harnessed loom at work, with a brief explanation, or caught by casual mention of the fact that in the standard 5-frame Wiltons there are 1,280 separate worsted yarns in the 27-inch width, and 5,120 in a 9-foot seamless rug. Most women are interested in the sources and treatment of wools, care in dyeing, weaving, and inspection.
The body Brussels was an immensely popular weave from the invention of the power loom to the beginning of the present century. Its sale is now only slight although we may see a come-back of the Brussels in streamlined texture effects. It is woven of worsted yarns only, on the same kind of loom as the Wilton, and with substantially the same structure. They differ in that the pile loops of the Brussels carpet are not cut. They are woven with three, four, or five frames of worsted yarns, their cost and value depending upon the number of frames, number of loops or points per square inch, quality of wool, and certain other technical variants. They are not produced on broad looms.
Axminster rugs are in great demand in this country because of the unlimited possibilities of pattern and coloring. An additional feature is their moderate price which is a result of mass production techniques. This quality offers the consumer a seamless rug up to 18 feet wide.
The Axminster weave is produced by an ingenious process which beggars description but is explained and illustrated in the Britannica and other standard works on carpet manufacture. The technique permits production of rugs with a great variety of color effects in each pattern. The tufts, in the Axminster, are mechanically inserted in the fabric and bound down into the back, essentially in the manner of oriental rugs, except that the entire process is one of machine technique instead of the customary oriental hand-knotting. None of the yarn is buried in the back of the fabric, as it is in the Wilton weave, other than that which is required for attachment. Yarn preparation for Axminster weaving is a long process involving weeks of work, while actual weaving time requires but one-tenth of the entire time of manufacturing.
The commercial qualities of Axminster vary widely in wool, type of yarn, number of tufts per square inch, and height of pile.
Tapestry Brussels have a looped pile like that of body Brussels and are woven of worsted yarns; Wilton velvets are also made of worsted yarns, and have a close upright pile resembling Wilton. Velvets (formerly called tapestry velvets), have a short upright pile and are made of woolen yarns. These weaves, which are not yarn-dyed, are made both by the drum printing and the roller printing methods.
Indrum printing, the yarn is wound on a huge drum; the color applied by means of a carriage and color roller in narrow lines; the yarn removed and steamed to fix the color; the separate yarns wound on bobbins and then "set" in such a way that when fed into the loom over the wires that form the pile loops each line of color comes up where it is required to form the pattern. This technique is economical of wool, but naturally is incapable of yielding the definite exactness of pattern produced by the other weaves.
Inroller printingthe carpet is first woven in white, and then printed on rollers by a process substantially like that of a perfecting press printing a newspaper in color.
Broadloom carpetings.—Any carpet woven on a wide loom. The term is applied particularly to Wiltons, Axminsters, and plain chenilles.
"Sheen-type" rugs; also known as American orientals.—Any machine-made pile rug which has been chemically washed to soften the colors and give it sheen and luster; made in the Wilton, Axminster and chenille weaves.
Because of consistent and attractive advertising by manufacturers, the quality and desirability of linoleum and felt-base floor covering are now taken for granted by consumers, and these floor coverings, once regarded purely as a utility product, are sold chiefly on the basis of their decorative appeal. In order to be well informed on their construction you must get the facts from the manufacturers whose products you handle, as both the materials and processes employed have been somewhat widely changed in recent years.
The old method of making linoleum involved the production of solidified linseed oil and its reduction by heat and the admixture of resinous gums to a rubberlike mass known as cement, which was then ground up with cork dust, wood flour, whiting, and pigment to form the "linoleum material." In plain and printed linoleums this material was then calendered on the canvas by heavy heated rollers and seasoned in the drying rooms from 2 to 60 days in temperatures of from 90° to 170°. Granites, jaspes, and cork carpets were made by almost the same process. In making inlays the colored linoleum materials were formed into patterns by one of several hand or machine processes.
In recent years progress has been made toward the partial substitution of linseed oil by a nitrocellulose base in the preparation of the cement. In addition, much linoleum now has a surface coat of nitrocellulose composition, which gives it a glossy surface practically non-markable and highly resistant to strong soaps and soda.
Felt-base floor covering has a printed pattern on a base of felt impregnated with a base of bituminous composition.
Most linoleum used in homes is manufactured with a lustrous surface which can be maintained with little effort.
Washing.—The basis of all linoleum maintenance is the same—a thorough cleaning with a mild soap, followed by waxing. Soaps which contain excessive alkali destroy the linseed oil content of linoleum. Cleaning compounds of the type ordinarily used for scouring porcelain sinks and tubs, contain abrasive material and are not suitable for use on linoleum, because they scratch the surface of the material. These slight scratches soon fill with dirt and make subsequent cleaning more difficult; also, they shorten the life of the linoleum. Be sure that only pure soaps are used and wash with lukewarm water. Use very little water and remove all traces of the soap. The floor should then be allowed to dry thoroughly.
