THE ASINIBOIN

THE ASINIBOINThe Asiniboin were originally part of the Wazi-kute gens of the Yanktonai (Ihañktonwanna) Dakota. According to the report of E.T. Denig to Governor I.I. Stevens,5"the Asiniboin call themselves Dakota, meaning Our people." The Dakota style them Hohe, "rebels," but Denig says the term signifies "fish eaters," and that they may have been so called from the fact that they subsisted principally on fish while in British territory.Lists of the gentes of this people have been recorded by Denig, Maximilian, and Hayden, but in the opinion of the present writer they need revision.Asiniboin gentesDenigMaximilianHaydenWe-che-ap-pe-nah, 60 lodges, under Les Yeux GrisItschcabinè, Les gens des filles.Wi-ić-ap-i-naḣ, Girls' band.E-an-to-ah, Stone Indians, the original appellation for the whole nation; 50 lodges, under Premier qui Voile.Jatonabinè, Les gens des roches, the Stone Indians of the English. Call themselves "Eascab."I'-an-to'-an. Either Inyantonwan, Stone Village or Ihanktonwan, End village or Yankton. J.O.D.)Wah-to-pan-ah, Canoe Indians, 100 lodges, under Serpent.Otaopabinè, Les gens des canots.Waḣ-to'-pap-i-naḣWah-to-pah-han-da-toh, Old Gauché's gens, i.e., Those who row in canoes; 100 lodges, under Trembling Hand.Watópachnato, Les gens de l'age.Waḣ-to'-paḣ-an-da-to, Gens du Gauché or Left Hand.Wah-ze-ah we-chas-ta, Northern People (so called because they came from the north in 1839); 60 lodges, under Le Robe de Vent.O-see-gah (of Lewis and Clark, Discoveries, p. 43, 1806).Waḣ-zi-ah, or To-kum-pi, Gens du Nord.The following gentes have not been collated: Of Maximilian's list, Otopachgnato, les gens du large, possibly a duplication, by mistake, of Watopachnato, les gens de l'age; Tschantoga, les gens des bois; Tanin-tauei, les gens des osayes; Chábin, les gens des montagnes. Of Hayden's list, Min'-i-shi-nak'-a-to, gens du lac.The correct form in the Yankton dialect of the first name is Witcinyanpina (Wićiɳyaɳpina), girls; of the second, probably Inyantonwan(Iɳyaɳ toɳwaɳ); the third and fourth gentes derive their names from the verb watopa, to paddle a canoe; the fifth is Waziya witcacta (Waziya wićaṡta). Tschan in Tschantoga is the German notation of the Dakota tcan(ćaɳ), tree, wood. Cha in Chábin is the German notation of the Dakota word ḣe, a high ridge of hills, a mountain.In his report to Governor Stevens, from which the following information respecting the Asiniboin is condensed, Denig used the term "band" to denote a gens of the tribe, and "clans" instead of corporations, under which latter term are included the feasting and dancing societies and the orders of doctors, shamans, or theurgists.These bands are distinct and occupy different parts of the country, although they readily combine when required by circumstances, such as scarcity of game or an attack by a large body of the enemy.The roving tribes call no general council with other nations; indeed, they are suspicious even of those with whom they have been at peace for many years, so that they seldom act together in a large body. With the exception of the Hidatsa, Mandau, and Arikara, who are stationary and live in a manner together, the neighboring tribes are quite ignorant of one another's government, rarely knowing even the names of the principal chiefs and warriors.In all these tribes there is no such thing as hereditary rank. If a son of a chief is wanting in bravery, generosity, or other desirable qualities, he is regarded merely as an ordinary individual; at the same time it is true that one qualification for the position of chief consists in having a large number of kindred in the tribe or gens. Should there be two or more candidates, equally capable and socially well connected, the