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The “cogs” which were in use in the XIIIth century, were replaced in the XIVth by the “Krayers” and “Hulken” which had to give way, in their turn in the XVth century, to the “Barges”, “Baertzen” etc. The clinker built sides of large ships only disappeared in this last century, to give room to the smooth sides, a mode of construction which took root with us as the result of our relations with the peoples of the Mediterranean.
An old Record of Hoorn, written by D. Velius, relates that the carvel built side was first applied by “Juliaan” at Zierikzee, and adopted at Hoorn in 1460. The ships built in this way were called “Karviel”, “Kraweel” or “Karveel” (WITSEN, p. 496, col. 1) and their type, according to this author, would seem to have been copied from the Latin vessel “Carabus”. M.DEJONGE, on his side (vol. I, p. 79, note) remarks that “Juliaan” might well have been an Italian.
Witsen gives of these “Karviel” a description which is well worthy of attention: these vessels were rather narrow at the bow, broader at the stern, thus having the shape of a chisel. In other words, their lines were finer, wherein they differed from the types of ships used in Holland.
Hence we seem to have before us not only a given mode of construction, but also a well determined type which has come from the Mediterranean. JAL, in hisGlossaire Nautique, pp. 419-420, tells us, as to that, that caravels were already to be found on the Mediterranean in 1307; their dimensions were, however, smaller than those of the ships used by Vasco da Gama and Columbus. Here is what this author says about this style of vessel: “The caravel was a small ship of the family of round-sternvessels but with finer lines than thenefsof its time and more slender forward. It was also faster, more handy and better fitted for all expeditions where speed in going ahead and great quickness in coming about were required.”
These caravels dit not remain in use to act as “Kraecks”; but with this vessel we reach the time when the reciprocal influence of the two centres begins to be felt.
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Two existing Flemish miniatures show clearly the difference which existed between the Dutch type and the foreign type; they date from 1482 and 1488 respectively. The first is the picture of the true type of the Dutch vessel; the second shows a foreign ship. On the first, the vessel is represented with smooth sides; therefore this system of construction was adopted among us in the XVth century.
The vessels are not yet made with a square stern, however; their stern being still round in accordance with the ancient way. As a general rule, they were of small size, and our present sea “hoys” could have been compared with them in this respect. They had a capacity of 160, 180 and 200 tonnes, or 80, 90 and 100 “lasts”. Nevertheless, there were also some of 220, 230 and 240 tonnes, or, 110, 115 and 120 lasts. (M.DEJONGE, Vol. I, p. 80.)
The “Karvielen” and the “Kraecken” disappear in the XVIIth century and, at this time, no more types which differ from the ordinary Holland type are met with. Hence it can be maintained that the “Karvielen” and “Kraecken” did not succeed in taking root with us. It will be seen, on the contrary that the full-bowed vessels came more and more into use.
The name of “cog” was, therefore, no longer in use in the XVth century. Nevertheless this type of vessel continued to exist. The “cog” gave birth to the “Hulken” and these latter to the “Baertzen”. Although modified, the first form, that of the full-bowed ship, remained in use. One single characteristic disappeared: that of the slender bows and sterns of the old “Viking” boat which are found in all the reproductions known in the North-West of Europe, from Denmark to and including England and the North of France.
The rigging developed in its turn: the single mast was replaced by three pole masts, each having a top and a single large sail. The ropes were made stronger and channels appeared near the end of the XVth century. The steering oar of the old “cog” had long since given place to the rudder.
It would be incorrect to call “cogs” the vessels represented by Master W. A., as Arenhold has done in his work:Die allmähl. Entwickelung des Segelschiffes von der Römerzeit bis zur Zeit der Dampfer, p. 650—(Jahrbuch der Schiffbautechnischen Gesellschaft, 1906). They are, however, forms which issue from the “cog” but not new forms developed alongside of ancient forms. If history be consulted, there will be no cause for surprise at seeing the effects of the contact of the two Centres appear exactly in the XVth century.