Waxing.—After the floor is cleaned and dried, apply a very thin coat of liquid or paste wax manufactured for the purpose of maintaining linoleum.
The striking improvements in weave, in colors and in styling made within the past few years have brought a new conception of the uses to which fiber and related rugs may be put appropriately. Originally thought of primarily as summer rugs, and then principally for porch use, today these rugs enjoy a greatly increased use.
Process of manufacture.—The materials employed and the processes of production in the making of fiber, grass, and other rugs of this type are so different that they deserve special mention and description. They are known as flat-weave fabrics to differentiate them from the pile fabric rugs.
Fiber rugs.—When a new type of yarn made from wood fibers became available as a filler to take the place of wire grass, it widelyincreased the range of utility and beauty in this type of floor covering.
Courtesy Floor Covering Advertising Club, New York, N. Y.Figure 35.—The striking improvements in weave, in colors, and in styling made within the past few years have brought a new conception of the uses to which fibers and related rugs may be put.
Courtesy Floor Covering Advertising Club, New York, N. Y.Figure 35.—The striking improvements in weave, in colors, and in styling made within the past few years have brought a new conception of the uses to which fibers and related rugs may be put.
Courtesy Floor Covering Advertising Club, New York, N. Y.
Figure 35.—The striking improvements in weave, in colors, and in styling made within the past few years have brought a new conception of the uses to which fibers and related rugs may be put.
Wood fiber is made from fir or white spruce in great paper mills, where the logs are first reduced to pulp, then made into an extremely tough and continuous roll of a special type of kraft paper designed for twisting. These great rolls of kraft are cut into long strips of varying widths, then tightly twisted into strands of twine or yarn, the size of the strands depending upon(a)the width of the strips and(b)the tightness of the twist.
The better grades of fiber yarns are extremely tough and long wearing, giving the finished rug a tough, long-wearing surface. Also they are finer than the grass fibers, giving a thinner, less heavy feel, but increasing the cost because of the additional labor involved and the increased number of picks. Three basic weaves are used to give variety:
The basket weave.—In this 2-, 3-, and 4-weft or filler, yarns are shuttled across the loom between each raising and lowering of the warp. This produces a weave resembling the broad, flat weave of a market basket.
The twill weave.—More complicated because it requires additional loom equipment or "harnesses." While the basket weave requires only two such "harnesses" (one to go up while the other goes down) in twill, the addition of more "harnesses," and chains to operate them, produces interesting variations. In the twill weave, three harnesses are used. Each warp strand passes over two filler strands and under the next two, producing a diagonal, ribbed effect, giving a heavier feel to the rug, and resulting in maximum yardage.
Jacquard weave.—This type requires a different loom, equipped with the jacquard mechanism described in connection with the Wilton process, but constructed to carry the much heavier fiber yarns. In this process each warp yarn has its own "harness" which is raised and lowered by the operation of the cards, punched like the rolls of a player piano, to produce the desired pattern. (See fig. 35.)
Color is introduced into fiber rugs both in the kraft as it is made, and by stenciling.
The ingenious use of contrasting fibers, such as sisal, cellophane, and fibers varying in color from dark to light and back again, are often employed to develop interesting weaves and patterns.
Wool fiber types.—Still another variation is achieved by combining wool yarns with fiber. This type is woven with fiber warp tightly bound together with a cotton warp that appears on the surface. Filler yarns are of alternating fiber and wool carpet yarns, so woven that the fabric is reversible. Pattern is achieved by the coloring of the yarns and by stenciling. The amount of wool varies to secure the result desired. It gives to the fabric a softer feel underfoot.
Wide ranges of colors, weaves, and patterns are now available in fiber rugs to meet all decorative needs. For custom, room-size rugs larger than 9 × 12, many of the most popular patterns are offered in broadlooms, in widths up to 12 feet.
Grass rugs.—Only in three localities in the world is produced the grass from which these useful rugs are constructed. It is the wire-like grass which grows wild in the marshes which dot the great prairies in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the vicinity of Winnipeg,Canada. It grows to a height of 2 feet without a joint, and in the spring is covered with water which gives it the waterproof characteristic. When dry it is cut and, after curing, bound into continuous strands.
Grass rugs employ the simplest of all weaves, the "over-and-under," the warp yarns being raised and lowered alternately as the weft or grass yarns are shot across the loom in the shuttle, to bind the fabric together.