question would be decided on the day of the first removal of the camp, or else in council by the principal men. In the former[pg 224]case, each man would follow the leader whom he liked best, and the smaller body of Indians would soon adhere to the majority.Women are never acknowledged as chiefs, nor have they anything to say in the council. A chief would be deposed for any conduct causing general disgust or dissatisfaction, such as incest (marrying within his gens) or lack of generosity. Though crime in the abstract would not tend to create dissatisfaction with a chief, yet if he murdered, without sufficient cause, one whose kindred were numerous, a fight between the two bodies of kindred would result and an immediate separation of his former adherents would ensue; but should the murdered person be without friends, there would be no attempt to avenge the crime, and the people would fear the chief only the more. To preserve his popularity a chief must give away all his property, and he is consequently always the poorest man in the band; but he takes care to distribute his possessions to his own kindred or to the rich, from whom he might draw in times of need.The duties of a leading chief are to study the welfare of his people, by whom he is regarded as a father, and whom he addresses as his children. He must determine where the camp should be placed and when it should be moved; when war parties are advisable and of whom they should be composed—a custom radically different from that of the Omaha and Ponka,—and all other matters of like character. Power is tacitly committed to the leading chief, to be held so long as he governs to general satisfaction, subject, however, to the advice of the soldiers. Age, debility, or any other natural defect, or incapacity to act, advise, or command, would lead a chief to resign in favor of a younger man.When war is deemed necessary, any chief, soldier, or brave warrior has the privilege of raising and leading a war party, provided he can get followers. The powers of a warrior and civil chief may be united in one person, thus differing from the Omaha and Ponka custom. The leading chief may and often does lead the whole band to war; in fact, it devolves on him to lead any general expedition.The Akitcita (Akićita), soldiers or guards (policemen), form an important body among the Asiniboin as they do among the other Siouan tribes. These soldiers, who are chosen from the band on account of their bravery, are from 25 to 45 years of age, steady, resolute, and respected; and in them is vested the power of executing the decisions of the council. In a camp of 200 lodges these soldiers would number from 50 to 60 men; their lodge is pitched in the center of the camp and is occupied by some of them all the time, though the whole body is called together only when the chief wishes a public meeting or when their hunting regulations are to be decided. In their lodge all tribal and intertribal business is transacted, and all strangers, both white men and Indians, are domiciled. The young men, women, and children are not allowed to enter the soldiers' lodge during the time that tribal matters are being considered, and, indeed, they are seldom, if ever,[pg 225]seen there. All the choicest parts of meat and the tongues of animals killed in hunting are reserved for the soldiers' lodge, and are furnished by the young men from time to time. A tax is levied on the camp for the tobacco smoked there, which is no small quantity, and the women are obliged to furnish wood and water daily. This lodge corresponds in some degree to the two sacred lodges of the Hañga gens of the Omaha.Judging from the meager information which we possess concerning the Asiniboin kinship