The Crusades (1096-1291), which brought the nations very much together, had come to an end. The alliance of the Hanseatic cities, concluded in 1250, had caused a prodigious growth of our trade in the Baltic Sea. The Frisians, especially, had devoted themselves to the art of shipbuilding, but the Flemings would not let themselves be distanced.
In 1339, there broke out between France and England the Hundred Years’ war, which led the latter to take up shipbuilding much more actively than in the past.
One of the most famous actions of this period was the battle of the Sluis (1340), at which the English fleet of two hundred ships, under the command of King Edward III, completely defeated the Franco-Genoese fleet. This latter, 190 vessels strong, was composed of bluff-bowed vessels, galleys, barges and a large number of small vessels. Certain chroniclers claim that it included four hundred units. (HOLMES, p. 71.)
The English lost four thousand men in this battle, and the French and Genoese twenty-five thousand, which leads to the assumption that the latter had a large number of galleys at their disposal.
In 1345, Edward III came again to France at the head of a fleet of 1000 to 1100 ships and, in 1347, a third expedition, having to do with the siege of Calais, was sent against this country.
HOLMESrelates (p. 72) that, for this expedition, the greater part of the fleet, which counted 745 units and 15,895 men, came from England; the other vessels were furnished by the Flanders and Spain.
The size of the crews, which reduces to 21 men per vessel shows sufficiently that the boats of the fleet were relatively small. Under these conditions, a pretty exact idea can be had of this fleet by giving a glance at old engravings which show a flotilla of fishing boats, including some busses and a few “Noordvaarders”, putting out to sea.
The castles which ships carried at this time were small and not set up as a permanence.
The medal struck as a commemoration of the battle of the Sluis also shows a “Cog”, or at least a vessel which is exactly like it by its clinker built sides. It may be supposed that the type of vessel shown in this reproduction was the one most widely used at this period; so, once more is shown the great affinity which existed among the northern nations.
Military tactics had forced the peoples of the Mediterranean and, later, Spain and Portugal, their imitators, to increase the height of their ships. This is confirmed by HOLMESin the following quotation relating to the battle fought by Edward III, near Winchelsea, against forty Spanish ships: “The tactics of the English consisted chiefly of boarding, while the Spaniards, whose vessels were much the higher, attacked with crossbows and heavy stones; the latter they hurled from their fighting tops into their adversaries’ ships”.
The history of the Netherlands also mentions this fact.
England first made use of artillery at sea in 1372; the Mediterranean saw it used by the Genoese in 1377.
Shipbuilding was only developed much later in France. Nevertheless, there is proof that ships were already built there in the XIVth century and it appears that they had cannons on board even in 1339. Still, it was only on the shores of the Mediterranean that shipbuilding was regularly carried on, under the impulse, it appears, of Jean de Vienne, who was made admiral in 1373. (Le Musée de Marine du Louvre.)
It was under the rule of Henri the Navigator (1417) that shipbuilding reached its height in Portugal, a country which was entirely under the influence of the Mediterranean.
Meanwhile, the relations of the Netherlands with the southern countries had developed rapidly.
The closing of the old route to the Indies, which led through the Mediterranean and Asia Minor, brought about a complete upsetting of the commerce of the world. New explorations must needs be undertaken and it is thus that we read in history that after having pushed as far as Guinea with six caravels, in 1446, the Cape Verde Islands were reached soon afterwards.
In 1449, it was the turn of the Azore Islands and, in 1486, Bartholomeo Diaz reached the Cape of Good Hope. Eleven years later, this navigator turned the Cape and landed at the Indies with three vessels, theSan Gabriel, theSan Raphaeland theBonio. According to existing data, the first of these ships must have had a capacity of 400 tons or 250 to 300 registered tons. (HOLMES, p. 86.)
II 61
It is useless to dwell longer on these episodes of which the history is sufficiently well known and of which the last act was the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492. This latter had at his disposal but three small ships, although Spain was already using, at this time, larger vessels. The best known and the largest of the three was the “Santa-Maria”. This ship had a length of keel of 60.68 feet and a length over all of 128.25 feet with a total breadth of 25.71 feet. The Chicago Exposition of 1893 exhibited a model of this vessel of which HOLMES’s work gives a reproduction on p. 85.
