SMOOTHING ROUGH RUNNERS.
SMOOTHING ROUGH RUNNERS.
Esquimaux sledges and expedients.
Many of the Esquimaux sledges are most ingeniously constructed—some being formed of light slabs of bone, lashed together with sinew and shod with runners composed of highly-polished walrus ivory. Should the surface of the runners become roughened from any cause, the Esquimaux fills his mouth with water, and then, by contracting his cheeks as in the act of blowing a trumpet, forces the water in a strong jet over the face of the runner. A coat of thin ice instantly forms, and becomes frozen firmly to the bone, producing a coating like that of glass. The above illustration will serve to show how this operation is conducted.
Sledge log
Sledge log, to make.
To estimate the speed at which a sledge is travelling, a log must be used. This is constructed as follows: A wooden reel and spindle, such as shown in the annexed engraving, must be made; round this the log line is coiled, leaving a free end for the log or weight, which may consist of a piece of scrap iron or a stone, to be attached to. About 20yds. from the log a bit of red rag should be knotted to the line; then at every 50ft. knot in a bit of seal hide. When about to use the log line, cast the weight well clear of the sledge, let the reel give off the line freely until the red rag is free. Directly that is off the coil, turn your half-minute glass up, and let the sand run, and when it is all down, stop the reel. It will be then seen, by the following calculation, what the speed has been. As 120 times half a minute make one hour, and 120 times 50ft. make very nearly a geographical mile, so many bits of hide will run clear of the revolving reel as the sledge travels miles in the hour.
marrow bone rings
Sledge equipment.
attaching strips of hide
When fitting up your sledge equipment procure some large-sized marrow bones, and saw them up into a number of tolerably stout rings; then, from other bones of solid texture, make toggles to accompany the rings. These contrivances, shown in the above illustration, are invaluable for attaching leather straps to each other. A simple slit in the end of each strap admits of the toggle being passed through them, when its notched form prevents it from coming out again. Knots in dog harness tend to endless hitches and entanglements; and buckles, from being composed of metal, would be stolen to a certainty. Three modes of attaching strips of hide to each other are shown above. Figs. 1 and 2illustrate how the bone rings before described can be made use of. Fig. 3 shows two loops twisted over each other. A good-sized bladder, or skin bag, forms a convenient receptacle for both rings and toggles, of which make plenty.
Camping.
The habits of sledge dogs.
Food for the dogs.
When about to pitch camp, or whilst resting, drive the spears into the ice to secure the dogs to by short neck ropes. Most sledge dogs are trained to lie down when the whip handle is passed lightly along their backs. Never heedlessly quit your sledge whilst on the march, unless you have fast hold of the upstanders, or without first bringing it to an anchor. This can be done by thrusting a seal spear or lance down into the snow between the first two transverse bars of the sledge bottom. Should you neglect these precautions, you stand a good chance of seeing your runaway team go rattling off in the far distance, leaving you to follow as you best may. To check the speed of your sledge when you are on it, plant your heels on the snow and sit fast.The habits of sledge dogs.It will be generally found that in every team there will be one master dog, who, by the use of a sharp set of teeth and a strong will, contrives to keep all the rest in subjection, and not unfrequently quells disorders among the quarrelsome pack by dashing in among them at the height of their constant skirmishes, and sending them head over heels to the right and left, thereby aiding his master in maintaining due discipline.Food for the dogs.Frozen or dried fish, and the offal of such animals as may be captured in the chase, are used as dog food. The Esquimaux usually feed their dogs but once in two days; it is better, however, to feed every day, but not until the work is finished, the journey ended, and the camp pitched. No dog works well on a full stomach. Great care should be exercised in the feeding of your dogs in order that all may share alike, as some are so desperately artful and cunning, that they do all in their power to delude their master into a belief that, instead of having had their full allowance, it is yet to come.
No northern traveller ever willingly allows his dogs to eat any portion of the liver of the polar bear, as it is pronounced by all the Esquimaux to be most unwholesome and injurious to dogs; they, therefore, either bury the bear’s liver under the ice, or, if practicable, cast it into the sea. No sledge or portion of the sledge equipment in theconstruction or repair of which, thongs or tendons have been used should be left in reach of the dogs during the night, or they will be pretty sure to reduce the whole to a wreck before morning. With such makeshift sledges as have their runners made from rolls of frozen hide this precaution is especially necessary.
Hints on sledges.