system, the latter closely resembles that of the Dakota tribes, descent being in the male line. After the smallpox epidemic of 1838, only 400 thinly populated lodges out of 1,000 remained, relationship was nearly annihilated, property lost, and but few, the very young and very old, were left to mourn the loss. Remnants of bands had to be collected and property acquired, and several years elapsed ere the young people were old enough to marry.The names of the wife's parents are never pronounced by the husband; to do so would excite the ridicule of the whole camp. The husband and the father-in-law never look on each other if they can avoid it, nor do they enter the same lodge. In like manner the wife never addresses her father-in-law.A plurality of wives is required by a good hunter, since in the labors of the chase women are of great service to their husbands. An Indian with one wife can not amass property, as she is constantly occupied in household labors, and has no time for preparing skins for trading. The first wife and the last are generally the favorites, all others being regarded as servants. The right of divorce lies altogether with the husband; if he has children by his wife, he seldom puts her away. Should they separate, all the larger children—those who require no further care—remain with the father, the smaller ones departing with the mother. When the women have no children they are divorced without scruple.After one gets acquainted with Indians the very opposite of taciturnity exists. The evenings are devoted to jests and amusing stories and the days to gambling. The soldiers' lodge, when the soldiers are not in session, is a very theater of amusement; all sorts of jokes are made and obscene stories are told, scarcely a woman in the camp escaping the ribaldry; but when business is in order decorum must prevail.The personal property of these tribes consists chiefly of horses. Possession of an article of small value is a right seldom disputed, if the article has been honestly obtained; but the possession of horses being almost the principal object in life of an Indian of the plains, the retention of them is a matter of great uncertainty, if he has not the large force necessary to defend them. Rights to property are based on the method of acquirement, as (1) articles found; (2) those made by themselves (the sole and undisputed property of the makers); (3) those stolen from enemies, and (4) those given or bought. Nothing is given except with[pg 226]a view to a gift in return. Property obtained by gambling is held by a very indefinite tenure.Murder is generally avenged by the kindred of the deceased, as among the Omaha and Ponka. Goods, horses, etc, may be offered to expiate the crime, when the murderer's friends are rich in these things, and sometimes they are accepted; but sooner or later the kindred of the murdered man will try to avenge him. Everything except loss of life or personal chastisement can be compensated among these Indians. Rape is nearly unknown, not that the crime is considered morally wrong, but the punishment would be death, as the price of the woman would be depreciated and the chances of marriage lessened. Besides, it would be an insult to her kindred, as implying contempt of their feelings and their power of protection. Marriage within the gens is regarded as incest and is a serious offense.THE OMAHAThe gentes keeping the sacred pipes and those having the sacred tents are designated among the Omaha by appropriate designs. The sacred tent of the Wejincte was the tent of war, those of the Hañga were the tents associated with the buffalo hunt and the cultivation of the soil. The diameter of the circle (figure 34) represents the road traveled by the tribe when going on the buffalo hunt, numbers 1 and 10 being the gentes which were always in the van. The tribe was divided into half tribes, each half tribe consisting of five gentes. The sacred tents of the Omaha and all the objects that were kept in them are now in the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge, Massachusetts.Illustration: FIG. 34.