The discovery of America gave rise to the thirst for gold, drove the nations of North-Western Europe to venture on the high seas and obliged them to go actively into shipbuilding. The rise of the Netherlands then was important; the size of their ships grew greatly, and as far back as the XVIth century, vessels of 300, 400, 500 and 600 tons were found.
However, smaller vessels continued to be used, in preference, for war because they were more easily handled. (See, among others,DEJONGE, Vol. I, p. 81.)
After 1500, our shipbuilding became so developed that our country was called the shipyard of Europe. Different from Portugal, where nothing has been preserved, the Netherlands possess a whole series of drawings of the XVIth, XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries, which enable us to form a very exact idea of the progressive development of the ship.
In the old reproductions aforementioned of Maître W. A., aswell as in the Flemish miniatures at hand, the forward castle projected beyond the bow, but it already forms, however, a component part of the ship and is fastened to a beam let into the stem and resting on a bracket fastened thereto. This construction gives to the stem the appearance of starting upward and then of falling back in the shape of an S. This is evidently only an illusion.
The vessels after 1500 become larger and the castles gain in importance. The projection of the forward castle, however, diminishes gradually and this castle reached only as far as the stem, by the middle of the XVIth century.
II 138
WITSEN, in the appendix of his remarkable work (pp. 8 and 10), gives a fine model of a ship at the end of the XVth century. It is a question of the reproduction of a vessel which, in his time, decorated the arch of the church at Diemer-lez-Amsterdam, built in the year 1500. The rigging of this vessel, as well as the pole mast supplied with tops and carrying large square sails, brings us back to the Middle Ages. The forward castle, which projects beyond the stem, and the after castle are higher than usual. These are no bends such as were used later; several heavy pieces of wood supported on brackets take their place. The sides are evidently smooth and, according to the constant practice of the period, the ship carried on the bow and on the sides pieces of wood for protection.
The stern alone is not clearly shown; there is no rudder to be seen, and this gives the impression that the drawing is at fault.
This vessel had no upper stern, in all probability, for our ships did not yet know this addition. There is a proof of it in theNoah’s Ark, reproduced in theNürenberger Chronik, folio XI, of 1494, as well as in that of the ship which appears in theEcclesiastical Painting of the Middle Ages in Holland, 1518-1525, no14, and which shows Jonah in the water.
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This last picture especially gives a magnificent type of boat of the beginning of the XVIth century. It is not so old as the ship of the Church at Diemer, as to which the rig furnishes proof: the pole of the mast passes through the top and, another characteristic, the forward castle does not project beyond the stem. The ram has been broken off near the frame. Besides, the human figures, as compared with the ship, are exaggerated. The sides of the vessel are smooth. It brings admirably to mind the Flemish miniature of 1482.
These reproductions are most interesting in view of the development of the ship; we see in them the forms of the castle become more precise, the rigging improve and increase and the vessel itself gain in size.
Attention is called to the fact that the ships in all these drawings carry a bowsprit which was used at first only to hoist the anchor, as is the practice still on the large river lakes.
Let us now turn our eyes to Breugel’s pictures of which F. Huis has left some superb engravings.
II 132II 135II 64
A close examination of these reproductions brings out different types of ships. Several of them show us important vessels which, by their great rams, their high castles and their broad sterns, differ notably from the old Holland ship.
Van Yk’s work also shows, on page 9, a reproduction of those big vessels which the author calls Spanish “Caracks” or galleons, two types of ships which arose under the influence of the Mediterranean.
But, alongside of these “caracks” are also found smaller Dutch vessels. An engraving of 1564, of a Breugel picture, shows particularly an Amsterdam merchantman. It has a round stern. It can be compared advantageously with an old Flemish engraving, dating from 1480 or 1490, which shows a “Kraeck” without escutcheon, and of which the castles differ completely in form and size from those carried by the ships seen in the engravings of Maître W. A. These castles agree with the Mediterranean types.
The boat with the square stern had been adopted in Holland, therefore, as far back as the end of the XVIth century.
Square sterns remained in use there, for large vessels up to the end of the XVIIIth century; at that time a return was made to the old structure, in imitation of England which used the square stern for only a short time, seeing that William Pitt (HOLMES, p. 40) introduced the rounded forms there in the XVIIth century. Hence Mr. de Jonge is in error when he says in his work that the vessel with the square stern only appeared in Holland in 1651.
The adoption of the square stern, nevertheless, did not cause the old round-stern, full-bow vessel to disappear; this is an established fact.
Another word about ports. The old reproductions of the XVIth century show ports; some are even found on a miniature of 1428. In any event, their general use dates back to the end of the XVth century; they seem to have been invented by a Frenchman from Brest, named Descharges. (DEJONGE, Vol. I, p. 85.)
The masts and rigging also underwent important changes. At the beginning of the Eighty Years War (1590), an inhabitant of Enkhuizen, “Kryn Wouterez” by name, according to Brandt (History of Enkhuizen, Vol. I, p. 139), invented a process for making masts in several sections (DEJONGE, Vol. I, p. 390). The masts, made first of two pieces, were, by means of this new invention, soon made in three parts each carrying a square sail. From this time, the old medieval rig of one large sail begins to disappear.
In order to facilitate the evolutions of the ship, a square sail was placed on the bowsprit.
Finally, the guns are placed more rationally and, imitating the practice on the Spanish caracks, some were located in the forward and after castles so as to command the deck. This arrangement recalls the practice of the Middle Ages, in accordance with which, in case of boarding, the crew retired into the castles whence a charge was made on the invaders.
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The vessel represented on the engraving of 1594, therefore, arose gradually from the old forms, but not without having felt the influence of the Mediterranean; this evolution leads us to the “Pinnace” of the XVIIth century. The ship was then richly ornamented and bedecked, and its sails, in accordance with use, carried handsome paintings. This custom disappeared insensibly during the century named, but the custom of decorating ships continued, none the less, for still a long time afterwards.
According to WITSEN, fixed rules governed the construction of vessels from the XVIth century on. One strict rule, among others, did not allow the stem to project more than 7/6, or less than 5/6 of its height, nor could the sternpost project more than a fifth or a fourth of its height. The author mentioned pretends that the stem was made with a marked slope, for the reason that it was believed that, under such conditions, the ships would glide more easily over the water (p. 47, column 2 at the end).
At about one-third of the length of the keel from the stem, were placed from one to four main frames; the ship narrowed aft to such a degree that the wing transom was equal in length to half the greatest beam of the ship. The bow was full, which allowed the water to be thrown more easily aside. (WITSEN, pp. 49 and 50.)
The seams were calked and, in accordance with an old custom, covered with lead plates.
The forward castle had been reduced in height while the after castle, on the contrary, had been raised. A fourth mast was placed in the stern to facilitate the manœuvring of the ship; this mast disappeared later on, when the bowsprit was adopted in the course of the XVIIth century. (WITSEN, p. 139, 2d column.)
The XVIth century was a memorable period for the Netherlands; it was during this century that was laid the foundation of that navy to which, as says Mr. DEJONGE, Holland was to owe later her liberty, her greatness and her prosperity. This navy united within itself everything which could concur to bring forth a force able to defend the country, to protect commerce, navigation and the fisheries and to bring to Holland glory and power.
Our marine, in general, and our shipbuilding, in particular, then developed steadily. A long period of struggles began and many battles were fought both before and after the Eighty Years War (1568-1648).
According to the old custom, the ships which took part in actions were only merchantmen fitted out for the purpose. (DEJONGE, Vol. I, p. 180.) These vessels, which were called “Vliebooten” or “Vlietbooten” (flyboats), had a small capacity varying from 40 to 140 tons and carried six, eight, ten or twenty guns. The size of the crew was proportioned generally to capacity; a vessel of 50 tons carried 50 men. (DEJONGE, Vol. I, p. 101.)