The following hints on the subject of sledges, given by Dr. Kane, are most valuable, being the result of no ordinary experience. To encounter broken ice in the midst of darkness, and at a temperature destructive to life, everything depends upon your sledge; should it break down, you might as well break your own leg—there is no hope for you. Our sledge, then, is made of well-tired oak, dovetailed into a runner shod with iron; no metal is used besides except the screws and rivets which confine the sledge to its runners. In this intense cold, iron snaps like glass, and no immovable or rigidly fastened wood-work would stand for a moment the fierce concussions of a drive. Everything is put together with lashings of sealskin, and the whole fabric is the skeleton framework of a sledge as flexible as a lady’s work-basket, and weighing only 40lb. On this we fasten a sacking bottom of canvas, tightly stretched, like its namesake of the four-post bedstead, around the margin. We call this ticking the apron and cover; the apron being a flap of 16in. high surrounding the cover, and either hanging loose at its sides, like a valance, or laced up down the middle. Into this apron and cover you pack your cargo—the less the better—and then lace and lash the whole securely together.
Rules for the march.
The following rules to be observed on the march or during a halt are valuable and practical to a degree. “Keep the blood in motion without loitering on the march; and for the halt raise a snow house, or, if the snow lie scant or impracticable, ensconce yourself in a burrow, or under the hospitable lee of an inclined hammack-slab. The outside fat of your walrus sustains your little moss fire; its frozen slices give you bread; its frozen blubber gives you butter; its scrag ends make the soup. The snow supplies you with water, and when you are ambitious of coffee there is a bagful stowed away in your boot. Spread out your bear bag, your only heavy movable, and stuff your reindeer bag inside, hang your boots upoutside, take a blade of bone and scrape off all the ice from your furs. Now crawl in, the whole party of you, feet foremost, draw the top of your dormitory close, heading to leeward.”
SLEDGING OVER ROUGH ICE.
SLEDGING OVER ROUGH ICE.
Useful odds and ends.
Dogs’ boots.
dog boot
When about to start on a sledge journey, a certain number of useful matters will be required in addition to those already mentioned. A few green or blue gauze or tarlatan veils, to protect the eyes from the glare of the snow, will be found of the greatest value. In the absence of these, sledge men not uncommonly collect a quantity of the deposit of black found in the sconces of the lamps. This they mix with grease, and with it black the eyelids and upper part of the face. This expedient, although not equal to a veil, is far better than nothing. We have made use of green glass spectacles, but found them next to useless, as the glasses soon became coated with ice, formed from the condensed vapour given off with the breath. Never travel without a small pocket mirror; by its aid you can discover at once whether your nose or ears are becoming frost bitten, and can act accordingly. Directions for the treatment of frost bite will be given further on in our work. Never go without your possible sack, which should contain lots of hide strips, of all lengths and sizes, awls, needles, cord, leather, knife, whetstone, and any number of bone rings and toggles. A large fine-toothed rasp is of great service in fashioning bone; take one, or more; one handle will serve for all, and the sharp, tang ends serve to bore holes with. Few men have managed to reduce their sledge equipment to more simple elements than the doctor. He says, “My plans for sledging, simple as I once thought them, and simple, certainly, as compared with those of the English parties, have completely changed. Give me an 8lb. reindeer fur bag to sleep in, an Esquimaux lamp, with a lump of moss, a sheet-iron snow melter, or a copper soup pot, with a tin cylinder to slip over and defend it from the wind, a goodpièce de résistanceof raw walrus beef, and I want nothing more for a long journey if the thermometer will keep itself as high as minus 30°.Dogs’ boots.Give me a bearskin bag, and coffee to boot, and with the clothes on my back I am ready for minus 60°, but no wind.”dog bootDuring long journeys over rough and uneven ice the paws of the dogs are liable to become worn and sore. It is well, therefore, before encountering such hindrances to travel, to protectthem with mocassins. These are made by rounding a piece of soft hide, with the hair side in, and then cutting all round its edge a number of small slits; through these a strip of hide is passed. The dog’s paw is placed in the centre of the round. On the string being drawn home, the foot will be fitted as shown in the annexed illustration. Tolerably well-fed dogs will rarely eat these protections off, as they seem to know perfectly well what they are put on for. Mocassins are especially needed when there is a thin sharp crust of ice on the surface, and the pace rapid.
The tobogun sledge.