—Omaha camping circle.FIG. 34.—Omaha camping circle.The two groups of gentes forming the half tribes or phratries, sometimes composed of subgentes or sections, are as follows:Hañgacenu gentes—1, Wejincte, Elk. 2, Iñke-sabĕ, Black shoulder, a Buffalo gens; the custodian of the real pipes of peace. 3, Hañga or Ancestral, a Buffalo gens; the regulator of all the so-called pipes of peace and keeper of two sacred tents. 4, ¢atada, meaning uncertain; in four subgentes:a, Wasabe hit`ajĭ, Touch-not-the-skin-of-a-black-bear;b, Wajiñga ¢atajĭ, Eat-no-small-birds; Bird people;c, ʇe-da it`ajĭ, Touch-no-buffalo-head; Eagle people;d, ʞe-`in, Carry-a-turtle-on-the-back; Turtle people. 5, ʞanze, Wind people.Ictasanda gentes—6, Man¢iñka-gaxe, Earth-lodge-makers; coyote and wolf people. 7, ʇe-sĭnde, Buffalo-tail; a Buffalo-calf people. 8, ʇa-da, Deer-head; Deer people. 9, Iñg¢e-jide, Red dung; a Buffalo-calf gens.[pg 227]10, Icta-sanda, meaning uncertain ("gray eyes"?), said to refer to the effect of lightning on the eyes. This last gens consists of Thunder and Reptile people.The Iñke-sabĕ formerly consisted of four subgentes. When the gens met as a whole, the order of sitting was that shown in figure 35. In the tribal circle the Wa¢igije camped next to the Hañga gens, and the other Iñke-sabĕ people came next to the Wejincte; but in the gentile "council fire" the first became last and the last first.The Ieki¢ĕ or Criers.The Naq¢eit`a-bajĭ, Those-who-touch-no-charcoal.The three subgentes here named sat on the same side of fireplace.The Hañga formerly had four subgeutes, but two of them, the Wa¢iitanor Workers, and the Ha-ʇu-it`ajĭ, Touches-no-green(-corn)-husks, are extinct, the few survivors having joined the other subgentes. The remaining subgentes are each called by several names: 1, ʇcsanha-ʇa¢ican, pertaining to the sacred skin of an albino buffalo cow, or Wacabe, Dark buffalo; or Hañga-qti, real Hañga; or ʇe-¢eze-¢atajĭ, Do-not-eat-buffalo-tongues. 2, Janha-ʇa¢ican, pertaining to the sacred (cottonwood) bark; or Waq¢exe-a¢in, Keeps-the-"spotted-object" (the sacred pole); or Jan-waqube-a¢in, Keeps-the-sacred-or-mysterious-wood (pole); or ʇa-waqube-¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-the-sacred (mysterious)-buffalo-sides; or Minxa-san-¢atajĭ-kĭPetan-¢atajĭ, Eat-no-geese-or-swans-or-cranes.Illustration: FIG. 35.—Iñke-sabĕ gentile assembly. A, The Wa¢igije, Maze or Whorl, or Wagnbe-gaxe-aka, He-who-acts-mysteriously. B, The Watanzi-jide-¢atajĭ, Those-who-eat-no-red-corn.FIG. 35.—Iñke-sabĕ gentile assembly. A, The Wa¢igije, Maze or Whorl, or Wagnbe-gaxe-aka, He-who-acts-mysteriously. B, The Watanzi-jide-¢atajĭ, Those-who-eat-no-red-corn.In the tribal circle the Wacabe camped next to the Iñke-sabĕ, and the Waqe¢xe-acinwere next to the Wasabe-hit`ajĭ subgens of the ¢atada; but in the Hañga gentile assembly the positions were reversed, the Wacabe sitting on the right side of the fire and the Waq¢exe-a¢inon the left.The Wasabe-hit`ajĭ subgens of the ¢atada was divided into four sections: Black-bear, Raccoon, Grizzly-bear, and Porcupine. The only survivors are the Black-bear and Raccoon (Singers).The Wajiñga ¢atajĭ subgens was divided into four sections: 1, Hawk people, under the chief Standing Hawk (now dead). 2, Blackbird people, under the chief Wajina-gahiga. B, Starling or Thunder people. 