The “Heuden”, already mentioned above, as well as “Boeiers” (tenders), also called “Kromstevens”, and other flat-bottomed craft were used on the rivers.
The navy of Zeeland included, in addition to a number ofsmall boats, a few vessels of more respectable size. “Hulken” were used at the siege of Middleburg; one of them, called the big “Hulk”, must have had a capacity of 600 lasts, or 1200 tons, and a crew of at least 500 to 600 men. (VANMETEREN, fol. 81 and 102.)
As a general rule, the vessels of North Holland were larger than those of Zeeland. Their capacity was 50 to 125 last, or 100 to 250 tons and a crew of 50 to 150 sailors and soldiers. The largest vessels carried thirty-two guns. (DEJONGE, Vol. I, p. 187.)
Bor relates (Guerres de Hollande, Vol. I, p. 650) that thirteen vessels of this latter category were fitted out in 1575, and that this fleet was filled out by “Kraveelschepen”, “Yachten”, “Waterschepen” and “Booten”, while according to DEJONGE(Vol. I, p. 187), a few galleys were still in service on the Zuyder Zee.
In order to be able to form a more exact idea of the importance of our naval power at this time, the following table, of which the original is preserved in the Archives of the State (DEJONGE, Vol. I, p. 586), has been inserted here to show the navy of the province of Holland in 1587.
NUMBEROFVESSELS
LASTS
GUNS
CREW
REMARKS
1
100
16
95
1 Last = 2 tons.
1
—
14
70
1
27
14
32
Small calibre.
10
30–90
12
45–76
35
17–70
8–11
29–75
the largest: 50 to 60 men.
4 Y
—
—
36–50
Y stands for Yachts.
25
8–40
4–7
11–70
the largest: 30 to 40 men.
6
—
1–2
7–11
1 G
—
1
16
G stands for galley.
In addition to the “Vliebooten”, there were vessels of less importance called “Kromstevens”, “Kraveelen”, “Heuden” or freight vessels, “Krapschuiten”, “Potten“, “Yachten”, “Boeiers“. The largest vessels were still, however, only of modest dimensions. According to the decisions of the Government, dated June 1, 1588, three of the largest vessels were to be equipped for war and it was stipulated that their capacity was to be 200 lasts. (DEJONGE, Vol. I, p. 201, note.)
There are some who claim that only small boats were used at the beginning of our war for independence, because the battles were fought only on rivers and because, furthermore, the financial situation was very bad. (DEJONGE, Vol. I, pp. 203-204.) I consider, for my part, that the latter reason was the main one. Later on, complaints were again made about the unsatisfactory state of the fleet by reason of lack of funds.
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Returning new to the shapes of the ships. The “Hulk” has been seen to appear after the “Cog”, only to be replaced, itself, by the “Baertze”. The “Kraeck” arose alongside of this last type which was followed finally by the “Spiegelschip” under the form of a pinnace and a war vessel.
The full bow lasted, however, in boats of little importance and so the “Vlieboot” or “Vlietboot” was seen to follow the “Baertze”. It is the old type of the “Baertze” of which the topsides tumbled in appreciably.
Hence no new type of boat was characterized by this new denomination which was given in the second half of the XVIth century; it is the old form which, slightly modified, appears under another name. This is a fact which will be met with more than once further on. A comparison between the “Vlieboot”, (flyboat), the “Baertze”, etc., brings out the analogy between these vessels; the same holds good for the “Buss”. All these forms are derived from the “Cog”.
The “Flyboat” originated on the Zuider Zee. Its name seems to have come from the “Vlie” which was frequented by boats of this kind. These latter, as has been said, had reentering topsides, that is, convex in shape, hence it was more difficult to board them under these conditions and, consequently, their defense needed but a limited number of men; this was a matter of importance for merchant vessels.
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Besides having a respectable cargo capacity, the “Flyboats” were also very handy. There is no doubt that they were theforerunners of the flutes, the merchant vesselspar excellenceof the XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries, which England and France borrowed from us.