When the snow is soft, the form of sledge known as a “tobogun” is very useful, not only as a dog sledge, but as a convenient means of carrying packs, traps, or dead game; when used for these purposes, the hunter, who usually travels on snow shoes, draws it after him by a track line. The tobogun is made by either bending up the end of a tough plank by steam, or cutting the desired form of wood out of the solid with the axe.
Ice boards.
There is another kind of sledge somewhat on the tobogun principle, known as an ice board. This is made from exceedingly tough, elastic wood. It is turned up at the bow end like the toe of a skate, and usually measures about 1ft. wide by 8ft. long. It is made thus in order that it may freely pass along the narrow Indian trails across the lakes. This board, although tough and flexible enough to pass over the inequalities of the uneven way without breaking, is stiffened at the upturned prow by a piece of wood, which, being fastened inside the curve, preserves its bent form. Several cross bars, disposed at intervals in the line of the sledge, serve to add to its strength. The bridle or drawing point of the sledge is formed of hide, and is secured to the beak or stiffener. The team of dogs used in drawing this kind of conveyance is harnessed to two stiff tough poles, which project to the front. The load is so packed as to admit of its being divided equally throughout the entire length of the board to which it is secured, by passing two hide ropes along its sides from end to end. These side cords are attached by lashings to the cross bars,and form a series of points of attachment for the lashings which pass forward and back, and from side to side over the load. After being hauled up as tight as possible, there should be rope enough for two tail pieces to trail behind; these are useful to seize on when going down a slope, if the sledge requires turning, or in event of the dogs taking it into their head to bolt on a steep incline, the sledge, load and all, is turned on its side, and allowed to drag to the bottom, where it is set right, and proceeds as before.
Common dog sledge.
common dog sledge
The travail sledge.
The common runner dog sledge is better adapted for travelling over tolerably hard snow, and the mode of harnessing the dogs is shown in the annexed engraving. The bearing points, chest band, and collar piece of the harness, should be made of thin soft hide, sewn double like an old fashioned shot belt, and then stuffed with hair-wool, pounded bark, fibre, or moss. A seal should be always drawn head first, as it travels thus with less than one-half the traction power.The travail sledge.When the ground is hard, or in the absence of snow, dogs are frequently used to draw a contrivance known as a “travail”; this is made by attaching two long tough sticks, slightly turned up at the hind ends, to the neck collar of the dog. The small ends of the sticks should rest nearest the head of the dog; by some dog drivers these are made to just cross each other over the dog’s neck, where they are bound to each other by a lashing of hide; others prefer attaching each stick in a line with the body of the dog, as in the above illustration. The travail sticks are padded at their points of contact, and keptasunder before and behind the load by cross bars of different lengths, the shortest being next the dog’s hind legs. Horses are frequently equipped precisely in the same manner, as will be seen on reference to the engraving representing Indian lodges. A horse of fair average power will carry a travail load of about 212lb. twenty-five miles per day, and a good dog will draw 75lb. in the same way over prairie land.
travail sledge
Dog packs.
dog pack
securing the pack
Such dogs as are not employed in pulling very often carry packs on their backs, as shown in the annexed illustration; these should be at all times very light, and the girths and breast strap wide enough to prevent undue pressure. We have seen the Tartars pack their dogs by placing a broad band of sheepskin with the wool inside round the dog, fasten it with loops and toggles, fit on a breast strap of the same material in the same way, and then secure the load to the girth by passing thongs through a set of bone rings sewn in for the purpose. The thongs pass across the load, and go through the rings on the opposite side, and thus secure the pack without compressing the dog, as shown in the accompanying illustration.
Horse sledges.
Field artillery sledges.
When horses are used for sledge drawing it is no uncommon practice to attach them to a conveyance formed by mounting a common carriage body on runners. We have seen the Russians use a most convenient and durable sledge body; it was formed of strong wicker work, strengthened by stringers of light wood, bound with lashings of raw hide. The runners were faced with steel, and the horses, three in number, worked abreast; that in the centre having a sort of arch or hoop over his neck. Bells should be used on all sledge teams, as the sledge glides along so noiselessly that collisions would be frequent without the cheerful warning note ofthe bells, which can be heard at a great distance in the clear frosty air. It is not our intention here to enter on the subject of sledges, as used by the sledge clubs for amusement or display, as they are not within our province.Field artillery sledges.Field artillery can be easily worked on the surface of frozen lakes and rivers, by attaching runners instead of wheels to the guns and waggons. The recoil of guns, when fired from sledge runners, is often considerable, and many modes are adopted to govern it. The best makeshift plan we know is to prepare two long thick straw mats for each gun sledge, and before laying the gun, raise the breech ends of the runners by handspike power, to a sufficient height to admit of the mats being drawn well under them, when the handspike may be withdrawn, and the runners allowed to rest on the mats. A species of rough basket work formed from pine branches will answer the same purpose.