4, Owl and Magpie people.The ʞanze gens was divided into at least two subgentes, the Keepers of the pipe and the Wind people. Lion, of the Deer-head gens, said that there were four subgentes, but this was denied in 1882 by Two Crows of the Hañga gens.[pg 228]The Man¢iñka-gaxe subgentes, as given by Lion, were: 1, Coyote and Wolf people. 2, In`ĕ-waqube-a¢in, Keepers-of-the-mysterious-stones. 3, Niniba-t`an, Keepers-of-the-pipe. 4, Minxa-san-wet`ajĭ. Touch(es)-not-swans. Cañge-skă, White Horse, chief of the Man¢iñ-ka-gaxe (in 1878-1880) named three subgentes, thus: 1, Qube, Mysterious person, a modern name (probably including the Miʞasi and In`ĕ-waqube-a¢in, and certainly consisting of the descendants of the chief Wa-jiñga-sabe or Blackbird). 2, Niniba-t`an. 3, Minxa-san-wet`ajĭ.The ʇa-da were divided into four parts: 1, Niniba-t`an, Keepers-of-the-pipe, under Lion. 2, Naq¢e-it`ajĭ, Touches-no-charcoal, under Boy Chief. 3, Thunder-people, under Pawnee Chief. 4, Deer-people, under Sinde-xanxan(Deer's-)tail-shows-red-at-intervals (-as-it-bounds-away).The Ictasanda gens also was in four parts: 1, Niniba-t`an, Keepers-of-the-pipe. 2, Real Ictasanda people, (Numbers 1 and 2 were consolidated prior to 1880.) 3, Wacetanor Reptile people, sometimes called Keepers-of-the-claws-of-a-wildcat. 4, Real Thunder people, or Those-who-do-not-touch-a-clamshell, or Keepers-of-the-clamshell-and-the-tooth-of-a-black-bear.The social organization of the Omaha has been treated at length by the author in his paper on Omaha Sociology.6THE PONKAThe Ponka tribal circle was divided equally between the Tcinju and Wajaje half-tribes. To the former belonged two phratries of two gentes each, i.e., numbers 1 to 4, inclusive, and to the latter two similar phratries, including gentes 5 to 8.Illustration: FIG. 36.—Ponka camping circle.FIG. 36.—Ponka camping circle.Tcinju half-tribe—Thunder or Fire phratry: Gens 1, Hisada, Legs-stretched-ont-stiff (refers to a dead quadruped); Thunder people. Gens 2, Touch-not-the-skin-of-a-black-bear. Wind-makers or War phratry: Gens 3, ¢ixida, Wildcat (in two subgentes: 1, Sinde-ag¢ĕ, Wears-tails, i.e., locks of hair; Naq¢e-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-charcoal; and Wascʇu-it`ajĭ, Does-not-tonch-verdigris. 2, Wami-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-blood). Gens 4, Nika-da-ɔna, "Bald human-head;" Elk people (in at least three subgentes: 1, ʇe-sĭnde-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-tail; 2, ʇe ¢eze ¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues; 3, ʇaqti kĭ Anpan¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-deer-and-elk).Wajaje half-tribe—Earth phratry: Gens 5, Maʞan, Medicine, a buffalo gens, also called ʇe-sĭnde it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-buffalo-tails (in two subgentes: 1, Real Ponka, Keepers-of-a-sacred-pipe; 2, Gray Ponka). Gens 6, Wacabe, Dark buffalo (in two subgentes: 1,[pg 229]Buffalo tail, or,ʇe-¢eze ¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues, or ʇe-jiñga ¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-a-very-young-buffalo-calf; 2, ʇe-da it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-head or skull). Water phratry (?): Gens 7, Wajaje, Osage (in two subgentes at present: 1, Dark Osage, Keepers-of-a-sacred-pipe, or Waseʇu-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-verdigris, or Naq¢e-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-charcoal; 2, Gray Osage, or Wĕs`ă wet`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-serpents; 3, Necta, an Owl subgens, now extinct). Gens 8, Nuqe, Reddish-yellow buffalo (miscalled Nuxe, Ice). Subgentes uncertain, but there are four taboo names: Does-not-touch-a-Buffalo-head (or