Text of the Declaration
IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776.
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.——That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.——That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind aremore disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.——Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:For suspending our own Legislatures and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.In every stage of these Oppressions we have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation,and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.We, therefore, the Representatives of theunited States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to beFree and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.——That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.——That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind aremore disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.——Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
For suspending our own Legislatures and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions we have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation,and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of theunited States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to beFree and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.
And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
The best known of all the copies of the Declaration of Independence is the parchment copy, engrossed by Timothy Matlack. This one, signed by 56 Delegates of the Continental Congress on and after August 2, 1776, is displayed today in Exhibition Hall at the National Archives Building. Jefferson’s final draft of the Declaration, known as the “rough draft,” cumulatively bearing the corrections, amendments, and deletions of the drafting committee and of Congress as a whole, as well as Jefferson’s marginal and textual notes, is preserved among the Jefferson Papers at the Library of Congress. The revised draft, adopted by the Delegates on July 4, 1776, and signed only by John Hancock and Charles Thomson, President and Secretary of the Continental Congress, is known as the broadside copy. It was sent to the printer and has never been located. Sixteen copies of the printed broadside have survived. In addition to the “rough draft,” as least six other handwritten contemporary copies of the Declaration, one fragmentary, have survived and are in various archival collections. Five were made by Jefferson and one by John Adams.
The history of the parchment copy of the Declaration is fascinating. From 1776 until 1789, along with other important national papers, it was safeguarded by Secretary of Congress Thomson, whocarried it with him as Congress, at first to escape British troops and later for other reasons, convened in various cities: Philadelphia, Baltimore, Lancaster, York, Princeton, Trenton, Annapolis, and New York.
When the Constitution took effect in 1789 and Thomson left office, he relinquished the Declaration to the newly created Department of State, which was under the temporary stewardship of Acting Secretary John Jay. Its offices were in New York’s old City Hall (Federal Hall). The next March, Thomas Jefferson became the first Secretary of State and custodian of the instrument he had created. Later that year, Philadelphia became the seat of the Federal Government and the Declaration returned to its birthplace. There it remained for a decade, until 1800, when the Government moved to the new national Capital of Washington.
Secretary of State John Marshall apparently at first stored the Declaration in his Department’s temporary offices in the old Treasury Building, at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW., and possibly then at Seven Buildings, 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. After a few months, likely in 1801, the document was transferred to the War Office Building, at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW., where the Department of State moved its offices. The Declaration remained there until the summer of 1814, during the War of 1812, when British troops invaded the Capital. Shortly before they arrived, Secretary of State James Monroe packed the instrument and other state papers in linen sacks and sent them by wagon to a barn on the Virginia side of the Potomac 2 miles above Chain Bridge for one night, and then to a clergyman’s home in Leesburg, Va. Within a few weeks, after the British threat had subsided, the documents were brought back to Washington and probably temporarily kept in various structures because of the burning of the War Office Building by the British.
In 1820 the Department of State moved the Declaration to its headquarters at 15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. Stored for years in scroll fashion, the document had already been damaged by numerous unrollings, other handling, and frequent moves. In the period 1820–23 the use of a “wet” copying process to produce a facsimile apparently divested the parchment of some of its ink, especially that of the signatures.
Subsequently the Declaration remained relatively undisturbeduntil 1841, when Secretary of State Daniel Webster, concluding that it should be on public view, ordered that it be mounted, framed, and moved to the newly constructed Patent Office, in the block bounded by Seventh, Ninth, F, and G Streets NW. The Patent Office was then part of the Department of State. Placed beside George Washington’s commission as commander in chief of the Continental Army in a large frame on a wall of the second floor hall opposite a window, for 35 years the Declaration endured exposure to glare, summer heat, and winter cold. The text retained its legibility, but the parchment faded and yellowed, cracked and warped. Many of the signatures had faded, some becoming blurred or almost invisible.
The Federal Government in 1876 lent the Declaration to the city of Philadelphia, site of the national Centennial Exposition. On July 4 Richard Henry Lee, grandson of the signer, read it publicly. It was then exhibited in a fireproof safe behind a plate glass window and seen by more people than ever before. Philadelphians, deploring its condition, fought to retain it and only reluctantly returned it to Washington. Heeding the outcry of those who had viewed the timeworn parchment, a Government commission studied the possibility of restoration and in time concluded that such an attempt might be damaging.
Meantime, in 1877, as a safeguard the Declaration was moved from the Patent Office to a more fireproof building at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW. shared by the State, War, and Navy Departments. It had narrowly escaped destruction, for only a few months later fire gutted the Patent Office. Finally, in 1894, for protection from the light, State Department officials sealed the 118-year-old sheet between two glass plates and locked it in a safe in the basement. There it lay, except for rare occasions, in darkness and unobserved for more than a quarter of a century.