The reindeer sledge.
The reindeer is a most valuable animal for sledge drawing, and, from the immense number of animals of this description kept in a state of partial domestication in the north (it has been roughly computed that in Lapland alone there are 100,000), extensive use is made of them as beasts of burden, some being used as pack animals, and others worked on the snow in the form of sledge (represented in the opposite illustration) known as thekerres.
THE REINDEER SLEDGE OR “KERRES.”
THE REINDEER SLEDGE OR “KERRES.”
The mode of harnessing the deer is peculiar, the bridle loop, formed of tendons, being under the front of the sledge; this arrangement gives lifting power. Then a single trace, attached to this bridle, passes between the deer’s hind legs, and is attached to the collar (which is well padded with hair), after passing through a loop in the back band, where it meets under the chest. The guiding rein is single near the sledge, where the driver holds it, but double near its termination; one part is fastened to the collar, whilst the other is secured to the deer’s head. This rein is used much as our ploughmen use a plough rein; it is composed of strips of plaited hide, and, by a dexterous turn of the wrist and elbow, can be made to do the duty of a whip, and, although little control can be exercised over a wayward animal, a tractable one will perform journeys of surpassing length ina wonderfully short space of time; from seven to eight miles an hour over tolerably good ground may be considered average travelling. It is recorded, however, that an officer charged with important dispatches once travelled from Umea, which is situated in the Gulf of Bothnia, to the city of Stockholm in forty-eight hours with one deer (the distance is little short of 500 miles); but the life of the deer was sacrificed in the performance of the journey. The weight of a deer’s load will depend much on the nature of the work he is engaged on; when employed in bringing in dead game, produce, &c., at a slow pace, he can easily draw 3 cwt., but when equipped for a rapid journey the weight drawn should not amount to more than from 230lb. to 245lb. English. Sledge deer not unfrequently perform some curious and inconvenient freaks with their drivers. Should they from any cause think themselves unfairly dealt with or harshly used, they immediately turn back on the conductor, who, to save himself, at once turns over the sledge and gets under it. The deer now tries to make use of his horns, but finds them of little avail against the mummy-like clothing of his skin-clad master, who usually settles the matter by the production of a lump of salt, which, when licked by the eager tongue of the irritated and cantankerous deer, acts like a charm in restoring order and a good understanding, when on he goes again as fresh and willingly as ever. In some parts ofSiberia reindeer are regularly ridden, just as horses are in England and bullocks in Africa and the East.
Summer sledges.
wishing bone sledge
farmer’s sledge
Summer sledges of various forms are common to the whole world. We shall only deal with the most noteworthy and valuable to the settler or explorer. The most common of these, known as awishing bonesledge, is made from a curved and forked branch cut off to the required length, a deep notch is cut at the point of the angle at the union of the fork to fasten the horses to, transverse pieces are treenailed across the prongs, the tail ends are slightly rounded up like the runners of a sledge, and the head is also curved in an upward direction with the axe, as seen in the above illustration. Sledges of this kind are very useful for the conveyance of rough heavy substances, such as building stone or mineral ores, packed in skin bags. Another useful form of farmer’s or emigrant’s sledge is also shown in the annexed illustration. Auger holes are bored through the ends of the runners, through which a strong wooden bar is passed, to this the traces are fastened.
Snow shoes.
snow shoe
The description of snow shoe used by the natives of different countries and localities vary just as much as the sledges. We can, therefore, only deal with the general principles of their construction and use. The “racquet” or snow shoe of the Canadians varies in length with the degree of supporting power of the snow. The form of the snow shoe is shown in the accompanying illustration. The frame or outside rim of the shoe is made from tough, light wood; ash is much used for the purpose. The network is often made from strips of moose skin, deer skin, or some other untanned hide. There are two modes by which the network is secured to the frame.One is to bore a train of gimlet holes at proper distances apart all round the frame, and with thin strips of hide or tendon passed alternately backward and forward through them, the side loops of the racquet work are taken up and tied fast to the frame. The other method consists in winding a long thin thong round the frame, and so binding the interlacing to it. The annexed illustration shows some other forms of the snow shoe.
other forms of snow shoes
The snow shoe is not strapped to the foot like the skate, but is fastened in two ways. First, there is an arrangement of strap through which the foot is thrust without the aid of the hands; the length and attachment of the thong being proportioned to the foot of the wearer; then there is an orifice left in the middle of the network in the centre line of the shoe, but nearer to the toe than the heel; into this hole the front part of the foot is thrust, much as one would put on an old heelless slipper.