skull), Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-calf, Does-not-touch-the-yellow-hide-of-a-buffalo-calf, and Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues.THE QUAPAW OR KWAPAWhen the Kwapa were discovered by the French they dwelt in five villages, described by the early chroniclers as the Imaha (Imaham, Imahao), Capaha, Toriman, Tonginga (Doginga, Topinga), and Southois (Atotchasi, Ossouteouez). Three of these village names are known to all the tribe: 1, Uʞa'qpa-qti, Real Kwapa; 2, Ti'-u-a'-d¢i-man(Toriman), Ti'-u-a-d¢i' man(of Mrs Stafford); 3, U-zu'-ti-u'-wĕ (Southois, etc). The fourth was Tan'wanji'ʞa, Small village. Judging from analogy and the fact that the fifth village, Imaha, was the farthest up Arkansas river, that village name must have meant, as did the term Omaha, the upstream people.The following names of Kwapa gentes were obtained chiefly from Alphonsus Vallière, a full-blood Kwapa, who assisted the author at Washington, from December, 1890, to March, 1891:Nan'panta, a Deer gens; Onphŭnenikaciʞa, the Elk gens; Qid¢ e'nikaci'ʞa, the Eagle gens; Wajiñ'ʞa enikaci'ʞa, the Small-bird gens; Hañ'ʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, the Hañ'ʞa or Ancestral gens; Wasa' e'nikaci'ʞa, the Black-bear gens; Mantu' e'nikaci'ʞa, the Grizzly-bear (?) gens; Te e'nikaci'ʞa, the Buffalo gens (the ordinary buffalo); Tuqe'-nikaci'ʞa, the Reddish-yellow Buffalo gens (answering to Nuqe of the Ponka, Yuqe of the Kansa, ¢uqe of the Osage); Jawe' nikaci'ʞa, the Beaver gens; Hu i'nikaci'ʞa, the Fish gens; Mika'q`e ni'kaci'ʞa, the Star gens; Pe'tane'nikaci'ʞa, the Crane gens; Cañʞe'-nikaci'ʞa, the Dog (or Wolf?) gens; Wakan'ʇă e'nikaci'ʞa, the Thunder-being gens; Tand¢an' e'nikaci'ʞa or Tan'd¢antañ'ʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, the Panther or Mountain-lion gens; Ke-ni'kaci'ʞa, the Turtle gens; Wĕs`ă e'nikaci'ʞa, the Serpent gens; Mi e'nikaci'ʞa, the Sun gens. Vallière was unable to say on which side of the tribal circle each gens camped, but he gave the personal names of some members of most of the gentes.On visiting the Kwapa, in the northeastern corner of Indian Territory, in January, 1894, the author recorded the following, with the assistance of Mrs Stafford, a full-blood Kwapa of about 90 years of age: Among[pg 230]the Hañka gentes are the Hañ'ʞa tañʞa, Large Hañʞa or Mancka' e'nikaci'ʞa, Crawfish people; Wajiñʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, Small-bird people; Jiñ'ʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, Small-bird people; Te ni'kaci'ʞa, Buffalo people, or Hañ'ʞa ji'ʞa, Small Hañʞa; An'pane'nikaci'ʞa, Elk people; Qid¢a' e'nikaci'ʞa, Eagle people; Tuqe'-nikaci'ʞa, Reddish-yellow Buffalo people; and Cañʞe'-nikaci'ʞa, Dog (or Wolf?) people. Mrs Stafford knew that five gentes were not on the Hañʞa side, three of them, Hu i´'nikaci'ʞa, Fish people, Ni'kia'ta (meaning unknown), and Ke-ni'kaci'ʞa, Turtle people, being on the same side; Mantu' e'nikaci'ʞa, Lion people; and Ti'ju (answering to the Osage Tsiɔu, the Kansa Tciju, and the Ponka Tcinju), meaning not obtained, which last is extinct. Mrs Stafford could not tell on which side camped any of the following gentes given by Vallière: Maqe, Wĕs`ă, Wasa, Jawe, Mikaq`e, Mi, etc. The only persons capable of giving the needed information are among those Kwapa who reside on Osage reservation. According to George Redeagle and Buffalo Calf, two full-blood Quapaw, the Maqe-nikaci'ʞa, Upper World people, were identical with the Wakanʇa e'nikaci'ʞa, Thunder-being people, of Vallière. These two men said, also, that there was no single gens known as the Hañʞa, that name belonging to a major division, probably a half-tribe.THE KAƝZE OR KANSAIllustration: FIG. 37.—Kansa camping circle.FIG. 37.