There is in existence a beautiful reproduction of the “Flyboat” dating from 1647. It shows a relatively large vessel; judging by the beakhead shown which was not carried by our small merchant vessels. The beak had been adopted first in the Mediterranean; it is not, therefore, of Dutch origin. None of the old Dutch types had it, whereas those of the Mediterranean and, even those of the times of the Phœnicians already had them. (See, among others, VANYK, p. 103.)
Toward the end of the XVIth century the name of “Baertze” gave way to that of “Vlieboot” (flyboat), and at the beginning of the XVIIth century, arose the vessels called “Galioot” (galliot), “Noordvaerder”, “Kof” (kuff), “Smakschip” (smack), “Boeier” (tender), together with the flutes and square stern vessels. Still—and this cannot be too often repeated—the primitive forms do not disappear under these different names. The forms have been enlarged and a few exterior characteristics, as well as the rigging, have been modified. The different types just mentioned above have, therefore, as their main and fundamental character the old rounded bow.The vessels of the period under consideration could be divided into three principal groups:a) the square-stern ships;b) the flutes in the broadest acceptation of the word; andc) the “Kof en Smakschepen” (kuffs and smacks).
It is unnecessary to add that the vessels of groupsbandcwere round at the stern. Hence, the purest old Dutch types will be found in these two groups.
The XVIIth century is now reached, that century of glory and prosperity for our country, especially from the point of view of shipbuilding. However, before beginning on this period, let us look a little into what was the situation of shipbuilding abroad.
Let us begin with Spain, which was mixed up in our war for independence.
The Spanish naval architecture, which flourished after that of Portugal, felt undoubtedly and intensely the influence of the Mediterranean. The Spanish galleons and caracks recall the Genoese “nefs” and caracks, of which only a few old reproductions have been preserved, and which came up under the influence of relations with Northern nations.
In addition to the galleons, the galleys and the galliasses held an important place in the Spanish navy. The frequent use of vessels with oars made hand to hand fights quite rare and led to less frequent boarding among the nations of the South, this being the reverse of the practise among the Northern races.
The pictures of the Mediterranean vessels can be consulted to advantage in order to obtain an idea of the Spanish ships.
The sea power of Spain disappeared, as is known, with the Invincible Armada, in 1588. A summary description of this fleet will give an idea of the importance of the ships which composed it. It was made up of one-hundred-and-thirty-two vessels, of which (HOLMES, p. 92) four were galleys, four galliasses, thirty vessels of less than 100 tons and ninety-four ships of 130 to 1550 tons. The round-stern ships had a total capacity of 59,120 tons. There were 2761 pieces of artillery and the ships companies contained 7862 seamen and 20,671 soldiers.
The English fleet had one-hundred-and-ninety-seven vessels, of which only thirty-four belonged to the royal navy, all the rest were merchantmen hastily equipped for war.
The largest English ship was theTriumph, built in 1561, of 1000 to 1100 tons burden and carrying three hundred sailors, forty gunners and one-hundred-and-sixty soldiers. It mounted forty-six guns. Besides the “Triumph”, the English fleet had but seven vessels of 600 to 1000 tons whereas the Spanish fleet had forty-five vessels of this size. The total of all hands of the English fleet amounted to 15,551 souls.
In this struggle Holland was with England; it was she that kept the Duke of Parma shut up at Dunkerque. The largest vessels of the Netherlands fleet were of 400 tons. Both in England and with us, merchant ships, which did duty temporarily as men of war, were leased for the war. This old custom of the Middle Ages still survived. Besides, it was all the simpler, at this latter period, to equip merchantmen for war, as artillery was still in its infancy or even unknown.
The following figures (HOLMES, p. 95) show how much larger the vessels of the Southern States were than ours, as a rule. In 1592,the English captured a Portuguesecarackof 1600 tons, 165 feet between perpendiculars and showing seven decks.
In 1594, it was the turn of a Spanishcarackwith 1100 men on board. When Cadiz was taken in 1596, two Spanish galliasses fell into the enemy’s hands; they were vessels of 1200 tons; the flagship “San-Felipo”, which was blown up measured 1500 tons.