In the adjustment of the shoe fastenings, the ball of the great toe is made to rest on what the Indians call the “bimikibison,” or walking strap. This is secured by its ends to the frame of the shoe, and by its sides by means of short straps to the front cross bar. In addition to these, a small loop is attached to the walking strap of just sufficient length to allow the toes to pass through, but narrow enough to keep back the ball of the foot, which acts as a sort of stopper, and by its pressure lifts and pushes the shoe upwards and forwards. In order to prevent the foot from working its way backwards, a strap or sling, the “adiman,” passes round the back of the heel. With this arrangement the foot works, so to speak, like a scale beam, the bearing part being the ball joint of the great toe, and as either end of the beam tilts up or down, so the shoe is dragged on or becomes a resting spot until its fellow passes skimmingly forward, leaving a well-marked pair of grooves behind the traveller.
Makeshift snow shoes are often made in the forest from light, tough boards. These are hewn into the rough form of a fish—broad before and narrow behind. The toe hole, or “eye” of the shoe, is cut as in the more perfect shoe, and an indentation is hewn out of the solid to admit of the foot always dropping into its proper position. These are generally used over very soft snow or swampy unsafe ground. The curved snow shoes shown in the illustration on p. 409 are at times over 6ft. long, and are used on open ground; the shorter kinds being better adapted for walking the forest, where roots and other impediments to travel abound.
making a snow boot
Snow-shoe boots.
Such boots as are worn for ordinary travelling, are utterly useless to the snow-shoe runner, who could not perform his work in them. Here, again, customs vary with countries. The Esquimaux, after covering his feet well with birds’ skins, encases them in coverings of sealskin, chewed pliant and soft by his loving spouse; over these he draws a pair of fur boots, made from the skins of bears’ legs, with the feet left on. The mocassin is the form of foot gear best adapted for the use of the European traveller, and to put it on properly requires some little practice and management. The following directions will at any rate show the form and nature of the materials best calculated to insure comfort in walking and prevent frost bite. First make a pair of thick flannelcapsocks, as shown in Fig. 1. These are merely flannel soles or socks with a toe cap sewn to them. These are put on just as you would put on slippers, over the crossed ends of the long flannel bandages which fold evenly under the toes on each side, and lap over each other. The long ends are now brought round the foot, over the sole, round the heel, and are wound evenly and spirally over and under each other until brought well up under the calf of the leg. Here theyare fastened off by passing the free ends two or three times under the coil. The mocassin may now be fastened on over this arrangement, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3, when a good thick pair of blanket leggings makes all complete for a tramp.
a ski
Norwegian skidor.
hunter on skis
Unlike the snow shoes, theskidorof Lapland and Norway have noracquetwork, but are merely long, narrow, upturned runners, to which the feet of theskid löpareor traveller are strapped. A peculiar staff, with a projecting rim round it, is carried to aid in propelling, guiding, &c., when ascending or descending uneven surfaces. The annexed illustration will serve to give some idea of the way in which the skidor are used, but an immense deal of practice is required to make even a tolerably goodskid löpare.
Skates and their substitutes.
skate
In some localities the shin bones of animals are used as aids in passing over frozen surfaces. One is securely strapped under the sole of each boot and made to act somewhat after the manner of a small sledge runner. On the use of skates we shall have little to say, as the art of plain, straightforward skating is too general to need more than a passing remark. We show in the accompanying illustration the mode of fastening which we have found most reliable for use on rough ice, and for hard work. We were many years ago advised to use it by a Dutchman who was celebrated for his feats in pace and distance; we adopted his plan and adhered to it.
We have already advised the traveller to include in his outfit a good store of English made boots and shoes—suited to the work he is likely to engage in—in warm countries such as Africa or India. We prefer shoes, and like them as light as is consistent with durability; but, for wear in the jungle or by the river side, we have never found any foot gear to equal moderately stout, but flexible, laced shooting boots and saumber-skin gaiters. The chief defects of a shoe is, that if it is too low, or ill made, so as to open at the sides, it may admit dirt or small stones, and that it does not protect the ankle or shin in walking through sharp grasses, such as the spear grass of India (the seeds of which are like the heads of Liliputian arrows), theTriodia spinifexof Australia, or the low “haak doorns” of Africa.
Medical and military writers recommend shoes either without or with only very low heels, and say that the so-called military heels give 2in. of additional height at the expense of all other good qualities; and this will at once be evident if we consider that the proper use of the foot in springing, walking, or running, depends upon its being able to move from a perfectly horizontal position, till the line of the sole from toe to heel forms an angle of 45° or 50° with the ground. If then, by the interposition of a block of leather, we prevent the heel coming within 15° or 20° of the horizontal line, we diminish the power of the foot just as much as we should the power of a bow, when, knowing that the archer could draw at 36in. we were to insist that the bow should be made with a curve of 18in., instead of being, as it ought, very nearly straight.
shoe
African boot
African boots.
The so-called support to the ankle is not only unnecessary but positively injurious. Opera dancers do not usually perform in boots, but shoes as light as possible. The Zouaves simply wear gaiters to keepdirt out of the shoe, and they detest the tight leggings, and on a march pitch them away, and let the knickerbockers lower down upon the leg. Men, in the constant habit of wearing tight or heavy boots, are not likely to have good legs, and none march better than Highlanders in their kilts and shoes; or natives of wild countries, who only put on sandals when the expected march is so long, that the hard skin of the foot would wear through faster than the natural growth could replace it. We suppose that it will be sufficiently definite to consider boots as having the upper leathers sufficiently high to cover the ankle, or as much of the leg or thigh as may be requisite. Shoes, as covering a part, or the whole of the foot up to, but not above, the ankle, and sandals as being merely soles fastened on by laces or thongs, but not covering or inclosing the foot.shoeThe form we have found most useful is that called the oxonian (Fig. 1), coming just high enough to cover the whole instep without interfering with the action of the joint, and fitting closely round beneath the ankle. Fig. 2 represents the Irish brogue, a good serviceable foot covering. Elastic sides do not stand hard wear in tropical heat, and therefore we use a front lacing. We object to bluchers, because after some wear the flaps of the quarters become loose, and bits of rotten stick or stiff grasses frequently are forced in in walking.African boots.Most countries have some form of shoe easily made from materials obtainable upon the spot, and in Africa the “velschoen” of untanned leather is the general wear.African bootSometimes these are very clumsily made, the naked foot is planted on the piece of leather intended for the sole, and the outline is marked out with the point of a knife, the blade being held so far clear as to obviate all danger of cutting the foot, a plan which certainly has the merit of making the shoe sufficiently roomy. The thinner hide intended for the front is then laid on over the instep, and the edges, being brought down, are cut evenwith those of the sole; and, both being bored with an awl, are stitched through and through with leather thongs, the quarters are then fitted on in the same manner, and the only reason that the stitches do not wear out is that the sole is so much wider than the foot, that no weight comes upon the part in which the seam is made. A couple of holes in the front of the quarters receive another thong which serves as a tie, and this, being the only part that is in anyway tight, must considerably gall the instep.
The hides of the giraffe, the eland, or the buffalo are used for soles, and a piece large enough for a pair may generally be purchased for eighteenpence. These are simply dried, and a native must be hired to beat and soften them, working grease into them as he does so till they become so soft and supple that, though they are not waterproof in the sense of absolutely repelling the liquid, they may be wetted through and dried again without becoming hard. Sometimes a native will do this for a knife (value ninepence or a shilling) and the grease; but a sharp look-out must be kept upon the latter, or he will rub it into his own skin instead of that which he is employed to soften. An African can no more be trusted with fat than many of our own countrymen with ardent spirits.
For the upper leather the hide of many of the larger antelopes will do, but that of the “koodoo” is most universally esteemed, being somewhat thicker than stout calf, and very soft and durable; that of the wildebeeste is too hard and stout, and those of the springbok and smaller antelopes too thin. This skin is also subjected to a long preliminary rubbing and working in the hands of the natives, grease being occasionally smeared on.
The preparation of a good-sized skin—such as that of a koodoo, or of an ox, if it is to be softened so as to be fit for purposes where lightness and pliability are required—is performed as follows. If the hair is to be removed, the skin is wrapped up with the hair inward, fresh cattle dung having been previously spread over it to keep it moist, and if the party be not on a journey, it is buried for a day or two, to “sweat” the hair off; but if the hair is to be retained, this preliminary process is dispensed with. If the thickness of the hide is to be reduced, it is then pegged outtightly upon the ground, with the hair side downward, and the flesh, and as much of the inner side of the skin as requisite, removed by scraping with the small, broad-edged, soft iron blades set like adzes, across the handle, and used very much in the manner of the scrapers, which so much disgust passengers on long voyages when used upon the deck above their berths. The hide having been still kept damp and soft by being covered with cattle dung, or moist clay, is next taken in hand by half a dozen or more natives, who, sitting around it and grasping each their handful of the edge, compress and rub it in every possible direction, ever and anon driving all their hands together towards the centre, and then simultaneously falling back, stretching the skin to the utmost. Grease has to be applied occasionally, and the skin, when put away for the night, must be carefully rolled up and kept under moist earth till morning.
Most of the native tribes also have some species of mimosa, generally a small variety, the bark and young roots of which they pound as fine as possible in their wooden mortars, and, by rubbing in the powder during the dressing of the skin, they partially tan it, and impart to it a reddish brown colour.
Shoemakers’ wax.
Before proceeding to make or repair boots or shoes, shoemakers’ wax will be required. It is a good plan to take a hornfull out from England. The wax horn may be made from the horn of a common cow; fill it with softened wax until nearly full, put in a wooden bottom, secure it in its place by driving in three or four wire pins, and all is made secure. When the wax is required for use, saw off the small end of the horn far enough down to reach the contents. Apply heat to the exterior until the wax runs out in sufficient quantity on a greased stone; take up as much as is needed for use, work it into a ball, and put it to swim in a little water. If you have to make your own wax proceed as follows: Take 4oz. of resin, grind it to a fine powder between two stones, ¼oz. of beeswax chopped up small, and 2oz. of common pitch; mix these substances with the resin, and place the whole in a small native chatty pot. Then put the pot in a bed of hot wood ashes, and with a long flat-pointed stick work and stir the mass about until thoroughly melted; then add ¾oz. of good clean fat, and keep the whole in a state ofsolution for about a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes. Grease the bottom of a calabash or bowl, half fill it with cold water; take your pot off the fire with a twisted stick, and pour the molten materials into the water. When cold enough to handle, grease your hands, and work the wax about; pull it out into long strips, double these back on themselves, and so proceed until all the materials are well amalgamated; then work it out into a long stick or rod, take a greased knife, and divide it up into pieces large enough to make convenient-sized balls for use. These are best kept floating in water until wanted.
Lasts.
In making a pair of shoes the mode usually adopted is that previously described, and, by dint of patience and careful fitting, some persons will make them very neatly and effectively in this manner; but, after all, there is always an uncertainty as to their fitting properly, and we found it much better to take the trouble in the first instance of making a pair of lasts. For this purpose it is best to take the length of the foot, its extreme breadth and height at the instep, and cut two logs of tolerably hard even-grained wood (we used the sweet gum), rather larger, and square them up to these dimensions—say, length 10in., breadth 3in., and height 4in., more or less. Then, placing the foot upon a piece of soft ground, trace its outline, and then, holding a board vertically against the inner side, trace off on this the profile, and removing the foot trace also the outline of the print it has made upon the ground. The inner side and the bottom of each block ought to be nicely and truly squared up, even though, from scantiness of wood or other causes, the other sides should not be so. Take all the measurements for breadth from the straight line made by the edge of the board upon the ground, and measure them from the inside edge, right and left, upon the bottom of the blocks; draw the outline, and inside it draw also the actual tread of the foot, measured in the same manner from the impression on the ground. Then, measuring from the bottom of the board, transfer the profile of the foot to the inside surface of each block, and with axe or saw cut them to the outline of the heel and instep, taking care not to attempt to round them till you have also cut them to the outline of the breadth; then, having ascertained that all your measurements are true, and that both lasts are of similar size and form, beginto round them as nearly as possible to the natural form of the foot, lowering them more on the outer side toward the small toes than on the inner, where the line of the instep extends from the ankle to the great toe; then, having ascertained the arch of the foot, commence rounding away the edges of the sole from the inner line, observing that in the waist of the foot the tread runs very nearly along the outer edge, leaving nearly all the hollow to be cut away on the inner side. Let the sole rise from the ground a little also under the toes, as their pressure downward will make the shoe fit better, and it will be less liable to catch small impediments in walking.
measuring feet
Bear in mind that in the natural foot the great toe is as nearly as possible parallel to the straight line drawn along the inside of the foot, and if it is forced from this position by ill-cut shoes, such as some years ago were inappropriately called “straights,” or by the wearing of high heels, not only is the beauty of the foot sacrificed, but its elasticity, its strength, and usefulness are materially diminished. In Figs. 1, 2, and 3 we have represented the natural form of the foot, distinguishing by the flat shadow the part that actually touches the ground, and by a lighter outline along the hollow, that which may be considered as the average limit of the sole. These are one-fourth the natural size, and, by using inches for the quarter inches in our drawings, the enlarged outlines will be a sufficient guide in cutting the lasts, the average proportions of feet being very nearly the same, though of course dimensions will vary. In Fig. 1 of the next illustration we give the forms of sole that may be used. If the ground is bad, and it is necessary to defend the foot against thorns, sharp stones, &c., the outer lines may be adopted;but on tolerably fair ground, it is only the actual tread that requires protection from the sole. However, as the foot is constant in its size, the smaller the sole is the larger must be the upper leather. Of this last we have represented two forms. They are both shown, folded and stitched, so as to be ready for lasting; but the smaller figures within show the form of each part before it is folded.
template for shoe
In Fig. 2 the whole upper is cut out from one piece, folded in the centre of the front, and stitched at the heel. The edges should not be cut off too close to the seam (otherwise neatness will be gained at the expense of strength), and they should always be outside; for, if they be turned in, it would be very difficult to flatten them so perfectly as not to gall the heel. Tho front is split 2½in. or 3in. down the instep, and a piece of stout leather, with its edges thinned down, is stitched on and pierced with holes to receive the lacing. It is split not quite through, but about ½in. is left to strengthen the front of the shoe, and prevent the thinner leather tearing. The edges in which the holes are pierced are, of course, left the full thickness. A tongue of soft leather ought to be stitched in, that the lacing may not gall the instep, but the edges of this must be carefully thinned down, and no knots or ends of thread should be left inside. The ends may be fastened off very neatly without knots by merely taking one or two stitches backward along the already finished seam, and even if the fastening should show outside, it will still be better than that after a long march the instep should be foundchafed and bleeding, and a sore established which will be very difficult to heal.
In Fig. 3 the front is in one piece and the quarter in another, and this is a convenient arrangement when, though you may have plenty of leather, it is not of sufficient size to cut the upper in a single piece. Generally, the edge of the quarter is laid over that of the front, and stitched, leaving the upper part loose as a flap or ear to receive the tie or lacing. In this case, the centre of the front is left long enough to come up as a tongue to defend the instep, but this method has the disadvantage of leaving a space on either side the foot, opening forward as in the case of bluchers, and liable to receive in walking broken sticks, reeds, or grass stems, which are often forced in with considerable violence. We, therefore, prefer to stitch the front edge over that of the quarter, inserting a tongue as neatly as possible, and stitching on, as before, edgings of stiff leather to receive the lacing, taking care, also, that all edges inside the shoe are trimmed off to nothing, and that no fastenings off are made inside.
All these should be sewn with “saddlers’ seams”—that is, the two parts should be laid together, and holes being pierced with a fine straight awl, the two threads should be passed through from right and left simultaneously, and drawn tight with an equally firm pull on either hand. The seam will thus show no difference on either of the sides; but, if a section were made, it would present the appearance of a chain, as in Fig. 5 of the engraving on p. 421, each link inclosing the thickness of leather left between the holes. Although the threads should be tightened with a firm hand, they should not be hauled upon so as unduly to contract the leather, and so make the seam grip the foot like a cord when the shoe is finished.
The dorsal sinews of the springbok, or the domestic goat, separated into fibre of the proper size, will answer very well for this purpose, the points being cut sharp, wetted, and twisted a little, will be quite rigid enough to pass through the holes previously bored; but while we have a stock of good whity-grey thread, we prefer to use it doubled and well waxed, in a couple of stout tailor’s needles, always, however, boring the holes with a fine awl to insure regularity.