In 1921 the Department of State, responding to the recommendation of a special commission, relinquished custodianship of the Declaration to the Library of Congress. The transfer was made personally by Herbert Putnam, the Librarian, using a library mail truck, a Model T Ford. At first he kept the document in his office. In 1924, however, he placed it together with the Constitution, on public exhibition in a bronze-and-marble shrine on the second floor. At this time, the Declaration was encased between heavy glass panes specially treated to keep out harmful rays of light.
The Declaration and the Constitution remained there until the outbreak of World War II. On December 26, 1941, just 19 days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, they left Washington under heavy guard by train en route to Fort Knox, Ky., where they arrived the following day. Specialists took advantage of the opportunity and cleaned and restored the Declaration to the maximum degree. In 1944 both it and the Constitution were taken back to the Library of Congress. They remained there until 1952, at which time a tank under military escort carried them to Washington’s National Archives Building, repository of the Nation’s permanent records, which are under the jurisdiction of the National Archives and Records Service of the U.S. General Services Administration.
Constitution Avenue entrance of the National Archives Building, Washington, D.C.
Constitution Avenue entrance of the National Archives Building, Washington, D.C.
This marble shrine at the rear center of Exhibition Hall, National Archives Building, contains the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights.
This marble shrine at the rear center of Exhibition Hall, National Archives Building, contains the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights.
*****
Still enshrined there today, along with thousands of other priceless national records, is the parchment copy of the Declaration. The massive bronze doors at the Constitution Avenue entrance to the building lead to the circular Exhibition Hall. At its rear center stands a marble shrine containing the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights. They are sealed in helium-filled bronze and glass cases, screened from harmful light rays by special filters, and can be lowered within seconds into a large fireproof, shockproof, and bombproof vault.
The hall also features a “Formation of the Union” exhibit, a collection of documents illustrating the evolution of the U.S. Government from 1774 until 1791. They include the Articles of Association (1774), the Articles of Confederation (1777), the Treaty of Paris (1783), and Washington’s inaugural address (1789). Above the exhibits are two murals. In one, Jefferson is presenting the Declaration to John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress; in the other, James Madison is submitting the Constitution to George Washington, President of the Constitutional Convention.
BECKER, CARL L.The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas.New York: rev. ed., Harcourt, Brace, 1942. A classic and scholarly study, originally published in 1922, that analyzes the Declaration in terms of its political background, philosophical origins, and literary merit, and discusses subsequent reaction to it.BOYD, JULIAN P.The Declaration of Independence: The Evolution of the Text as Shown in Facsimiles of Various Drafts by Its Author, Thomas Jefferson.Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1945. This valuable work is a revised edition of a study published by the Library of Congress in 1943 in connection with the bicentennial celebration of Jefferson’s birth. Examines the nature and evolution of the various drafts.BURNETT, EDMUND C.The Continental Congress.New York: Macmillan, 1941. Although written in a cumbersome style, this book remains one of the best on its subject. Includes chapters dealing with the events surrounding adoption of the Declaration.DUMBAULD, EDWARD.The Declaration of Independence and What It Means Today.Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1950. Phrase-by-phrase study of the contents of the document and differences in the several drafts. Also treats the underlying intellectual and political influences.MALONE, DUMAS.The Story of the Declaration of Independence.New York: Oxford University Press, 1954. Enhancing this readable account of the early phases of the Revolution and biographical sketches of the signers is a fine collection of illustrations assembled by Hirst Milhollen and Milton Kaplan.McGEE, DOROTHY H.Famous Signers of the Declaration.New York: Dodd, Mead, 1955. One of a series oriented to young readers, this volume presents biographies of selected signers.NATIONAL ARCHIVES.The Formation of the Union.Washington: National Archives and Records Service (Pub. No. 70-13), 1970. A handsome but moderately priced brochure that consists of a brief history of the period 1774–91 and facsimiles of key documents.WHITNEY, DAVID C.Founders of Freedom in America: Lives of the Men Who Signed the Declaration of Independence and So Helped to Establish the United States of America.Chicago: J. G. Ferguson, 1964. This superbly illustrated work is one of the best popular versions of the events of the Revolutionary period and those associated with the signing. Includes biographies of the signers and patriots Patrick Henry and James Otis.
BECKER, CARL L.The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas.New York: rev. ed., Harcourt, Brace, 1942. A classic and scholarly study, originally published in 1922, that analyzes the Declaration in terms of its political background, philosophical origins, and literary merit, and discusses subsequent reaction to it.
BOYD, JULIAN P.The Declaration of Independence: The Evolution of the Text as Shown in Facsimiles of Various Drafts by Its Author, Thomas Jefferson.Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1945. This valuable work is a revised edition of a study published by the Library of Congress in 1943 in connection with the bicentennial celebration of Jefferson’s birth. Examines the nature and evolution of the various drafts.
BURNETT, EDMUND C.The Continental Congress.New York: Macmillan, 1941. Although written in a cumbersome style, this book remains one of the best on its subject. Includes chapters dealing with the events surrounding adoption of the Declaration.
DUMBAULD, EDWARD.The Declaration of Independence and What It Means Today.Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1950. Phrase-by-phrase study of the contents of the document and differences in the several drafts. Also treats the underlying intellectual and political influences.
MALONE, DUMAS.The Story of the Declaration of Independence.New York: Oxford University Press, 1954. Enhancing this readable account of the early phases of the Revolution and biographical sketches of the signers is a fine collection of illustrations assembled by Hirst Milhollen and Milton Kaplan.
McGEE, DOROTHY H.Famous Signers of the Declaration.New York: Dodd, Mead, 1955. One of a series oriented to young readers, this volume presents biographies of selected signers.
NATIONAL ARCHIVES.The Formation of the Union.Washington: National Archives and Records Service (Pub. No. 70-13), 1970. A handsome but moderately priced brochure that consists of a brief history of the period 1774–91 and facsimiles of key documents.
WHITNEY, DAVID C.Founders of Freedom in America: Lives of the Men Who Signed the Declaration of Independence and So Helped to Establish the United States of America.Chicago: J. G. Ferguson, 1964. This superbly illustrated work is one of the best popular versions of the events of the Revolutionary period and those associated with the signing. Includes biographies of the signers and patriots Patrick Henry and James Otis.
A.National significance is ascribed to buildings, sites, objects, or districts which possess exceptional value or quality in illustrating or interpreting the historical (history and archeology) heritage of our Nation, such as:
1. Structures or sites at which events occurred that have made a significant contribution to, and are identified prominently with, or which outstandingly represent, the broad cultural, political, economic, military, or social history of the Nation, and from which an understanding and appreciation of the larger patterns of our American heritage may be gained.
2. Structures or sites associated importantly with the lives of persons nationally significant in the history of the United States.
3. Structures or sites associated significantly with an important event that outstandingly represents some great idea or ideal of the American people.
4. Structures that embody the distinguishing characteristics of an architectural type specimen, exceptionally valuable for a study of a period, style, or method of construction; or a notable structure representing the work of a master builder, designer, or architect.
5. Objects that figured prominently in nationally significant events; or that were prominently associated with nationally significant persons; or that outstandingly represent some great idea or ideal of the American people; or that embody distinguishing characteristics of a type specimen,exceptionally valuable for a study of a period, style, or method of construction; or that are notable as representations of the work of master workers or designers.
6. Archeological sites that have produced information of a major scientific importance by revealing new cultures, or by shedding light upon periods of occupation over large areas of the United States. Such sites are those which have produced, or which may reasonably be expected to produce, data affecting theories, concepts, and ideas to a major degree.
7. When preserved or restored as integral parts of the environment, historic buildings not sufficiently significant individually by reason of historical association or architectural merit to warrant recognition may collectively compose a “historic district” that is of historical significance to the Nation in commemorating or illustrating a way of life in its developing culture.
B.To possess national significance, a historic or prehistoric structure, district, site, or object must possess integrity. For a historic or prehistoricsite, integrity requires original location and intangible elements of feeling and association. The site of a structure no longer standing may possess national significance if the person or event associated with the structure was of transcendent importance in the Nation’s history and the association consequential.
For a historic or prehistoricstructure, integrity is a composite quality derived from original workmanship, original location, and intangible elements of feeling and association. A structure no longer on the original site may possess national significance if the person or event associated with it was of transcendent importance in the Nation’s history and the association consequential.
For a historicdistrict, integrity is a composite quality derived from original workmanship, original location, and intangible elements of feeling and association inherent in an ensemble of historic buildings having visual architectural unity.
For a historicobject, integrity requires basic original workmanship.
C.Structures or sites which are primarily of significance in the field of religion or to religious bodies but are not of national importance in other fields of the history of the United States, such as political, military, or architectural history, will not be eligible for consideration.
D.Birthplaces, graves, burials, and cemeteries, as a general rule, are not eligible for consideration and recognition except in cases of historical figures of transcendent importance. Historic sites associated with the actual careers and contributions of outstanding historical personages usually are more important than their birthplaces and burial places.
E.Structures, sites, and objects achieving historical importance within the past 50 years will not as a general rule be considered unless associated with persons or events of transcendent significance.
Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites,Buildings, and Monuments (1971)
Durward L. Allen,Purdue University.Hon. E. Y. Berry,Rapid City, S. Dak.Anthony A. Buford,Clayton, Mo.Loren C. Eiseley,University of Pennsylvania.Mrs. Lyndon B. Johnson,Stonewall, Tex.Peter C. Murphy, Jr.,Springfield, Oreg.Nathaniel A. Owings,San Francisco, Calif.Melvin M. Payne,National Geographic Society.Linden C. Pettys,Ann Arbor, Mich.Steven Rose,Arcadia, Calif.William G. Shade,Lehigh University.Elisha Walker, Jr.,New York, N.Y.James W. Whittaker,Seattle, Wash.
National Park Service
Edwin C. Bearss,Historian, Historic Preservation Project (East), Denver Service Center.S. Sydney Bradford,Chief, Plans and Grants, National Register of Historic Places.George S. Cattanach, Jr.,Program Coordinator, National Register of Historic Places.Henry A. Judd, Chief,Park Historic Architecture, Division of Historic Architecture.Herbert E. Kahler,Chief (retired), Division of History and Archeology.Ronald F. Lee,Special Assistant to the Director.John Luzader, Historian,Historic Preservation Project (East), Denver Service Center.Warren A. McCullough,Management Assistant, Independence National Historical Park, Pa.John D. McDermott,Assistant Executive Secretary, Advisory Council on Historic Preservation.Thomas W. Mullen,Student Research Assistant (Northeastern University), Division of History.Denys Peter Myers,Architectural Historian, Division of History.John D. R. Platt,Historian, Independence National Historical Park, Pa.Charles W. Porter III,Chief Historian (retired), Division of History.Charles W. Snell,Historian, Division of History.Martin I. Yoelson,Supervisory Interpretive Specialist, Independence National Historical Park, Pa.
Edwin C. Bearss,Historian, Historic Preservation Project (East), Denver Service Center.
S. Sydney Bradford,Chief, Plans and Grants, National Register of Historic Places.
George S. Cattanach, Jr.,Program Coordinator, National Register of Historic Places.
Henry A. Judd, Chief,Park Historic Architecture, Division of Historic Architecture.
Herbert E. Kahler,Chief (retired), Division of History and Archeology.
Ronald F. Lee,Special Assistant to the Director.
John Luzader, Historian,Historic Preservation Project (East), Denver Service Center.
Warren A. McCullough,Management Assistant, Independence National Historical Park, Pa.
John D. McDermott,Assistant Executive Secretary, Advisory Council on Historic Preservation.
Thomas W. Mullen,Student Research Assistant (Northeastern University), Division of History.
Denys Peter Myers,Architectural Historian, Division of History.
John D. R. Platt,Historian, Independence National Historical Park, Pa.
Charles W. Porter III,Chief Historian (retired), Division of History.
Charles W. Snell,Historian, Division of History.
Martin I. Yoelson,Supervisory Interpretive Specialist, Independence National Historical Park, Pa.
Other Individuals
Roland A. Block,Regional Director, Taconic State Park Commission, Staatsburg, N.Y.Jerry M. Bloomer,Secretary-Registrar, R. W. Norton Art Gallery, Shreveport.Edwin Cox,President, Virginia Historical Society, Richmond.Alonzo T. Dill,West Point, Va.Educational Programs Staff,National Archives and Records Service, U.S. General Services Administration.Ms. Constance M. Greiff,Vice President, Historical Society of Princeton, N.J.Ms. Virginia Gunter,Curator, New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord.Edgar R. Lafferty, Jr.,Elsing Green, King William, Va.Charles H. McCormick,Assistant Professor of History, Fairmont State College, Fairmont, W. Va.Ms. Mildred Steinbach,Librarian, Frick Art Reference Library, New York.E. Berkeley Tompkins,Director, Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs, Department of State, State of Delaware, Dover.
Roland A. Block,Regional Director, Taconic State Park Commission, Staatsburg, N.Y.
Jerry M. Bloomer,Secretary-Registrar, R. W. Norton Art Gallery, Shreveport.
Edwin Cox,President, Virginia Historical Society, Richmond.
Alonzo T. Dill,West Point, Va.
Educational Programs Staff,National Archives and Records Service, U.S. General Services Administration.
Ms. Constance M. Greiff,Vice President, Historical Society of Princeton, N.J.
Ms. Virginia Gunter,Curator, New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord.
Edgar R. Lafferty, Jr.,Elsing Green, King William, Va.
Charles H. McCormick,Assistant Professor of History, Fairmont State College, Fairmont, W. Va.
Ms. Mildred Steinbach,Librarian, Frick Art Reference Library, New York.
E. Berkeley Tompkins,Director, Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs, Department of State, State of Delaware, Dover.
The National Park Service gratefully acknowledges the assistance of agencies and individuals furnishing illustrations and granting permission to reproduce them.
PageiiOil (1817) by John Trumbull, after his earlier painting of the same name (1786–95). Color separations courtesy United States Capitol Historical Society and Eastern National Park and Monument Association. Of the 48 individuals in the painting, 44 are signers. The likenesses were the basis for many later portraits by other artists.4Oil (date unknown) by Allan Ramsay. Library of Congress.5Engraving (1770) by Paul Revere. Library of Congress.6Lithograph (1830) by either William or John Pendleton, after a cartoon (1774) published in London. Library of Congress.7Lithograph (1846) by Nathaniel Currier. Library of Congress.8Engraving (1775) by Amos Doolittle. National Park Service.9Detail from broadside, publisher unknown. National Park Service.10Engraving (ca. 1776) by an unknown artist. Library of Congress.11Library of Congress.12Oil (ca. 1858) by Bass Otis, after George Romney. Independence National Historical Park.13Mezzotint (1778) by an unknown artist, after Corbutt. Library of Congress.14Oil (ca. 1782) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.17Library of Congress.19Engraving (1823) by William Stone. Library of Congress.21Library of Congress.22Engraving (1859) by John C. McRae, after Johannes A. S. Oertel. Library of Congress.23Oil (date unknown) by Xavier D. Gratta. Valley Forge (Pa.) Historical Society.28Oil (before 1897) by an unknown artist, after Thomas Sully. Independence National Historical Park.29Oil (date unknown) by W. Trego. Valley Forge (Pa.) Historical Society.30Engraving (ca. 1725–26) by William Burgis. Library of Congress.33Oil (ca. 1791–94) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.36Oil (1873) by Nahum B. Onthank, after John S. Copley. Independence National Historical Park.39Oil (1871) by Caroline Weeks, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.41Oil (1901) by Albert Rosenthal, after a miniature by an unknown artist. Independence National Historical Park. In 1913 Charles H. Hart, an authority on historical portraits, maintained that this likeness was not Carter Braxton but was that of his brother George.43Oil (1823) by Charles Willson Peale, after Rembrandt Peale. Independence National Historical Park.45Oil (1819) by Charles Willson Peale, after his 1773 painting. Independence National Historical Park.47Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.48Wood engraving by an unknown artist, after F. O. C. Darley, from Henry Howe,Life and Death on the Ocean(1855). Library of Congress.49Oil (1872) by Edward D. Marchant, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.50Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, fromMagazine of American History(September 1880). Library of Congress.51Oil (1876) by Samuel B. Waugh, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.53Oil (1874) by Edward L. Henry, after Ralph Earl (Earle). Independence National Historical Park.55Oil (date unknown) by David Martin. Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia.57Engraving (1859) by Robert Whitechurch, after Christian Schussele. Library of Congress.59Oil (1861) by James Bogle, after John Vanderlyn. Independence National Historical Park.62Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress. The detail is a conjectural representation; no portrait or reliable likeness of Button Gwinnett is known to exist.63Lithograph, probably by an artist named Ferris, from William Brotherhead,The Book of the Signers(1861). Library of Congress.65Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.67Oil (1816) by Samuel F. B. Morse, after John S. Copley. Independence National Historical Park.70Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.71Oil (ca. 1884) by Herman F. Deigendisch, after Henry Bryan, Jr. Independence National Historical Park. Some authorities have questioned the authenticity of this likeness.73Oil (before 1893) by an unknown artist, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.74Engraving by James B. Longacre, after Charles Willson Peale, from James Herring and James B. Longacre,The National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans(1836). Library of Congress.75Oil (before 1851) by Charles Fraser, after Jeremiah Theus. Independence National Historical Park.77Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.79Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park. According to one authority, Trumbull based his likeness on the features of Hopkins’ eldest son, Rufus, who bore a close resemblance to his father.81Oil (before 1854) by Dubois (probably Samuel T.), after Robert E. Pine. Historical Society of Pennsylvania and Independence National Historical Park.83Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.85Oil (1791) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.87Library of Congress.89Engraving (1826) by Benjamin Tanner. Library of Congress.90Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.92Oil (1784) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.94Oil (1906) by Albert Rosenthal, after an engraving from John Sanderson,Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence(1824). Independence National Historical Park.96Oil (ca. 1770) probably by Abraham Delanoy, Jr. Frick Art Reference Library, New York City, and Taconic State Park Commission, Staatsburg, N.Y.97Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, fromMagazine of American History(December 1885). Library of Congress.99Oil (1875) by Anna Lea, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.100Oil (1797) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.103Oil (1872) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West. Independence National Historical Park.104Oil (1873) by Charles N. Flagg, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.106Oil (ca. 1872) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.107Engraving by William Birch, fromThe City of Philadelphia(1800). Independence National Historical Park.109Watercolor (ca. 1765) by Pierre Eugene Du Simitière. The R. W. Norton Art Gallery, Shreveport, La.110Oil (ca. 1876) by William L. Sheppard, after Mason Chamberlin. Independence National Historical Park.112Oil (date unknown) by Louis E. Lami. Hangs in the Virginia State Capitol. National Park Service.113Oil (date unknown) by Francis B. Mayer, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.115Oil (1876) by Richard M. Staigg, after Edward Savage. Independence National Historical Park.116Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.118Oil (1860) by Thomas Sully, after Robert E. Pine. Independence National Historical Park.120Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.122Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West. Independence National Historical Park.123Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. The Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Del. Gift of Mrs. Julia B. Henry.125Engraving (1799) by William Birch & Son. Library of Congress.127Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after James Earl (Earle). Independence National Historical Park.129Oil (1874–75) by Thomas Hicks, after Ralph Earl (Earle). Independence National Historical Park.130Lithograph by an unknown artist, from William Brotherhead,The Book of the Signers(1861). Library of Congress.132Watercolor (ca. 1760) by an unknown artist. The R. W. Norton Art Gallery, Shreveport, La.133Oil (1873) by George W. Conarroe, after John Wollaston. Independence National Historical Park.135Library of Congress.137Oil (1912) by Laura J. Schneider, probably after George T. Pool. Independence National Historical Park.139Oil (date unknown) by an unknown artist. New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord.140Oil (1874) by Samuel B. Waugh, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.142Oil (1888) by Ulysses D. Tenney, after John Trumbull. Hangs in the Moffatt-Ladd House, Portsmouth, N.H. Photographer, Douglas Armsden, Kittery Point, Maine.144Oil (1873) by James J. Sawyer, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.145Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after a miniature attributed to James Peale. Independence National Historical Park.146Sketch (date unknown) by C. A. Poulson. Historical Society of Pennsylvania and Independence National Historical Park.149Oil (ca. 1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.150Engraving by Henry Dawkins, after W. Tennant, fromAn Account of the College of New Jersey(1764). Library of Congress.152Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after Ralph Earl (Earle). Independence National Historical Park.154Oil (1876) by John F. Weir, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.164National Park Service (Tony P. Wrenn).165National Park Service (Wrenn).167National Park Service (Wrenn).168National Park Service (Wrenn).169National Park Service (Wrenn).171National Park Service (Abbie Rowe).172Aquatint by an unknown artist, from Charles W. Janson,The Stranger in America(1807). Library of Congress.174National Park Service (Charles W. Snell).175National Park Service (John O. Littleton).178National Park Service (Wrenn).179National Park Service (Littleton).181National Park Service (Snell).182National Park Service (Littleton).184National Park Service (Snell).185National Park Service (Snell).187Photographer, William L. Klender.188National Park Service (Littleton).190National Park Service (Littleton).192Engraving (date unknown) probably by Stephen A. Schouff. Library of Congress.194National Park Service (Joseph L. Winn, Jr.).196National Park Service (Wrenn).197National Park Service (Wrenn).198National Park Service (Snell).200National Park Service (Wrenn).201National Park Service (Wrenn).203National Park Service (Snell).205National Park Service (Snell).206Historical Society of Princeton, N.J. Photographer, Constance Greiff.207National Park Service (Snell).208Department of Public Information, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J.210National Park Service (Snell).211National Park Service (Snell).212National Park Service (Snell).213National Park Service (Snell).215National Park Service (Snell).216National Park Service (Ralph H. Anderson).219Engraving by an unknown artist, from Columbian Magazine (July 1787). Library of Congress.220National Park Service.223National Park Service.224National Park Service (Jack E. Boucher).225National Park Service.227National Park Service (Snell).229National Park Service (Snell).230National Park Service (Snell).232National Park Service (Wrenn).233National Park Service.235National Park Service (Snell).236Photographer, Jesse Gibbes.238National Park Service (Snell).239National Park Service (Snell).241National Park Service (Littleton).242National Park Service (Littleton).244National Park Service (Snell).246National Park Service (Snell).248National Park Service (Snell).250National Park Service (Snell).251National Park Service (Littleton).253National Park Service (Snell).256National Park Service (Snell).265National Archives.266National Archives.—FRONT END PAPER: Engraving (1776) by John C. McRae. Independence National Historical Park.—REAR END PAPER: National Park Service sketch.
Page
iiOil (1817) by John Trumbull, after his earlier painting of the same name (1786–95). Color separations courtesy United States Capitol Historical Society and Eastern National Park and Monument Association. Of the 48 individuals in the painting, 44 are signers. The likenesses were the basis for many later portraits by other artists.