Design usually is applied upon one side of grass rugs by painting by hand or sprays, through stencils, although introduction of different colored warp yarns achieve interesting pattern effects. The natural color of the grass is always a part of the design. Most rugs then are varnished to brighten colors and preserve the surface. The better qualities are bound on four sides. Grass rugs are reversible, usually plain on one side, patterned on the other.
Sisal rugs.—From Yucatan, Central America, and the West Indies comes a tough, heavy, long-wearing fiber called sisal. Its largest use is in the making of twine and rope, but its great durability makes it an important fiber for floor coverings.
Sisal fiber is derived from the leaf of a plant, much as linen is made from the stem of the flax plant. Fibers remain after the pulp of the leaf is pressed out. They are twisted into strands of the desired thickness, then woven into floor coverings, as are the fiber rugs. Colors are introduced by dyeing the strands, by stenciling the woven fabric, or both.
Sisal fiber is often used with other fibers to widen the range of color and utility.
Varied uses.—While the different types of grass and fiber rugs developed out of a demand for cool, colorful floor coverings that primarily could be used during the summer, their usefulness has been greatly widened as new methods evolved and new materials became available. They now comprise an essential part of every well-rounded showing of floor coverings. Their wide acceptance is an illustration of the way in which new types of fabrics are developed to meet new conditions. Insofar as their basic materials differ, the care of fiber rugs differs from those of other fabrics, as set forth in the discussion "Proper Care of Floor Coverings," page169.
Frequent cleaning prevents the dirt from accumulating in the surface of pile fabrics. Unless it is removed, fine particles of gritbecome buried at the base of the pile. Sharp edges of this grit, grinding against the pile as the rug or carpet is walked upon, tend to sever the wool fibers. Cleanliness becomes the most important factor in care.
Use of a vacuum cleaner is recommended for cleaning, both of new and old fabrics. Surface dirt may be removed daily with a carpet sweeper or soft-bristled broom, the former being preferred. After cleaning, the nap should be gently brushed so that the pile is all left lying in the same direction. Vigorous beating or shaking of rugs or carpets tends to loosen the pile tufts, and is condemned. Small rugs should never by cleaned by "snapping" them as this causes threads to break.
The bulletin of the Institute of Carpet Manufacturers states:
Under no consideration should an attempt be made to shampoo a rug or carpet while on the floor. There is no shampoo method or device which, while the carpet is on the floor, adequately cleans the fabric to the base of the pile or effectively removes the soap and detergent material. This residual soap and detergent material cause rapid resoiling, development of crushed appearance, and may cause the development of rancid odor or a gradual color change in the dyestuff.
Under no consideration should an attempt be made to shampoo a rug or carpet while on the floor. There is no shampoo method or device which, while the carpet is on the floor, adequately cleans the fabric to the base of the pile or effectively removes the soap and detergent material. This residual soap and detergent material cause rapid resoiling, development of crushed appearance, and may cause the development of rancid odor or a gradual color change in the dyestuff.
Axminster, chenilles, velvets, and Wiltons.—These should not be swept hard at first and never against the nap. Sheared when finished, a little light woof or loose wool will come out for a time. Long ends should be cut even with the surface of the rug and never pulled out. Unequal crushing of the surface will produce light and dark patches on any cut-pile rug. Application of a hot iron on a damp cloth will allow pile to be brushed to normal position.
In a marked degree, carpets do not fade. Manufacturers employ strong, fast dyes and carpets will not fade except when exposed to the direct rays of the sun. The simple preventative solution for sunlight fading is to use window blinds judiciously. But carpets do discolor or change in hue, because of infiltrated dust which is basically gray in color. It is not the dirt that may be swept away, but fine dust in the atmosphere that settles permanently in carpet, adding gray to the tone of the carpet, whatever its original color may have been. Therefore it is advisable when purchasing carpet to choose a shade a trifle stronger than the final floor color desired. In matching wall coloring, draperies, or upholstery fabrics, at the time of purchase, it is a wise expedient deliberately to soil a small cutting of the carpet so as to judge what its appearance will be for most of its life.
When subjected to severe wear, use of rug cushions beneath rug or carpet is advised. The plain or smooth surface of the cushion should be placed next to the rug.
Information gained in the discussion of the problems, plans, and thinking of the customer as to color likes and dislikes, and harmony in color and design, opens the way for discussion and possible sales of floor coverings for other rooms.
It may be accepted that every purchaser of a rug or carpet has definitely in mind plans for other rooms. She has cherished, if unexpressed, schemes for changes, improvements in all her rooms. The merchandise she has seen, rest assured, has stimulated interest anew in her other favorite decorative schemes. It is all very tempting and alluring. Importantly, also, she is in the buying mood. The occasion is made to order for following through with presentation of fabrics for additional rooms, preferably for an immediate, but, if not, for a future sale as soon as budget or circumstances permit.
Such a purchase may concern: