Shakespeare's English Historical Plays.

Shakespeare's English Historical Plays.The first form of poetry is the epic, the essence of which may be stated as the successive in events and characters. This must be distinguished from narration, in which there must always be a narrator, from whom the objects represented receive a colouring and a manner;—whereas in the epic, as in the so-called poems of Homer, the whole is completely objective, and the representation is a pure reflection. The next form into which poetry passed was the dramatic;—both forms having a common basis with a certain difference, and that difference not consisting in the dialogue alone. Both are founded on the relation of providence to the human will; and this relation is the universal element, expressed under different points of view according to the difference of religion, and the moral and intellectual cultivation of different nations. In the epic poem fate is represented as overruling the will, and making it instrumental to the accomplishment of its designs:—... Διὸς τελείετο βονλήIn the drama, the will is exhibited as struggling with fate, a great and beautiful instance and illustration of which is thePrometheusof Æschylus; and the deepest effect is produced when the fate[pg 156]is represented as a higher and intelligent will, and the opposition of the individual as springing from a defect.In order that a drama may be properly historical, it is necessary that it should be the history of the people to whom it is addressed. In the composition, care must be taken that there appear no dramatic improbability, as the reality is taken for granted. It must, likewise, be poetical;—that only, I mean, must be taken which is the permanent in our nature, which is common, and therefore deeply interesting to all ages. The events themselves are immaterial, otherwise than as the clothing and manifestation of the spirit that is working within. In this mode, the unity resulting from succession is destroyed, but is supplied by a unity of a higher order, which connects the events by reference to the workers, gives a reason for them in the motives, and presents men in their causative character. It takes, therefore, that part of real history which is the least known, and infuses a principle of life and organisation into the naked facts, and makes them all the framework of an animated whole.In my happier days, while I had yet hope and onward-looking thoughts, I planned an historical drama of King Stephen, in the manner of Shakespeare. Indeed, it would be desirable that some man of dramatic genius should dramatise all those omitted by Shakespeare, as far down as Henry VII. Perkin Warbeck would make a most interesting drama. A few scenes of Marlow'sEdward II.might be preserved. After Henry VIII., the events are too well and distinctly known, to be, without plump inverisimilitude,[pg 157]crowded together in one night's exhibition. Whereas, the history of our ancient kings—the events of the reigns, I mean—are like stars in the sky;—whatever the real interspaces may be, and however great, they seem close to each other. The stars—the events—strike us and remain in our eye, little modified by the difference of dates. An historic drama is, therefore, a collection of events borrowed from history, but connected together in respect of cause and time, poetically and by dramatic fiction. It would be a fine national custom to act such a series of dramatic histories in orderly succession, in the yearly Christmas holidays, and could not but tend to counteract that mock cosmopolitism, which under a positive term really implies nothing but a negation of, or indifference to, the particular love of our country. By its nationality must every nation retain its independence;—I mean a nationalityquoadthe nation. Better thus;—nationality in each individual,quoadhis country, is equal to the sense of individualityquoadhimself; but himself as sub-sensuous and central. Patriotism is equal to the sense of individuality reflected from every other individual. There may come a higher virtue in both—just cosmopolitism. But this latter is not possible but by antecedence of the former.Shakespeare has included the most important part of nine reigns in his historical dramas;—namely—King John, Richard II.—Henry IV. (two)—Henry V.—Henry VI. (three) including Edward V. and Henry VIII., in all ten plays. There remain, therefore, to be done, with the exception of a single scene or two that should be adopted from Marlow—eleven reigns—of which[pg 158]the first two appear the only unpromising subjects;—and those two dramas must be formed wholly or mainly of invented private stories, which, however, could not have happened except in consequence of the events and measures of these reigns, and which should furnish opportunity both of exhibiting the manners and oppressions of the times, and of narrating dramatically the great events;—if possible, the death of the two sovereigns, at least of the latter, should be made to have some influence on the finale of the story. All the rest are glorious subjects; especially Henry I. (being the struggle between the men of arms and of letters, in the persons of Henry and Becket), Stephen, Richard I., Edward II., and Henry VII.[pg 159]“King John.”Act i. sc. 1.—“Bast.James Gurney, wilt thou give us leave awhile?Gur.Good leave, good Philip.Bast.Philip?sparrow!James,”&c.Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture of“spare me.”O true Warburton! and thesancta simplicitasof honest dull Theobald's faith in him! Nothing can be more lively or characteristic than“Philip? Sparrow!”Had Warburton read old Skelton'sPhilip Sparrow, an exquisite and original poem, and, no doubt, popular in Shakespeare's time, even Warburton would scarcely have made so deep a plunge into thebatheticas to have deathified“sparrow”into“spare me!”Act iii. sc. 2. Speech of Faulconbridge:—“Now, by my life, this day grows wondrous hot;Someairydevil hovers in the sky,”&c.Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture of“fiery.”I prefer the old text: the word“devil”implies“fiery.”You need only read the line, laying a full and strong emphasis on“devil,”to perceive the uselessness and tastelessness of Warburton's alteration.[pg 161]“Richard II.”I have stated that the transitional link between the epic poem and the drama is the historic drama; that in the epic poem a pre-announced fate gradually adjusts and employs the will and the events as its instruments, whilst the drama, on the other hand, places fate and will in opposition to each other, and is then most perfect, when the victory of fate is obtained in consequence of imperfections in the opposing will, so as to leave a final impression that the fate itself is but a higher and a more intelligent will.From the length of the speeches, and the circumstance that, with one exception, the events are all historical, and presented in their results, not produced by acts seen by, or taking place before, the audience, this tragedy is ill suited to our present large theatres. But in itself, and for the closet, I feel no hesitation in placing it as the first and most admirable of all Shakespeare's purely historical plays. For the two parts ofHenry IV.form a species of themselves, which may be named the mixed drama. The distinction does not depend on the mere quantity of historical events in the play compared with the fictions; for there is as much history inMacbethas inRichard, but in the relation of the history to the plot. In the purely historical plays, the history forms the plot; in the mixed, it directs it; in the rest, asMacbeth,Hamlet,Cymbeline,Lear, it subserves it. But,[pg 162]however unsuited to the stage this drama may be, God forbid that even there it should fall dead on the hearts of jacobinised Englishmen! Then, indeed, we might say—præteriit gloria mundi!For the spirit of patriotic reminiscence is the all-permeating soul of this noble work. It is, perhaps, the most purely historical of Shakespeare's dramas. There are not in it, as in the others, characters introduced merely for the purpose of giving a greater individuality and realness, as in the comic parts ofHenry IV., by presenting as it were our very selves. Shakespeare avails himself of every opportunity to effect the great object of the historic drama,—that, namely, of familiarising the people to the great names of their country, and thereby of exciting a steady patriotism, a love of just liberty, and a respect for all those fundamental institutions of social life, which bind men together:—“This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,This other Eden, demi-paradise;This fortress, built by nature for herself,Against infection, and the hand of war;This happy breed of men, this little world;This precious stone set in the silver sea,Which serves it in the office of a wall,Or as a moat defensive to a home,Against the envy of less happier lands;This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings,Fear'd by their breed, and famous by their birth,”&c.Add the famous passage inKing John:—“This England never did nor ever shall,Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror,But when it first did help to wound itself.Now these her princes are come home again,Come the three corners of the world in arms,And we shall shock them: nought shall make us rue,If England to itself do rest but true.”[pg 163]And it certainly seems that Shakespeare's historic dramas produced a very deep effect on the minds of the English people, and in earlier times they were familiar even to the least informed of all ranks, according to the relation of Bishop Corbett. Marlborough, we know, was not ashamed to confess that his principal acquaintance with English history was derived from them; and I believe that a large part of the information as to our old names and achievements even now abroad is due, directly or indirectly, to Shakespeare.Admirable is the judgment with which Shakespeare always in the first scenes prepares, yet how naturally, and with what concealment of art, for the catastrophe. Observe how he here presents the germ of all the after events in Richard's insincerity, partiality, arbitrariness, and favouritism, and in the proud, tempestuous, temperament of his barons. In the very beginning, also, is displayed that feature in Richard's character, which is never forgotten throughout the play—his attention to decorum, and high feeling of the kingly dignity. These anticipations show with what judgment Shakespeare wrote, and illustrate his care to connect the past and the future, and unify them with the present by forecast and reminiscence.It is interesting to a critical ear to compare the six opening lines of the play—“Old John of Gaunt, time-honour'd Lancaster,Hast thou, according to thy oath and band,”&c.each closing at the tenth syllable, with the rhythmless metre of the verse inHenry VI.andTitus Andronicus, in order that the difference,[pg 164]indeed, the heterogeneity, of the two may be feltetiam in simillimis prima superficie. Here the weight of the single words supplies all the relief afforded by intercurrent verse, while the whole represents the mood. And compare the apparently defective metre of Bolingbroke's first line—“Many years of happy days befal”—with Prospero's—“Twelve years since, Miranda! twelve years since.”The actor should supply the time by emphasis, and pause on the first syllable of each of these verses.Act i. sc. 1. Bolingbroke's speech:—“First (heaven be the record to my speech!),In the devotion of a subject's love,”&c.I remember in the Sophoclean drama no more striking example of the τὸ πρέπον καὶ σεμνὸν than this speech; and the rhymes in the last six lines well express the preconcertedness of Bolingbroke's scheme so beautifully contrasted with the vehemence and sincere irritation of Mowbray.Ib.Bolingbroke's speech:—“Which blood, like sacrificing Abel's, cries,Even from the tongueless caverns of the earth,Tome, for justice and rough chastisement.”Note the δεινὸν of this“to me,”which is evidently felt by Richard:—“How high a pitch his resolution soars!”and the affected depreciation afterwards;—“As he is but my father's brother's son.”Ib.Mowbray's speech:—“In haste whereof, most heartily I prayYour highness to assign our trial day.”[pg 165]The occasional interspersion of rhymes, and the more frequent winding up of a speech therewith—what purpose was this designed to answer? In the earnest drama, I mean. Deliberateness? An attempt, as in Mowbray, to collect himself and be cool at the close?—I can see that in the following speeches the rhyme answers the end of the Greek chorus, and distinguishes the general truths from the passions of the dialogue; but this does not exactly justify the practice, which is unfrequent in proportion to the excellence of Shakespeare's plays. One thing, however, is to be observed,—that the speakers are historical, known, and so far formal characters, and their reality is already a fact. This should be borne in mind. The whole of this scene of the quarrel between Mowbray and Bolingbroke seems introduced for the purpose of showing by anticipation the characters of Richard and Bolingbroke. In the latter there is observable a decorous and courtly checking of his anger in subservience to a predetermined plan, especially in his calm speech after receiving sentence of banishment compared with Mowbray's unaffected lamentation. In the one, all is ambitious hope of something yet to come; in the other it is desolation and a looking backward of the heart,Ib.sc. 2.—“Gaunt.God's is the quarrel; for God's substitute,His deputy anointed in his right,Hath caus'd his death: the which, if wrongfully,Let heaven revenge; for I may never liftAn angry arm against his minister.”Without the hollow extravagance of Beaumont and Fletcher's ultra-royalism, how carefully does Shakespeare acknowledge and reverence the eternal distinction between the mere individual, and the[pg 166]symbolic or representative, on which all genial law, no less than patriotism, depends. The whole of this second scene commences, and is anticipative of, the tone and character of the play at large.Ib.sc. 3. In none of Shakespeare's fictitious dramas, or in those founded on a history as unknown to his auditors generally as fiction, is this violent rupture of the succession of time found:—a proof, I think, that the pure historic drama, likeRichard II.andKing John, had its own laws.Ib.Mowbray's speech:—“A dearermeritHave I deserved at your highness' hand.”O, the instinctive propriety of Shakespeare in the choice of words!Ib.Richard's speech:—“Nor never by advised purpose meet,To plot, contrive, or complot any ill,'Gainst us, our state, our subjects, or our land.”Already the selfish weakness of Richard's character opens. Nothing will such minds so readily embrace, as indirect ways softened down to theirquasi-consciences by policy, expedience, &c.Ib.Mowbray's speech:—...“All the world's my way.”“The world was all before him.”—Milt.Ib.—“Boling.How long a time lies in one little word!Four lagging winters, and four wanton springs,End in a word: such is the breath of kings.”Admirable anticipation!Ib.sc. 4. This is a striking conclusion of a first act,—letting the reader into the secret;—having before impressed us with the dignified and kingly manners of Richard, yet by well managed anticipations leading us on to the full gratification of[pg 167]pleasure in our own penetration. In this scene a new light is thrown on Richard's character. Until now he has appeared in all the beauty of royalty; but here, as soon as he is left to himself, the inherent weakness of his character is immediately shown. It is a weakness, however, of a peculiar kind, not arising from want of personal courage, or any specific defect of faculty, but rather an intellectual feminineness, which feels a necessity of ever leaning on the breasts of others, and of reclining on those who are all the while known to be inferiors. To this must be attributed as its consequences all Richard's vices, his tendency to concealment, and his cunning, the whole operation of which is directed to the getting rid of present difficulties. Richard is not meant to be a debauchee; but we see in him that sophistry which is common to man, by which we can deceive our own hearts, and at one and the same time apologize for, and yet commit, the error. Shakespeare has represented this character in a very peculiar manner. He has not made him amiable with counterbalancing faults; but has openly and broadly drawn those faults without reserve, relying on Richard's disproportionate sufferings and gradually emergent good qualities for our sympathy; and this was possible, because his faults are not positive vices, but spring entirely from defect of character.Act ii. sc. 1.—“K. Rich.Can sick men play so nicely with their names?”Yes! on a death-bed there is a feeling which may make all things appear but as puns and equivocations. And a passion there is that carries off its own excess by plays on words as naturally, and,[pg 168]therefore, as appropriately to drama, as by gesticulations, looks, or tones. This belongs to human nature as such, independently of associations and habits from any particular rank of life or mode of employment; and in this consists Shakespeare's vulgarisms, as in Macbeth's—“The devil damn thee black, thou cream-fac'd loon!”&c.This is (to equivocate on Dante's words) in truth thenobile volgare eloquenza. Indeed it is profoundly true that there is a natural, an almost irresistible, tendency in the mind, when immersed in one strong feeling, to connect that feeling with every sight and object around it; especially if there be opposition, and the words addressed to it are in any way repugnant to the feeling itself, as here in the instance of Richard's unkind language:—“Misery makes sport to mock itself.”No doubt, something of Shakespeare's punning must be attributed to his age, in which direct and formal combats of wit were a favourite pastime of the courtly and accomplished. It was an age more favourable, upon the whole, to vigour of intellect than the present, in which a dread of being thought pedantic dispirits and flattens the energies of original minds. But independently of this, I have no hesitation in saying that a pun, if it be congruous with the feeling of the scene, is not only allowable in the dramatic dialogue, but oftentimes one of the most effectual intensives of passion.Ib.—“K. Rich.Right; you say true, as Hereford's love, so his;As theirs, so mine; and all be as it is.”The depth of this compared with the first scene:—“How high a pitch,”&c.[pg 169]There is scarcely anything in Shakespeare in its degree, more admirably drawn than York's character; his religious loyalty struggling with a deep grief and indignation at the king's follies; his adherence to his word and faith, once given in spite of all, even the most natural, feelings. You see in him the weakness of old age, and the overwhelmingness of circumstances, for a time surmounting his sense of duty,—the junction of both exhibited in his boldness in words and feebleness in immediate act; and then again his effort to retrieve himself in abstract loyalty, even at the heavy price of the loss of his son. This species of accidental and adventitious weakness is brought into parallel with Richard's continually increasing energy of thought, and as constantly diminishing power of acting;—and thus it is Richard that breathes a harmony and a relation into all the characters of the play.Ib.sc. 2.—“Queen.To please the king I did; to please myselfI cannot do it; yet I know no causeWhy I should welcome such a guest as grief,Save bidding farewell to so sweet a guestAs my sweet Richard: yet again, methinks,Some unborn sorrow, ripe in sorrow's womb,Is coming toward me; and my inward soulWith nothing trembles: at something it grieves,More than with parting from my lord the king.”It is clear that Shakespeare never meant to represent Richard as a vulgar debauchee, but a man with a wantonness of spirit in external show, a femininefriendism, an intensity of woman-like love of those immediately about him, and a mistaking of the delight of being loved by him for a love of him. And mark in this scene Shakespeare's gentleness in touching the tender superstitions, theterræ incognitæof presentiments, in the human mind; and[pg 170]how sharp a line of distinction he commonly draws between these obscure forecastings of general experience in each individual, and the vulgar errors of mere tradition. Indeed, it may be taken once for all as the truth, that Shakespeare, in the absolute universality of his genius, always reverences whatever arises out of our moral nature; he never profanes his muse with a contemptuous reasoning away of the genuine and general, however unaccountable, feelings of mankind.The amiable part of Richard's character is brought full upon us by his queen's few words—...“So sweet a guestAs my sweet Richard:”—and Shakespeare has carefully shown in him an intense love of his country, well-knowing how that feeling would, in a pure historic drama, redeem him in the hearts of the audience. Yet even in this love there is something feminine and personal:—“Dear earth, I do salute thee with my hand,—As a long parted mother with her childPlays fondly with her tears, and smiles in meeting;So weeping, smiling, greet I thee, my earth,And do thee favour with my royal hands.”With this is combined a constant overflow of emotions from a total incapability of controlling them, and thence a waste of that energy, which should have been reserved for actions, in the passion and effort of mere resolves and menaces. The consequence is moral exhaustion, and rapid alternations of unmanly despair and ungrounded hope,—every feeling being abandoned for its direct opposite upon the pressure of external accident. And yet when Richard's inward weakness appears to seek refuge in his despair, and his exhaustion counterfeits repose, the old habit of kingliness, the effect of[pg 171]flatterers from his infancy, is ever and anon producing in him a sort of wordy courage which only serves to betray more clearly his internal impotence. The second and third scenes of the third act combine and illustrate all this:—“Aumerle.He means, my lord, that we are too remiss;Whilst Bolingbroke, through our security,Grows strong and great, in substance, and in friends.K. Rich.Discomfortable cousin! know'st thou not,That when the searching eye of heaven is hidBehind the globe, that lights the lower world,Then thieves and robbers range abroad unseen,In murders and in outrage, bloody here;But when, from under this terrestrial ball,He fires the proud tops of the eastern pines,And darts his light through every guilty hole,Then murders, treasons, and detested sins,The cloke of night being pluckt from off their backs,Stand bare and naked, trembling at themselves?So when this thief, this traitor, Bolingbroke, &c.Aumerle.Where is the Duke my father with his power?K. Rich.No matter where; of comfort no man speak:Let's talk of graves, of worms, and epitaphs,Make dust our paper, and with rainy eyesWrite sorrow on the bosom of the earth, &c.Aumerle.My father hath a power, enquire of him;And learn to make a body of a limb.K. Rich.Thou chid'st me well: proud Bolingbroke, I comeTo change blows with thee for our day of doom.This ague-fit of fear is over-blown;An easy task it is to win our own.Scroop.Your uncle York hath join'd with Bolingbroke.—K. Rich.Thou hast said enough,Beshrew thee, cousin, which didst lead me forthOf that sweet way I was in to despair!What say you now? what comfort have we now?By heaven, I'll hate him everlastingly,That bids me be of comfort any more.”Act iii. sc. 3. Bolingbroke's speech:—“Noble lord,Go to the rude ribs of that ancient castle,”&c.[pg 172]Observe the fine struggle of a haughty sense of power and ambition in Bolingbroke with the necessity for dissimulation.Ib.sc. 4. See here the skill and judgment of our poet in giving reality and individual life, by the introduction of accidents in his historic plays, and thereby making them dramas, and not histories. How beautiful an islet of repose—a melancholy repose, indeed—is this scene with the Gardener and his Servant. And how truly affecting and realising is the incident of the very horse Barbary, in the scene with the Groom in the last act!—“Groom.I was a poor groom of thy stable, King,When thou wert King; who, travelling towards York,With much ado, at length have gotten leaveTo look upon my sometimes master's face.O, how it yearn'd my heart, when I beheld,In London streets, that coronation day,When Bolingbroke rode on roan Barbary!That horse, that thou so often hast bestrid;That horse, that I so carefully have dress'd!K. Rich.Rode he on Barbary?”Bolingbroke's character, in general, is an instance how Shakespeare makes one play introductory to another; for it is evidently a preparation for Henry IV., as Gloster in the third part ofHenry VI.is for Richard III.I would once more remark upon the exalted idea of the only true loyalty developed in this noble and impressive play. We have neither the rants of Beaumont and Fletcher, nor the sneers of Massinger;—the vast importance of the personal character of the sovereign is distinctly enounced, whilst, at the same time, the genuine sanctity which surrounds him is attributed to, and grounded on, the position in which he stands as the convergence and exponent of the life and power of the state.[pg 173]The great end of the body politic appears to be to humanise, and assist in the progressiveness of, the animal man;—but the problem is so complicated with contingencies as to render it nearly impossible to lay down rules for the formation of a state. And should we be able to form a system of government, which should so balance its different powers as to form a check upon each, and so continually remedy and correct itself, it would, nevertheless, defeat its own aim;—for man is destined to be guided by higher principles, by universal views, which can never be fulfilled in this state of existence,—by a spirit of progressiveness which can never be accomplished, for then it would cease to be. Plato's Republic is like Bunyan's Town of Man-Soul,—a description of an individual, all of whose faculties are in their proper subordination and inter-dependence; and this it is assumed may be the prototype of the state as one great individual. But there is this sophism in it, that it is forgotten that the human faculties, indeed, are parts and not separate things; but that you could never get chiefs who were wholly reason, ministers who were wholly understanding, soldiers all wrath, labourers all concupiscence, and so on through the rest. Each of these partakes of, and interferes with, all the others.[pg 175]

The first form of poetry is the epic, the essence of which may be stated as the successive in events and characters. This must be distinguished from narration, in which there must always be a narrator, from whom the objects represented receive a colouring and a manner;—whereas in the epic, as in the so-called poems of Homer, the whole is completely objective, and the representation is a pure reflection. The next form into which poetry passed was the dramatic;—both forms having a common basis with a certain difference, and that difference not consisting in the dialogue alone. Both are founded on the relation of providence to the human will; and this relation is the universal element, expressed under different points of view according to the difference of religion, and the moral and intellectual cultivation of different nations. In the epic poem fate is represented as overruling the will, and making it instrumental to the accomplishment of its designs:—

... Διὸς τελείετο βονλή

In the drama, the will is exhibited as struggling with fate, a great and beautiful instance and illustration of which is thePrometheusof Æschylus; and the deepest effect is produced when the fate[pg 156]is represented as a higher and intelligent will, and the opposition of the individual as springing from a defect.

In order that a drama may be properly historical, it is necessary that it should be the history of the people to whom it is addressed. In the composition, care must be taken that there appear no dramatic improbability, as the reality is taken for granted. It must, likewise, be poetical;—that only, I mean, must be taken which is the permanent in our nature, which is common, and therefore deeply interesting to all ages. The events themselves are immaterial, otherwise than as the clothing and manifestation of the spirit that is working within. In this mode, the unity resulting from succession is destroyed, but is supplied by a unity of a higher order, which connects the events by reference to the workers, gives a reason for them in the motives, and presents men in their causative character. It takes, therefore, that part of real history which is the least known, and infuses a principle of life and organisation into the naked facts, and makes them all the framework of an animated whole.

In my happier days, while I had yet hope and onward-looking thoughts, I planned an historical drama of King Stephen, in the manner of Shakespeare. Indeed, it would be desirable that some man of dramatic genius should dramatise all those omitted by Shakespeare, as far down as Henry VII. Perkin Warbeck would make a most interesting drama. A few scenes of Marlow'sEdward II.might be preserved. After Henry VIII., the events are too well and distinctly known, to be, without plump inverisimilitude,[pg 157]crowded together in one night's exhibition. Whereas, the history of our ancient kings—the events of the reigns, I mean—are like stars in the sky;—whatever the real interspaces may be, and however great, they seem close to each other. The stars—the events—strike us and remain in our eye, little modified by the difference of dates. An historic drama is, therefore, a collection of events borrowed from history, but connected together in respect of cause and time, poetically and by dramatic fiction. It would be a fine national custom to act such a series of dramatic histories in orderly succession, in the yearly Christmas holidays, and could not but tend to counteract that mock cosmopolitism, which under a positive term really implies nothing but a negation of, or indifference to, the particular love of our country. By its nationality must every nation retain its independence;—I mean a nationalityquoadthe nation. Better thus;—nationality in each individual,quoadhis country, is equal to the sense of individualityquoadhimself; but himself as sub-sensuous and central. Patriotism is equal to the sense of individuality reflected from every other individual. There may come a higher virtue in both—just cosmopolitism. But this latter is not possible but by antecedence of the former.

Shakespeare has included the most important part of nine reigns in his historical dramas;—namely—King John, Richard II.—Henry IV. (two)—Henry V.—Henry VI. (three) including Edward V. and Henry VIII., in all ten plays. There remain, therefore, to be done, with the exception of a single scene or two that should be adopted from Marlow—eleven reigns—of which[pg 158]the first two appear the only unpromising subjects;—and those two dramas must be formed wholly or mainly of invented private stories, which, however, could not have happened except in consequence of the events and measures of these reigns, and which should furnish opportunity both of exhibiting the manners and oppressions of the times, and of narrating dramatically the great events;—if possible, the death of the two sovereigns, at least of the latter, should be made to have some influence on the finale of the story. All the rest are glorious subjects; especially Henry I. (being the struggle between the men of arms and of letters, in the persons of Henry and Becket), Stephen, Richard I., Edward II., and Henry VII.

“King John.”Act i. sc. 1.—“Bast.James Gurney, wilt thou give us leave awhile?Gur.Good leave, good Philip.Bast.Philip?sparrow!James,”&c.Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture of“spare me.”O true Warburton! and thesancta simplicitasof honest dull Theobald's faith in him! Nothing can be more lively or characteristic than“Philip? Sparrow!”Had Warburton read old Skelton'sPhilip Sparrow, an exquisite and original poem, and, no doubt, popular in Shakespeare's time, even Warburton would scarcely have made so deep a plunge into thebatheticas to have deathified“sparrow”into“spare me!”Act iii. sc. 2. Speech of Faulconbridge:—“Now, by my life, this day grows wondrous hot;Someairydevil hovers in the sky,”&c.Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture of“fiery.”I prefer the old text: the word“devil”implies“fiery.”You need only read the line, laying a full and strong emphasis on“devil,”to perceive the uselessness and tastelessness of Warburton's alteration.

Act i. sc. 1.—

“Bast.James Gurney, wilt thou give us leave awhile?

Gur.Good leave, good Philip.

Bast.Philip?sparrow!James,”&c.

Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture of“spare me.”

O true Warburton! and thesancta simplicitasof honest dull Theobald's faith in him! Nothing can be more lively or characteristic than“Philip? Sparrow!”Had Warburton read old Skelton'sPhilip Sparrow, an exquisite and original poem, and, no doubt, popular in Shakespeare's time, even Warburton would scarcely have made so deep a plunge into thebatheticas to have deathified“sparrow”into“spare me!”

Act iii. sc. 2. Speech of Faulconbridge:—

“Now, by my life, this day grows wondrous hot;Someairydevil hovers in the sky,”&c.

“Now, by my life, this day grows wondrous hot;

Someairydevil hovers in the sky,”&c.

Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture of“fiery.”

I prefer the old text: the word“devil”implies“fiery.”You need only read the line, laying a full and strong emphasis on“devil,”to perceive the uselessness and tastelessness of Warburton's alteration.

“Richard II.”I have stated that the transitional link between the epic poem and the drama is the historic drama; that in the epic poem a pre-announced fate gradually adjusts and employs the will and the events as its instruments, whilst the drama, on the other hand, places fate and will in opposition to each other, and is then most perfect, when the victory of fate is obtained in consequence of imperfections in the opposing will, so as to leave a final impression that the fate itself is but a higher and a more intelligent will.From the length of the speeches, and the circumstance that, with one exception, the events are all historical, and presented in their results, not produced by acts seen by, or taking place before, the audience, this tragedy is ill suited to our present large theatres. But in itself, and for the closet, I feel no hesitation in placing it as the first and most admirable of all Shakespeare's purely historical plays. For the two parts ofHenry IV.form a species of themselves, which may be named the mixed drama. The distinction does not depend on the mere quantity of historical events in the play compared with the fictions; for there is as much history inMacbethas inRichard, but in the relation of the history to the plot. In the purely historical plays, the history forms the plot; in the mixed, it directs it; in the rest, asMacbeth,Hamlet,Cymbeline,Lear, it subserves it. But,[pg 162]however unsuited to the stage this drama may be, God forbid that even there it should fall dead on the hearts of jacobinised Englishmen! Then, indeed, we might say—præteriit gloria mundi!For the spirit of patriotic reminiscence is the all-permeating soul of this noble work. It is, perhaps, the most purely historical of Shakespeare's dramas. There are not in it, as in the others, characters introduced merely for the purpose of giving a greater individuality and realness, as in the comic parts ofHenry IV., by presenting as it were our very selves. Shakespeare avails himself of every opportunity to effect the great object of the historic drama,—that, namely, of familiarising the people to the great names of their country, and thereby of exciting a steady patriotism, a love of just liberty, and a respect for all those fundamental institutions of social life, which bind men together:—“This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,This other Eden, demi-paradise;This fortress, built by nature for herself,Against infection, and the hand of war;This happy breed of men, this little world;This precious stone set in the silver sea,Which serves it in the office of a wall,Or as a moat defensive to a home,Against the envy of less happier lands;This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings,Fear'd by their breed, and famous by their birth,”&c.Add the famous passage inKing John:—“This England never did nor ever shall,Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror,But when it first did help to wound itself.Now these her princes are come home again,Come the three corners of the world in arms,And we shall shock them: nought shall make us rue,If England to itself do rest but true.”[pg 163]And it certainly seems that Shakespeare's historic dramas produced a very deep effect on the minds of the English people, and in earlier times they were familiar even to the least informed of all ranks, according to the relation of Bishop Corbett. Marlborough, we know, was not ashamed to confess that his principal acquaintance with English history was derived from them; and I believe that a large part of the information as to our old names and achievements even now abroad is due, directly or indirectly, to Shakespeare.Admirable is the judgment with which Shakespeare always in the first scenes prepares, yet how naturally, and with what concealment of art, for the catastrophe. Observe how he here presents the germ of all the after events in Richard's insincerity, partiality, arbitrariness, and favouritism, and in the proud, tempestuous, temperament of his barons. In the very beginning, also, is displayed that feature in Richard's character, which is never forgotten throughout the play—his attention to decorum, and high feeling of the kingly dignity. These anticipations show with what judgment Shakespeare wrote, and illustrate his care to connect the past and the future, and unify them with the present by forecast and reminiscence.It is interesting to a critical ear to compare the six opening lines of the play—“Old John of Gaunt, time-honour'd Lancaster,Hast thou, according to thy oath and band,”&c.each closing at the tenth syllable, with the rhythmless metre of the verse inHenry VI.andTitus Andronicus, in order that the difference,[pg 164]indeed, the heterogeneity, of the two may be feltetiam in simillimis prima superficie. Here the weight of the single words supplies all the relief afforded by intercurrent verse, while the whole represents the mood. And compare the apparently defective metre of Bolingbroke's first line—“Many years of happy days befal”—with Prospero's—“Twelve years since, Miranda! twelve years since.”The actor should supply the time by emphasis, and pause on the first syllable of each of these verses.Act i. sc. 1. Bolingbroke's speech:—“First (heaven be the record to my speech!),In the devotion of a subject's love,”&c.I remember in the Sophoclean drama no more striking example of the τὸ πρέπον καὶ σεμνὸν than this speech; and the rhymes in the last six lines well express the preconcertedness of Bolingbroke's scheme so beautifully contrasted with the vehemence and sincere irritation of Mowbray.Ib.Bolingbroke's speech:—“Which blood, like sacrificing Abel's, cries,Even from the tongueless caverns of the earth,Tome, for justice and rough chastisement.”Note the δεινὸν of this“to me,”which is evidently felt by Richard:—“How high a pitch his resolution soars!”and the affected depreciation afterwards;—“As he is but my father's brother's son.”Ib.Mowbray's speech:—“In haste whereof, most heartily I prayYour highness to assign our trial day.”[pg 165]The occasional interspersion of rhymes, and the more frequent winding up of a speech therewith—what purpose was this designed to answer? In the earnest drama, I mean. Deliberateness? An attempt, as in Mowbray, to collect himself and be cool at the close?—I can see that in the following speeches the rhyme answers the end of the Greek chorus, and distinguishes the general truths from the passions of the dialogue; but this does not exactly justify the practice, which is unfrequent in proportion to the excellence of Shakespeare's plays. One thing, however, is to be observed,—that the speakers are historical, known, and so far formal characters, and their reality is already a fact. This should be borne in mind. The whole of this scene of the quarrel between Mowbray and Bolingbroke seems introduced for the purpose of showing by anticipation the characters of Richard and Bolingbroke. In the latter there is observable a decorous and courtly checking of his anger in subservience to a predetermined plan, especially in his calm speech after receiving sentence of banishment compared with Mowbray's unaffected lamentation. In the one, all is ambitious hope of something yet to come; in the other it is desolation and a looking backward of the heart,Ib.sc. 2.—“Gaunt.God's is the quarrel; for God's substitute,His deputy anointed in his right,Hath caus'd his death: the which, if wrongfully,Let heaven revenge; for I may never liftAn angry arm against his minister.”Without the hollow extravagance of Beaumont and Fletcher's ultra-royalism, how carefully does Shakespeare acknowledge and reverence the eternal distinction between the mere individual, and the[pg 166]symbolic or representative, on which all genial law, no less than patriotism, depends. The whole of this second scene commences, and is anticipative of, the tone and character of the play at large.Ib.sc. 3. In none of Shakespeare's fictitious dramas, or in those founded on a history as unknown to his auditors generally as fiction, is this violent rupture of the succession of time found:—a proof, I think, that the pure historic drama, likeRichard II.andKing John, had its own laws.Ib.Mowbray's speech:—“A dearermeritHave I deserved at your highness' hand.”O, the instinctive propriety of Shakespeare in the choice of words!Ib.Richard's speech:—“Nor never by advised purpose meet,To plot, contrive, or complot any ill,'Gainst us, our state, our subjects, or our land.”Already the selfish weakness of Richard's character opens. Nothing will such minds so readily embrace, as indirect ways softened down to theirquasi-consciences by policy, expedience, &c.Ib.Mowbray's speech:—...“All the world's my way.”“The world was all before him.”—Milt.Ib.—“Boling.How long a time lies in one little word!Four lagging winters, and four wanton springs,End in a word: such is the breath of kings.”Admirable anticipation!Ib.sc. 4. This is a striking conclusion of a first act,—letting the reader into the secret;—having before impressed us with the dignified and kingly manners of Richard, yet by well managed anticipations leading us on to the full gratification of[pg 167]pleasure in our own penetration. In this scene a new light is thrown on Richard's character. Until now he has appeared in all the beauty of royalty; but here, as soon as he is left to himself, the inherent weakness of his character is immediately shown. It is a weakness, however, of a peculiar kind, not arising from want of personal courage, or any specific defect of faculty, but rather an intellectual feminineness, which feels a necessity of ever leaning on the breasts of others, and of reclining on those who are all the while known to be inferiors. To this must be attributed as its consequences all Richard's vices, his tendency to concealment, and his cunning, the whole operation of which is directed to the getting rid of present difficulties. Richard is not meant to be a debauchee; but we see in him that sophistry which is common to man, by which we can deceive our own hearts, and at one and the same time apologize for, and yet commit, the error. Shakespeare has represented this character in a very peculiar manner. He has not made him amiable with counterbalancing faults; but has openly and broadly drawn those faults without reserve, relying on Richard's disproportionate sufferings and gradually emergent good qualities for our sympathy; and this was possible, because his faults are not positive vices, but spring entirely from defect of character.Act ii. sc. 1.—“K. Rich.Can sick men play so nicely with their names?”Yes! on a death-bed there is a feeling which may make all things appear but as puns and equivocations. And a passion there is that carries off its own excess by plays on words as naturally, and,[pg 168]therefore, as appropriately to drama, as by gesticulations, looks, or tones. This belongs to human nature as such, independently of associations and habits from any particular rank of life or mode of employment; and in this consists Shakespeare's vulgarisms, as in Macbeth's—“The devil damn thee black, thou cream-fac'd loon!”&c.This is (to equivocate on Dante's words) in truth thenobile volgare eloquenza. Indeed it is profoundly true that there is a natural, an almost irresistible, tendency in the mind, when immersed in one strong feeling, to connect that feeling with every sight and object around it; especially if there be opposition, and the words addressed to it are in any way repugnant to the feeling itself, as here in the instance of Richard's unkind language:—“Misery makes sport to mock itself.”No doubt, something of Shakespeare's punning must be attributed to his age, in which direct and formal combats of wit were a favourite pastime of the courtly and accomplished. It was an age more favourable, upon the whole, to vigour of intellect than the present, in which a dread of being thought pedantic dispirits and flattens the energies of original minds. But independently of this, I have no hesitation in saying that a pun, if it be congruous with the feeling of the scene, is not only allowable in the dramatic dialogue, but oftentimes one of the most effectual intensives of passion.Ib.—“K. Rich.Right; you say true, as Hereford's love, so his;As theirs, so mine; and all be as it is.”The depth of this compared with the first scene:—“How high a pitch,”&c.[pg 169]There is scarcely anything in Shakespeare in its degree, more admirably drawn than York's character; his religious loyalty struggling with a deep grief and indignation at the king's follies; his adherence to his word and faith, once given in spite of all, even the most natural, feelings. You see in him the weakness of old age, and the overwhelmingness of circumstances, for a time surmounting his sense of duty,—the junction of both exhibited in his boldness in words and feebleness in immediate act; and then again his effort to retrieve himself in abstract loyalty, even at the heavy price of the loss of his son. This species of accidental and adventitious weakness is brought into parallel with Richard's continually increasing energy of thought, and as constantly diminishing power of acting;—and thus it is Richard that breathes a harmony and a relation into all the characters of the play.Ib.sc. 2.—“Queen.To please the king I did; to please myselfI cannot do it; yet I know no causeWhy I should welcome such a guest as grief,Save bidding farewell to so sweet a guestAs my sweet Richard: yet again, methinks,Some unborn sorrow, ripe in sorrow's womb,Is coming toward me; and my inward soulWith nothing trembles: at something it grieves,More than with parting from my lord the king.”It is clear that Shakespeare never meant to represent Richard as a vulgar debauchee, but a man with a wantonness of spirit in external show, a femininefriendism, an intensity of woman-like love of those immediately about him, and a mistaking of the delight of being loved by him for a love of him. And mark in this scene Shakespeare's gentleness in touching the tender superstitions, theterræ incognitæof presentiments, in the human mind; and[pg 170]how sharp a line of distinction he commonly draws between these obscure forecastings of general experience in each individual, and the vulgar errors of mere tradition. Indeed, it may be taken once for all as the truth, that Shakespeare, in the absolute universality of his genius, always reverences whatever arises out of our moral nature; he never profanes his muse with a contemptuous reasoning away of the genuine and general, however unaccountable, feelings of mankind.The amiable part of Richard's character is brought full upon us by his queen's few words—...“So sweet a guestAs my sweet Richard:”—and Shakespeare has carefully shown in him an intense love of his country, well-knowing how that feeling would, in a pure historic drama, redeem him in the hearts of the audience. Yet even in this love there is something feminine and personal:—“Dear earth, I do salute thee with my hand,—As a long parted mother with her childPlays fondly with her tears, and smiles in meeting;So weeping, smiling, greet I thee, my earth,And do thee favour with my royal hands.”With this is combined a constant overflow of emotions from a total incapability of controlling them, and thence a waste of that energy, which should have been reserved for actions, in the passion and effort of mere resolves and menaces. The consequence is moral exhaustion, and rapid alternations of unmanly despair and ungrounded hope,—every feeling being abandoned for its direct opposite upon the pressure of external accident. And yet when Richard's inward weakness appears to seek refuge in his despair, and his exhaustion counterfeits repose, the old habit of kingliness, the effect of[pg 171]flatterers from his infancy, is ever and anon producing in him a sort of wordy courage which only serves to betray more clearly his internal impotence. The second and third scenes of the third act combine and illustrate all this:—“Aumerle.He means, my lord, that we are too remiss;Whilst Bolingbroke, through our security,Grows strong and great, in substance, and in friends.K. Rich.Discomfortable cousin! know'st thou not,That when the searching eye of heaven is hidBehind the globe, that lights the lower world,Then thieves and robbers range abroad unseen,In murders and in outrage, bloody here;But when, from under this terrestrial ball,He fires the proud tops of the eastern pines,And darts his light through every guilty hole,Then murders, treasons, and detested sins,The cloke of night being pluckt from off their backs,Stand bare and naked, trembling at themselves?So when this thief, this traitor, Bolingbroke, &c.Aumerle.Where is the Duke my father with his power?K. Rich.No matter where; of comfort no man speak:Let's talk of graves, of worms, and epitaphs,Make dust our paper, and with rainy eyesWrite sorrow on the bosom of the earth, &c.Aumerle.My father hath a power, enquire of him;And learn to make a body of a limb.K. Rich.Thou chid'st me well: proud Bolingbroke, I comeTo change blows with thee for our day of doom.This ague-fit of fear is over-blown;An easy task it is to win our own.Scroop.Your uncle York hath join'd with Bolingbroke.—K. Rich.Thou hast said enough,Beshrew thee, cousin, which didst lead me forthOf that sweet way I was in to despair!What say you now? what comfort have we now?By heaven, I'll hate him everlastingly,That bids me be of comfort any more.”Act iii. sc. 3. Bolingbroke's speech:—“Noble lord,Go to the rude ribs of that ancient castle,”&c.[pg 172]Observe the fine struggle of a haughty sense of power and ambition in Bolingbroke with the necessity for dissimulation.Ib.sc. 4. See here the skill and judgment of our poet in giving reality and individual life, by the introduction of accidents in his historic plays, and thereby making them dramas, and not histories. How beautiful an islet of repose—a melancholy repose, indeed—is this scene with the Gardener and his Servant. And how truly affecting and realising is the incident of the very horse Barbary, in the scene with the Groom in the last act!—“Groom.I was a poor groom of thy stable, King,When thou wert King; who, travelling towards York,With much ado, at length have gotten leaveTo look upon my sometimes master's face.O, how it yearn'd my heart, when I beheld,In London streets, that coronation day,When Bolingbroke rode on roan Barbary!That horse, that thou so often hast bestrid;That horse, that I so carefully have dress'd!K. Rich.Rode he on Barbary?”Bolingbroke's character, in general, is an instance how Shakespeare makes one play introductory to another; for it is evidently a preparation for Henry IV., as Gloster in the third part ofHenry VI.is for Richard III.I would once more remark upon the exalted idea of the only true loyalty developed in this noble and impressive play. We have neither the rants of Beaumont and Fletcher, nor the sneers of Massinger;—the vast importance of the personal character of the sovereign is distinctly enounced, whilst, at the same time, the genuine sanctity which surrounds him is attributed to, and grounded on, the position in which he stands as the convergence and exponent of the life and power of the state.[pg 173]The great end of the body politic appears to be to humanise, and assist in the progressiveness of, the animal man;—but the problem is so complicated with contingencies as to render it nearly impossible to lay down rules for the formation of a state. And should we be able to form a system of government, which should so balance its different powers as to form a check upon each, and so continually remedy and correct itself, it would, nevertheless, defeat its own aim;—for man is destined to be guided by higher principles, by universal views, which can never be fulfilled in this state of existence,—by a spirit of progressiveness which can never be accomplished, for then it would cease to be. Plato's Republic is like Bunyan's Town of Man-Soul,—a description of an individual, all of whose faculties are in their proper subordination and inter-dependence; and this it is assumed may be the prototype of the state as one great individual. But there is this sophism in it, that it is forgotten that the human faculties, indeed, are parts and not separate things; but that you could never get chiefs who were wholly reason, ministers who were wholly understanding, soldiers all wrath, labourers all concupiscence, and so on through the rest. Each of these partakes of, and interferes with, all the others.

I have stated that the transitional link between the epic poem and the drama is the historic drama; that in the epic poem a pre-announced fate gradually adjusts and employs the will and the events as its instruments, whilst the drama, on the other hand, places fate and will in opposition to each other, and is then most perfect, when the victory of fate is obtained in consequence of imperfections in the opposing will, so as to leave a final impression that the fate itself is but a higher and a more intelligent will.

From the length of the speeches, and the circumstance that, with one exception, the events are all historical, and presented in their results, not produced by acts seen by, or taking place before, the audience, this tragedy is ill suited to our present large theatres. But in itself, and for the closet, I feel no hesitation in placing it as the first and most admirable of all Shakespeare's purely historical plays. For the two parts ofHenry IV.form a species of themselves, which may be named the mixed drama. The distinction does not depend on the mere quantity of historical events in the play compared with the fictions; for there is as much history inMacbethas inRichard, but in the relation of the history to the plot. In the purely historical plays, the history forms the plot; in the mixed, it directs it; in the rest, asMacbeth,Hamlet,Cymbeline,Lear, it subserves it. But,[pg 162]however unsuited to the stage this drama may be, God forbid that even there it should fall dead on the hearts of jacobinised Englishmen! Then, indeed, we might say—præteriit gloria mundi!For the spirit of patriotic reminiscence is the all-permeating soul of this noble work. It is, perhaps, the most purely historical of Shakespeare's dramas. There are not in it, as in the others, characters introduced merely for the purpose of giving a greater individuality and realness, as in the comic parts ofHenry IV., by presenting as it were our very selves. Shakespeare avails himself of every opportunity to effect the great object of the historic drama,—that, namely, of familiarising the people to the great names of their country, and thereby of exciting a steady patriotism, a love of just liberty, and a respect for all those fundamental institutions of social life, which bind men together:—

“This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,This other Eden, demi-paradise;This fortress, built by nature for herself,Against infection, and the hand of war;This happy breed of men, this little world;This precious stone set in the silver sea,Which serves it in the office of a wall,Or as a moat defensive to a home,Against the envy of less happier lands;This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings,Fear'd by their breed, and famous by their birth,”&c.

“This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,

This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,

This other Eden, demi-paradise;

This fortress, built by nature for herself,

Against infection, and the hand of war;

This happy breed of men, this little world;

This precious stone set in the silver sea,

Which serves it in the office of a wall,

Or as a moat defensive to a home,

Against the envy of less happier lands;

This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,

This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings,

Fear'd by their breed, and famous by their birth,”&c.

Add the famous passage inKing John:—

“This England never did nor ever shall,Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror,But when it first did help to wound itself.Now these her princes are come home again,Come the three corners of the world in arms,And we shall shock them: nought shall make us rue,If England to itself do rest but true.”

“This England never did nor ever shall,

Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror,

But when it first did help to wound itself.

Now these her princes are come home again,

Come the three corners of the world in arms,

And we shall shock them: nought shall make us rue,

If England to itself do rest but true.”

And it certainly seems that Shakespeare's historic dramas produced a very deep effect on the minds of the English people, and in earlier times they were familiar even to the least informed of all ranks, according to the relation of Bishop Corbett. Marlborough, we know, was not ashamed to confess that his principal acquaintance with English history was derived from them; and I believe that a large part of the information as to our old names and achievements even now abroad is due, directly or indirectly, to Shakespeare.

Admirable is the judgment with which Shakespeare always in the first scenes prepares, yet how naturally, and with what concealment of art, for the catastrophe. Observe how he here presents the germ of all the after events in Richard's insincerity, partiality, arbitrariness, and favouritism, and in the proud, tempestuous, temperament of his barons. In the very beginning, also, is displayed that feature in Richard's character, which is never forgotten throughout the play—his attention to decorum, and high feeling of the kingly dignity. These anticipations show with what judgment Shakespeare wrote, and illustrate his care to connect the past and the future, and unify them with the present by forecast and reminiscence.

It is interesting to a critical ear to compare the six opening lines of the play—

“Old John of Gaunt, time-honour'd Lancaster,Hast thou, according to thy oath and band,”&c.

“Old John of Gaunt, time-honour'd Lancaster,

Hast thou, according to thy oath and band,”&c.

each closing at the tenth syllable, with the rhythmless metre of the verse inHenry VI.andTitus Andronicus, in order that the difference,[pg 164]indeed, the heterogeneity, of the two may be feltetiam in simillimis prima superficie. Here the weight of the single words supplies all the relief afforded by intercurrent verse, while the whole represents the mood. And compare the apparently defective metre of Bolingbroke's first line—

“Many years of happy days befal”—

with Prospero's—

“Twelve years since, Miranda! twelve years since.”

The actor should supply the time by emphasis, and pause on the first syllable of each of these verses.

Act i. sc. 1. Bolingbroke's speech:—

“First (heaven be the record to my speech!),In the devotion of a subject's love,”&c.

“First (heaven be the record to my speech!),

In the devotion of a subject's love,”&c.

I remember in the Sophoclean drama no more striking example of the τὸ πρέπον καὶ σεμνὸν than this speech; and the rhymes in the last six lines well express the preconcertedness of Bolingbroke's scheme so beautifully contrasted with the vehemence and sincere irritation of Mowbray.

Ib.Bolingbroke's speech:—

“Which blood, like sacrificing Abel's, cries,Even from the tongueless caverns of the earth,Tome, for justice and rough chastisement.”

“Which blood, like sacrificing Abel's, cries,

Even from the tongueless caverns of the earth,

Tome, for justice and rough chastisement.”

Note the δεινὸν of this“to me,”which is evidently felt by Richard:—

“How high a pitch his resolution soars!”

and the affected depreciation afterwards;—

“As he is but my father's brother's son.”

Ib.Mowbray's speech:—

“In haste whereof, most heartily I prayYour highness to assign our trial day.”

“In haste whereof, most heartily I pray

Your highness to assign our trial day.”

The occasional interspersion of rhymes, and the more frequent winding up of a speech therewith—what purpose was this designed to answer? In the earnest drama, I mean. Deliberateness? An attempt, as in Mowbray, to collect himself and be cool at the close?—I can see that in the following speeches the rhyme answers the end of the Greek chorus, and distinguishes the general truths from the passions of the dialogue; but this does not exactly justify the practice, which is unfrequent in proportion to the excellence of Shakespeare's plays. One thing, however, is to be observed,—that the speakers are historical, known, and so far formal characters, and their reality is already a fact. This should be borne in mind. The whole of this scene of the quarrel between Mowbray and Bolingbroke seems introduced for the purpose of showing by anticipation the characters of Richard and Bolingbroke. In the latter there is observable a decorous and courtly checking of his anger in subservience to a predetermined plan, especially in his calm speech after receiving sentence of banishment compared with Mowbray's unaffected lamentation. In the one, all is ambitious hope of something yet to come; in the other it is desolation and a looking backward of the heart,

Ib.sc. 2.—

“Gaunt.God's is the quarrel; for God's substitute,His deputy anointed in his right,Hath caus'd his death: the which, if wrongfully,Let heaven revenge; for I may never liftAn angry arm against his minister.”

“Gaunt.God's is the quarrel; for God's substitute,

His deputy anointed in his right,

Hath caus'd his death: the which, if wrongfully,

Let heaven revenge; for I may never lift

An angry arm against his minister.”

Without the hollow extravagance of Beaumont and Fletcher's ultra-royalism, how carefully does Shakespeare acknowledge and reverence the eternal distinction between the mere individual, and the[pg 166]symbolic or representative, on which all genial law, no less than patriotism, depends. The whole of this second scene commences, and is anticipative of, the tone and character of the play at large.

Ib.sc. 3. In none of Shakespeare's fictitious dramas, or in those founded on a history as unknown to his auditors generally as fiction, is this violent rupture of the succession of time found:—a proof, I think, that the pure historic drama, likeRichard II.andKing John, had its own laws.

Ib.Mowbray's speech:—

“A dearermeritHave I deserved at your highness' hand.”

“A dearermerit

Have I deserved at your highness' hand.”

O, the instinctive propriety of Shakespeare in the choice of words!

Ib.Richard's speech:—

“Nor never by advised purpose meet,To plot, contrive, or complot any ill,'Gainst us, our state, our subjects, or our land.”

“Nor never by advised purpose meet,

To plot, contrive, or complot any ill,

'Gainst us, our state, our subjects, or our land.”

Already the selfish weakness of Richard's character opens. Nothing will such minds so readily embrace, as indirect ways softened down to theirquasi-consciences by policy, expedience, &c.

Ib.Mowbray's speech:—

...“All the world's my way.”

“The world was all before him.”—Milt.

Ib.—

“Boling.How long a time lies in one little word!Four lagging winters, and four wanton springs,End in a word: such is the breath of kings.”

“Boling.How long a time lies in one little word!

Four lagging winters, and four wanton springs,

End in a word: such is the breath of kings.”

Admirable anticipation!

Ib.sc. 4. This is a striking conclusion of a first act,—letting the reader into the secret;—having before impressed us with the dignified and kingly manners of Richard, yet by well managed anticipations leading us on to the full gratification of[pg 167]pleasure in our own penetration. In this scene a new light is thrown on Richard's character. Until now he has appeared in all the beauty of royalty; but here, as soon as he is left to himself, the inherent weakness of his character is immediately shown. It is a weakness, however, of a peculiar kind, not arising from want of personal courage, or any specific defect of faculty, but rather an intellectual feminineness, which feels a necessity of ever leaning on the breasts of others, and of reclining on those who are all the while known to be inferiors. To this must be attributed as its consequences all Richard's vices, his tendency to concealment, and his cunning, the whole operation of which is directed to the getting rid of present difficulties. Richard is not meant to be a debauchee; but we see in him that sophistry which is common to man, by which we can deceive our own hearts, and at one and the same time apologize for, and yet commit, the error. Shakespeare has represented this character in a very peculiar manner. He has not made him amiable with counterbalancing faults; but has openly and broadly drawn those faults without reserve, relying on Richard's disproportionate sufferings and gradually emergent good qualities for our sympathy; and this was possible, because his faults are not positive vices, but spring entirely from defect of character.

Act ii. sc. 1.—

“K. Rich.Can sick men play so nicely with their names?”

Yes! on a death-bed there is a feeling which may make all things appear but as puns and equivocations. And a passion there is that carries off its own excess by plays on words as naturally, and,[pg 168]therefore, as appropriately to drama, as by gesticulations, looks, or tones. This belongs to human nature as such, independently of associations and habits from any particular rank of life or mode of employment; and in this consists Shakespeare's vulgarisms, as in Macbeth's—

“The devil damn thee black, thou cream-fac'd loon!”&c.

This is (to equivocate on Dante's words) in truth thenobile volgare eloquenza. Indeed it is profoundly true that there is a natural, an almost irresistible, tendency in the mind, when immersed in one strong feeling, to connect that feeling with every sight and object around it; especially if there be opposition, and the words addressed to it are in any way repugnant to the feeling itself, as here in the instance of Richard's unkind language:—

“Misery makes sport to mock itself.”

No doubt, something of Shakespeare's punning must be attributed to his age, in which direct and formal combats of wit were a favourite pastime of the courtly and accomplished. It was an age more favourable, upon the whole, to vigour of intellect than the present, in which a dread of being thought pedantic dispirits and flattens the energies of original minds. But independently of this, I have no hesitation in saying that a pun, if it be congruous with the feeling of the scene, is not only allowable in the dramatic dialogue, but oftentimes one of the most effectual intensives of passion.

Ib.—

“K. Rich.Right; you say true, as Hereford's love, so his;As theirs, so mine; and all be as it is.”

“K. Rich.Right; you say true, as Hereford's love, so his;

As theirs, so mine; and all be as it is.”

The depth of this compared with the first scene:—

“How high a pitch,”&c.

There is scarcely anything in Shakespeare in its degree, more admirably drawn than York's character; his religious loyalty struggling with a deep grief and indignation at the king's follies; his adherence to his word and faith, once given in spite of all, even the most natural, feelings. You see in him the weakness of old age, and the overwhelmingness of circumstances, for a time surmounting his sense of duty,—the junction of both exhibited in his boldness in words and feebleness in immediate act; and then again his effort to retrieve himself in abstract loyalty, even at the heavy price of the loss of his son. This species of accidental and adventitious weakness is brought into parallel with Richard's continually increasing energy of thought, and as constantly diminishing power of acting;—and thus it is Richard that breathes a harmony and a relation into all the characters of the play.

Ib.sc. 2.—

“Queen.To please the king I did; to please myselfI cannot do it; yet I know no causeWhy I should welcome such a guest as grief,Save bidding farewell to so sweet a guestAs my sweet Richard: yet again, methinks,Some unborn sorrow, ripe in sorrow's womb,Is coming toward me; and my inward soulWith nothing trembles: at something it grieves,More than with parting from my lord the king.”

“Queen.To please the king I did; to please myself

I cannot do it; yet I know no cause

Why I should welcome such a guest as grief,

Save bidding farewell to so sweet a guest

As my sweet Richard: yet again, methinks,

Some unborn sorrow, ripe in sorrow's womb,

Is coming toward me; and my inward soul

With nothing trembles: at something it grieves,

More than with parting from my lord the king.”

It is clear that Shakespeare never meant to represent Richard as a vulgar debauchee, but a man with a wantonness of spirit in external show, a femininefriendism, an intensity of woman-like love of those immediately about him, and a mistaking of the delight of being loved by him for a love of him. And mark in this scene Shakespeare's gentleness in touching the tender superstitions, theterræ incognitæof presentiments, in the human mind; and[pg 170]how sharp a line of distinction he commonly draws between these obscure forecastings of general experience in each individual, and the vulgar errors of mere tradition. Indeed, it may be taken once for all as the truth, that Shakespeare, in the absolute universality of his genius, always reverences whatever arises out of our moral nature; he never profanes his muse with a contemptuous reasoning away of the genuine and general, however unaccountable, feelings of mankind.

The amiable part of Richard's character is brought full upon us by his queen's few words—

...“So sweet a guestAs my sweet Richard:”—

...“So sweet a guest

As my sweet Richard:”—

and Shakespeare has carefully shown in him an intense love of his country, well-knowing how that feeling would, in a pure historic drama, redeem him in the hearts of the audience. Yet even in this love there is something feminine and personal:—

“Dear earth, I do salute thee with my hand,—As a long parted mother with her childPlays fondly with her tears, and smiles in meeting;So weeping, smiling, greet I thee, my earth,And do thee favour with my royal hands.”

“Dear earth, I do salute thee with my hand,—

As a long parted mother with her child

Plays fondly with her tears, and smiles in meeting;

So weeping, smiling, greet I thee, my earth,

And do thee favour with my royal hands.”

With this is combined a constant overflow of emotions from a total incapability of controlling them, and thence a waste of that energy, which should have been reserved for actions, in the passion and effort of mere resolves and menaces. The consequence is moral exhaustion, and rapid alternations of unmanly despair and ungrounded hope,—every feeling being abandoned for its direct opposite upon the pressure of external accident. And yet when Richard's inward weakness appears to seek refuge in his despair, and his exhaustion counterfeits repose, the old habit of kingliness, the effect of[pg 171]flatterers from his infancy, is ever and anon producing in him a sort of wordy courage which only serves to betray more clearly his internal impotence. The second and third scenes of the third act combine and illustrate all this:—

“Aumerle.He means, my lord, that we are too remiss;Whilst Bolingbroke, through our security,Grows strong and great, in substance, and in friends.

“Aumerle.He means, my lord, that we are too remiss;

Whilst Bolingbroke, through our security,

Grows strong and great, in substance, and in friends.

K. Rich.Discomfortable cousin! know'st thou not,That when the searching eye of heaven is hidBehind the globe, that lights the lower world,Then thieves and robbers range abroad unseen,In murders and in outrage, bloody here;But when, from under this terrestrial ball,He fires the proud tops of the eastern pines,And darts his light through every guilty hole,Then murders, treasons, and detested sins,The cloke of night being pluckt from off their backs,Stand bare and naked, trembling at themselves?So when this thief, this traitor, Bolingbroke, &c.

K. Rich.Discomfortable cousin! know'st thou not,

That when the searching eye of heaven is hid

Behind the globe, that lights the lower world,

Then thieves and robbers range abroad unseen,

In murders and in outrage, bloody here;

But when, from under this terrestrial ball,

He fires the proud tops of the eastern pines,

And darts his light through every guilty hole,

Then murders, treasons, and detested sins,

The cloke of night being pluckt from off their backs,

Stand bare and naked, trembling at themselves?

So when this thief, this traitor, Bolingbroke, &c.

Aumerle.Where is the Duke my father with his power?

K. Rich.No matter where; of comfort no man speak:Let's talk of graves, of worms, and epitaphs,Make dust our paper, and with rainy eyesWrite sorrow on the bosom of the earth, &c.

K. Rich.No matter where; of comfort no man speak:

Let's talk of graves, of worms, and epitaphs,

Make dust our paper, and with rainy eyes

Write sorrow on the bosom of the earth, &c.

Aumerle.My father hath a power, enquire of him;And learn to make a body of a limb.

Aumerle.My father hath a power, enquire of him;

And learn to make a body of a limb.

K. Rich.Thou chid'st me well: proud Bolingbroke, I comeTo change blows with thee for our day of doom.This ague-fit of fear is over-blown;An easy task it is to win our own.

K. Rich.Thou chid'st me well: proud Bolingbroke, I come

To change blows with thee for our day of doom.

This ague-fit of fear is over-blown;

An easy task it is to win our own.

Scroop.Your uncle York hath join'd with Bolingbroke.—

K. Rich.Thou hast said enough,Beshrew thee, cousin, which didst lead me forthOf that sweet way I was in to despair!What say you now? what comfort have we now?By heaven, I'll hate him everlastingly,That bids me be of comfort any more.”

K. Rich.Thou hast said enough,

Beshrew thee, cousin, which didst lead me forth

Of that sweet way I was in to despair!

What say you now? what comfort have we now?

By heaven, I'll hate him everlastingly,

That bids me be of comfort any more.”

Act iii. sc. 3. Bolingbroke's speech:—

“Noble lord,Go to the rude ribs of that ancient castle,”&c.

“Noble lord,

Go to the rude ribs of that ancient castle,”&c.

Observe the fine struggle of a haughty sense of power and ambition in Bolingbroke with the necessity for dissimulation.

Ib.sc. 4. See here the skill and judgment of our poet in giving reality and individual life, by the introduction of accidents in his historic plays, and thereby making them dramas, and not histories. How beautiful an islet of repose—a melancholy repose, indeed—is this scene with the Gardener and his Servant. And how truly affecting and realising is the incident of the very horse Barbary, in the scene with the Groom in the last act!—

“Groom.I was a poor groom of thy stable, King,When thou wert King; who, travelling towards York,With much ado, at length have gotten leaveTo look upon my sometimes master's face.O, how it yearn'd my heart, when I beheld,In London streets, that coronation day,When Bolingbroke rode on roan Barbary!That horse, that thou so often hast bestrid;That horse, that I so carefully have dress'd!

“Groom.I was a poor groom of thy stable, King,

When thou wert King; who, travelling towards York,

With much ado, at length have gotten leave

To look upon my sometimes master's face.

O, how it yearn'd my heart, when I beheld,

In London streets, that coronation day,

When Bolingbroke rode on roan Barbary!

That horse, that thou so often hast bestrid;

That horse, that I so carefully have dress'd!

K. Rich.Rode he on Barbary?”

Bolingbroke's character, in general, is an instance how Shakespeare makes one play introductory to another; for it is evidently a preparation for Henry IV., as Gloster in the third part ofHenry VI.is for Richard III.

I would once more remark upon the exalted idea of the only true loyalty developed in this noble and impressive play. We have neither the rants of Beaumont and Fletcher, nor the sneers of Massinger;—the vast importance of the personal character of the sovereign is distinctly enounced, whilst, at the same time, the genuine sanctity which surrounds him is attributed to, and grounded on, the position in which he stands as the convergence and exponent of the life and power of the state.

The great end of the body politic appears to be to humanise, and assist in the progressiveness of, the animal man;—but the problem is so complicated with contingencies as to render it nearly impossible to lay down rules for the formation of a state. And should we be able to form a system of government, which should so balance its different powers as to form a check upon each, and so continually remedy and correct itself, it would, nevertheless, defeat its own aim;—for man is destined to be guided by higher principles, by universal views, which can never be fulfilled in this state of existence,—by a spirit of progressiveness which can never be accomplished, for then it would cease to be. Plato's Republic is like Bunyan's Town of Man-Soul,—a description of an individual, all of whose faculties are in their proper subordination and inter-dependence; and this it is assumed may be the prototype of the state as one great individual. But there is this sophism in it, that it is forgotten that the human faculties, indeed, are parts and not separate things; but that you could never get chiefs who were wholly reason, ministers who were wholly understanding, soldiers all wrath, labourers all concupiscence, and so on through the rest. Each of these partakes of, and interferes with, all the others.

Back to Index Next