4Oil (date unknown) by Allan Ramsay. Library of Congress.
5Engraving (1770) by Paul Revere. Library of Congress.
6Lithograph (1830) by either William or John Pendleton, after a cartoon (1774) published in London. Library of Congress.
7Lithograph (1846) by Nathaniel Currier. Library of Congress.
8Engraving (1775) by Amos Doolittle. National Park Service.
9Detail from broadside, publisher unknown. National Park Service.
10Engraving (ca. 1776) by an unknown artist. Library of Congress.
11Library of Congress.
12Oil (ca. 1858) by Bass Otis, after George Romney. Independence National Historical Park.
13Mezzotint (1778) by an unknown artist, after Corbutt. Library of Congress.
14Oil (ca. 1782) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
17Library of Congress.
19Engraving (1823) by William Stone. Library of Congress.
21Library of Congress.
22Engraving (1859) by John C. McRae, after Johannes A. S. Oertel. Library of Congress.
23Oil (date unknown) by Xavier D. Gratta. Valley Forge (Pa.) Historical Society.
28Oil (before 1897) by an unknown artist, after Thomas Sully. Independence National Historical Park.
29Oil (date unknown) by W. Trego. Valley Forge (Pa.) Historical Society.
30Engraving (ca. 1725–26) by William Burgis. Library of Congress.
33Oil (ca. 1791–94) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
36Oil (1873) by Nahum B. Onthank, after John S. Copley. Independence National Historical Park.
39Oil (1871) by Caroline Weeks, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
41Oil (1901) by Albert Rosenthal, after a miniature by an unknown artist. Independence National Historical Park. In 1913 Charles H. Hart, an authority on historical portraits, maintained that this likeness was not Carter Braxton but was that of his brother George.
43Oil (1823) by Charles Willson Peale, after Rembrandt Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
45Oil (1819) by Charles Willson Peale, after his 1773 painting. Independence National Historical Park.
47Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
48Wood engraving by an unknown artist, after F. O. C. Darley, from Henry Howe,Life and Death on the Ocean(1855). Library of Congress.
49Oil (1872) by Edward D. Marchant, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
50Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, fromMagazine of American History(September 1880). Library of Congress.
51Oil (1876) by Samuel B. Waugh, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
53Oil (1874) by Edward L. Henry, after Ralph Earl (Earle). Independence National Historical Park.
55Oil (date unknown) by David Martin. Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia.
57Engraving (1859) by Robert Whitechurch, after Christian Schussele. Library of Congress.
59Oil (1861) by James Bogle, after John Vanderlyn. Independence National Historical Park.
62Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress. The detail is a conjectural representation; no portrait or reliable likeness of Button Gwinnett is known to exist.
63Lithograph, probably by an artist named Ferris, from William Brotherhead,The Book of the Signers(1861). Library of Congress.
65Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.
67Oil (1816) by Samuel F. B. Morse, after John S. Copley. Independence National Historical Park.
70Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
71Oil (ca. 1884) by Herman F. Deigendisch, after Henry Bryan, Jr. Independence National Historical Park. Some authorities have questioned the authenticity of this likeness.
73Oil (before 1893) by an unknown artist, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
74Engraving by James B. Longacre, after Charles Willson Peale, from James Herring and James B. Longacre,The National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans(1836). Library of Congress.
75Oil (before 1851) by Charles Fraser, after Jeremiah Theus. Independence National Historical Park.
77Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
79Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park. According to one authority, Trumbull based his likeness on the features of Hopkins’ eldest son, Rufus, who bore a close resemblance to his father.
81Oil (before 1854) by Dubois (probably Samuel T.), after Robert E. Pine. Historical Society of Pennsylvania and Independence National Historical Park.
83Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
85Oil (1791) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
87Library of Congress.
89Engraving (1826) by Benjamin Tanner. Library of Congress.
90Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.
92Oil (1784) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
94Oil (1906) by Albert Rosenthal, after an engraving from John Sanderson,Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence(1824). Independence National Historical Park.
96Oil (ca. 1770) probably by Abraham Delanoy, Jr. Frick Art Reference Library, New York City, and Taconic State Park Commission, Staatsburg, N.Y.
97Pen and ink drawing by an unknown artist, fromMagazine of American History(December 1885). Library of Congress.
99Oil (1875) by Anna Lea, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
100Oil (1797) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
103Oil (1872) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West. Independence National Historical Park.
104Oil (1873) by Charles N. Flagg, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
106Oil (ca. 1872) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
107Engraving by William Birch, fromThe City of Philadelphia(1800). Independence National Historical Park.
109Watercolor (ca. 1765) by Pierre Eugene Du Simitière. The R. W. Norton Art Gallery, Shreveport, La.