A Portuguese carack of 1600 tons, called the San-Valentino, valued with her guns at a million ducats, was captured at Cezimbra in 1602.
Following our example, it is said, and as the result of “Kryn Wouterszoon’s” invention, the movable top-mast was adopted by the English during the reign of Queen Elizabeth (1588-1603). (HOLMES, p. 86).
Up to this point, the ports were not only irregularly arranged, but the lower row was generally so low that those in this tier had to be kept closed if the sea were at all rough. In England, however, the tendency was to raise the lowest tier (HOLMES, p. 96) and this example was soon generally followed.
France, whose ships so far had not yet appeared on the Mediterranean, began in the XVIIth century, under Richelieu (1624-1692), to develope her navy. Colbert continued this work with ardor.
It has been stated already, in speaking of the Mediterranean, that the older French ships were, in principle just like those of Genoa; until about 1650, galleys were more numerous than other vessels. The North of France and Normandy belonged only—and the old pictures show it—to the Northern Centre. This is by no means surprising, if the Norse invasion be remembered. Even now, boats resembling those of Flanders and of our own country are still found in the North of France.
Let us return now to the Netherlands.
After the discovery by Vasco da Gama, in 1498, of the route to the Indies and when Portugal had secured for herself the monopoly of trade in those lands, Lisbon became the centre of traffic of the world.
In those days, the Dutch sought in Portuguese ports the products of the Indies; but, in 1580, the Duke of Alba took possession of Portugal and annexed it to Spain. Nevertheless, we were allowed to continue our commerce with the former of these countries until 1585, when all our ships were confiscated.
Hence Holland was reduced to finding for herself a route to the Indies, and it was believed at first that this result could be found by way of the North. Four ships were fitted out for this purpose in 1594, two by Holland and two by Amsterdam. This undertaking failed as did also that of 1595 which was followed by the famous expedition of Heemskerk, Barends and van Rijp, which latter was also fruitless.
Meanwhile a route was sought by way of the South and the Cape of Good Hope. A fleet of four ships, under the command of Keijzers and Houtman started in 1595 and was gone for two years and a half. After a voyage of 446 days, the ships reached Bantam and visited Bali. The return required 168 days. This fleet carried a crew of 248 men.
The results of this expedition, while not brilliant, had, nevertheless, as a consequence, the formation, in 1602, of the East India Company which played such an important part in our history.
It is useless to add that these events had a decisive influence on the development of our naval architecture.
Up to the beginning of the XVIIth century, there was as yet no question of a war fleet properly so-called. Merchant ships were still hired and converted into men-of-war to meet contingencies. Our fleet was made up at that time of all kinds of types of vessels. Among them the square sterned vessels, called pinnaces, the “Vliebooten” or flyboats and the flutes were the most important. There were also some “Hekkebooten” and small “smaks”. So the three kinds of vessels already mentioned above are again found: viz: the square-stern ships, the flyboats and the smacks.
II 149
The old Zierikzee model gives an exact idea of the transition from the square-stern ship of the XVIth century to the one of the XVIIth. Although erring, like all the old reproductions, in regard to proportions, this model cannot fail to attract our attention to the marked slope of the stem. It was generally admitted at this time that the ship should draw the least waterpossible and have the stem strongly sloping, with an overhanging bow, so as to displace the water more easily or, as it was then said, to carry the water underneath and not around the hull. It was believed that the water was drawn under the sides (VANYK, p. 353) and that the strongly raking stem allowed the boat to slide more easily over the water. (WITSEN, p. 47, column 2in fine.)
Later, opinion changed and then it was seen that the stem was brought more and more nearly upright until the XIXth century; the vessel thus gains in fullness.
Fürtenbach reproduces for us a Dutch vessel of the beginning of the XVIIth century; the counter, probably to avoid difficulties of drawing, is only sketched in by a few lines. It is seen that the after castle has increased in proportions, and that the part which separates the forward and after castles still remains uncovered. This kind of construction, due to the progressive development of the castles of the Middle Ages, only disappears at the end of the XVIIIth century, when vessels with two and three decks come on the scene.
The forward and after castles, in these last ships, are of the same height; in a word, they are strongly connected to each other and are formed of several superposed decks.
The rigging, too, has undergone new changes, by reason, no doubt, of the raising of the stern. The fourth small mast put up at this point gives way, especially, to a mast carrying a square sail and fixed at the end of the bowsprit. This mast was used only for steering the ship.
The vessels gained in size and the armament was improved by a more rational distribution of the guns. The following figures give the proof of this.
In 1596, a 200-last ship carried only 24 guns; one of 150 lasts carried 17 and one of 100 lasts had only 16 on board.
In 1616, 36 guns were mounted on a ship of 200 lasts; 28 on a ship of 120 lasts, then, in 1628, mention is made of a ship of 200 lasts armed with 39 cannon. (DEJONGE, Vol. II, p. 396.)
Aside from the better arrangement for the guns, the increase of the artillery itself necessitated arming the forecastle and the poop. About 1639, the iron guns were replaced, to a great extent, by others of bronze, which allowed a greater number of pieces to be taken on board (DEJONGE, Vol. I, p. 400), but these pieces were lacking in unity of calibre and volume. The later adoption of guns of more nearly equal calibre greatly increased the fighting value of the ships.
However great the progress made by our fleet may have been, it was still always inferior to the part imposed on it by a naval war. Hence it became finally a necessity to build war vessels properly so called and to give up fitting out merchant ships. Sixty new war ships were laid down in 1653. This first war fleet constructed in our country set sail in 1658. So the old mediæval custom, which consisted in appropriating merchant vessels to make them serve as men of war, became a thing of the past.
But this fleet was not sufficient by itself, and merchantmen had to do duty as transports. This is why these latter kept guns on board for their own defence.
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The war ships mentioned above were called pinnaces and were made with a square stern as well as a large beakhead. Tromp’s flagship, theAemeliawas a pinnace model.
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The fleet was increased in a very short time, in 1664, by sixty new square-stern vessels. (DEJONGE, Vol. II, p. 25.) The main point in view in building these ships (DEJONGE, Vol. II, p. 27) was to provide our navy with vessels which,so far as our passes and ports would allow, should be at least as large and as powerful as those of the enemy. By reason of the depth of water in the passes, the number of their guns was placed at 60 to 80. Among these vessels, which were launched in 1665, was Van Ruyter’s well known shipDe Zeven Provinciën.
For economical reasons, most of the ships carried iron as well as bronze guns; but Van Ruyter’s flagship had all bronze guns.
The following figures will give some idea of the increasing dimensions of ships.
In 1654, the largest ship measured 150 feet in length, 38 feet beam and 15 feet depth; it carried 58 guns. The next in size was 146 feet long, 26 feet beam and 14 feet deep; it carried 60 guns.
At the beginning of the second war with England, the twolargest ships were 169 to 171 feet long.De Zeven Provinciën163 feet long, 43 feet broad and 15 feet deep. The next in size was 150 to 160 feet in length, 40 to 42½ feet in breadth and 15 feet in depth, etc.
So the length and breadth increased but the greatest depth of 15 feet did not change, as the depth of our passes was against any increase of the draft.
When later, the direction toward larger sizes was continued abroad, and the necessity of following this example was felt among us, the question of the draught of water became a problem which, more and more, called for the attention of our shipbuilders. The larger the ship became and the greater its capacity had to be, the draught of water being limited, put us in a position of inferiority in regard to the vessels of foreign countries which ran more easily under sail. No account had to be taken of shallow passes in those countries, consequently ships of finer form could be built there. (VANYK, 1697, p. 353.)
When in 1682 the vessels which composed our fleet were divided into classes or “charters”, a depth of 16 to 17 feet only is given as the first “charter”. The first three-deck ships built in our country belonged later to this last class. Hence it is not a matter of astonishment that, in the long run, our war vessels had to yield before those of other nations which were steadily becoming larger. This state of affairs did not arise from any inferiority on the part of our shipbuilders but had its causes solely in the condition of our passes.