110Oil (ca. 1876) by William L. Sheppard, after Mason Chamberlin. Independence National Historical Park.
112Oil (date unknown) by Louis E. Lami. Hangs in the Virginia State Capitol. National Park Service.
113Oil (date unknown) by Francis B. Mayer, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
115Oil (1876) by Richard M. Staigg, after Edward Savage. Independence National Historical Park.
116Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.
118Oil (1860) by Thomas Sully, after Robert E. Pine. Independence National Historical Park.
120Detail from the lithograph “Signers of the Declaration of Independence,” published in 1876 by Ole Erekson. Library of Congress.
122Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after Benjamin West. Independence National Historical Park.
123Oil (1783) by Charles Willson Peale. The Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Del. Gift of Mrs. Julia B. Henry.
125Engraving (1799) by William Birch & Son. Library of Congress.
127Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after James Earl (Earle). Independence National Historical Park.
129Oil (1874–75) by Thomas Hicks, after Ralph Earl (Earle). Independence National Historical Park.
130Lithograph by an unknown artist, from William Brotherhead,The Book of the Signers(1861). Library of Congress.
132Watercolor (ca. 1760) by an unknown artist. The R. W. Norton Art Gallery, Shreveport, La.
133Oil (1873) by George W. Conarroe, after John Wollaston. Independence National Historical Park.
135Library of Congress.
137Oil (1912) by Laura J. Schneider, probably after George T. Pool. Independence National Historical Park.
139Oil (date unknown) by an unknown artist. New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord.
140Oil (1874) by Samuel B. Waugh, after Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
142Oil (1888) by Ulysses D. Tenney, after John Trumbull. Hangs in the Moffatt-Ladd House, Portsmouth, N.H. Photographer, Douglas Armsden, Kittery Point, Maine.
144Oil (1873) by James J. Sawyer, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
145Oil (1873) by Philip F. Wharton, after a miniature attributed to James Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
146Sketch (date unknown) by C. A. Poulson. Historical Society of Pennsylvania and Independence National Historical Park.
149Oil (ca. 1783) by Charles Willson Peale. Independence National Historical Park.
150Engraving by Henry Dawkins, after W. Tennant, fromAn Account of the College of New Jersey(1764). Library of Congress.
152Oil (1873) by James R. Lambdin, after Ralph Earl (Earle). Independence National Historical Park.
154Oil (1876) by John F. Weir, after John Trumbull. Independence National Historical Park.
164National Park Service (Tony P. Wrenn).
165National Park Service (Wrenn).
167National Park Service (Wrenn).
168National Park Service (Wrenn).
169National Park Service (Wrenn).
171National Park Service (Abbie Rowe).
172Aquatint by an unknown artist, from Charles W. Janson,The Stranger in America(1807). Library of Congress.
174National Park Service (Charles W. Snell).
175National Park Service (John O. Littleton).
178National Park Service (Wrenn).
179National Park Service (Littleton).
181National Park Service (Snell).
182National Park Service (Littleton).
184National Park Service (Snell).
185National Park Service (Snell).
187Photographer, William L. Klender.
188National Park Service (Littleton).
190National Park Service (Littleton).
192Engraving (date unknown) probably by Stephen A. Schouff. Library of Congress.
194National Park Service (Joseph L. Winn, Jr.).
196National Park Service (Wrenn).
197National Park Service (Wrenn).
198National Park Service (Snell).
200National Park Service (Wrenn).
201National Park Service (Wrenn).
203National Park Service (Snell).
205National Park Service (Snell).
206Historical Society of Princeton, N.J. Photographer, Constance Greiff.
207National Park Service (Snell).
208Department of Public Information, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J.
210National Park Service (Snell).
211National Park Service (Snell).
212National Park Service (Snell).
213National Park Service (Snell).
215National Park Service (Snell).
216National Park Service (Ralph H. Anderson).
219Engraving by an unknown artist, from Columbian Magazine (July 1787). Library of Congress.
220National Park Service.
223National Park Service.
224National Park Service (Jack E. Boucher).
225National Park Service.
227National Park Service (Snell).
229National Park Service (Snell).
230National Park Service (Snell).
232National Park Service (Wrenn).
233National Park Service.
235National Park Service (Snell).
236Photographer, Jesse Gibbes.
238National Park Service (Snell).
239National Park Service (Snell).
241National Park Service (Littleton).
242National Park Service (Littleton).
244National Park Service (Snell).
246National Park Service (Snell).
248National Park Service (Snell).
250National Park Service (Snell).
251National Park Service (Littleton).
253National Park Service (Snell).
256National Park Service (Snell).
265National Archives.
266National Archives.
—FRONT END PAPER: Engraving (1776) by John C. McRae. Independence National Historical Park.
—REAR END PAPER: National Park Service sketch.