—Kansa camping circle.Among the Omaha the Yata people are those who camp on the yata or left side of the tribal circle; the Ictŭñga people, those who camp on the Ictŭñga or right side. The tribe is divided into seven phratries, or, as the Kansa style each, wayunmindan, (i.e., those who sing together), as follows:PhratriesGentesSubgentesI1. Manyiñka, Earth, or Earth-lodge-makers.a, Manyinka tañga, Large earth.b, Manyiñka gaxe,&Manyiñka jiñga, Small earth.II2. Ta, Deer, or Wajaje, Osage.a, Taqtci, Real deer.b, Ta yatcajĭ, Eats-no-deer, or Ta ts'eyĕ, Kills-deer, or Wadjüta ts'eyĕ, Kills-quadrupeds.III3. Pañka, Ponkaa, Pañk unikacinga, Ponka people.b, Qŭndj-alan, Wear-red-cedar (-fronds)-on-their-heads.III4. Kanze, Kansa, or Tci hacin, Lodge-in-the-rear; Last-lodge.a, Tadje unikacinga, Wind people, or Ak'a unikacinga, South-wind people, or Tci hacinqtci, Real Tci hacin, Camp-behind-all.b, Tadje jiñga, Small-wind, or Mannanhind-je, Makes-a breeze-near-the-ground.III5. Wasabe, Black bear.a, Wasabĕqtci, Real Black-bear, or Sakŭnwayatce, Eats-raw (-food).b, Sindjalĕ, Wears-tails (locks of hair) -on-the-head.I6. Wanaxe, GhostNot learned.IV7. Ke k'in, Carries-a-turtle-on-his-back.Not learned.V8. Mink'in, Carries-the-sun-on-his-back.Not learned.I9. Ṵpan, Elka, Ṵpan-qtci, Real elk, or Mansanha, referring to the color of the fur.b, Sanhange, meaning unknown.VI10. Qüya, White eaglea, Hüsada, Legs-stretched-out-stiff; Qüyunikacinga, White-eagle people.b, Wabinijupye, Wade-in-blood; Wabinunikacinga, Blood people.VI11. Han, Nighta, Hannikacinga, Night people.b, Dakanmanyin, Walks-shining (Star people?)VII12. Ibatc`ĕ, Holds-the-firebrand-to-sacred-pipes, or Hañga jiñga, small Hañga.a, Qüyego jiñga, Hawk-that-has-a-tail-like-a-"king-eagle;" "Little-one-like-an-eagle."b, Mika unikacinga, Raccoon people, or Mika qla jiñga, Small lean racoon.VII13. Hañga tañga, Large Hañga; Hañga utanandji, Hañga-apart-from-the-rest, or Ta sindje qaga, Stiff-deer-tail.A black eagle with spots. Subgentes not recorded.II14. Tcedŭñga, Buffalo (bull), or Sitañga, Big feet.a, Tcedŭñga, Buffalo with dark hair.b, Yuqe, Reddish-yellow Buffalo. (See Ponka Nuqe, Osage ¢uqe, Kwapa Tuqe.)V15. Tci ju wactage, Tci-ju peacemaker.(Red-hawk people?). Subgentes not recorded.II16. Lṵ nikacinga, Thunder-being people; Ledanunikacinga, Gray-hawk people.Subgentes not recorded.Great changes have occurred among the Kansa since they have come in contact with the white race; but when Say visited them in the early part of the present century they still observed their aboriginal marriage laws. No Kansa could take a wife from a gens on his side of the tribal circle, nor could he marry any kinswoman, however remote the relationship might be. There are certain gentes that exchange personal names (jaje kik'übe au), as among the Osage. Civil and military distinctions were based on bravery and generosity. Say informs us that the Kansa had been at peace with the Osage since 1806; that they had intermarried freely with them, so that "in stature, features, and customs they are more and more closely approaching that people." He states also that the head chief of the Kansa was Gahinge Wadayiñga, Saucy Chief (which he renders "Fool Chief"), and that the ten or twelve underchiefs did not seem to have the respect of the people.Unmarried females labored in the fields, served their parents, carried wood and water, and cooked. When the eldest daughter married she controlled the lodge, her mother, and all the sisters; the latter were always the wives of the same man. Presents were exchanged when a youth took his first wife. On the death of the husband the widow scarified herself, rubbed her person with clay, and became careless about her dress for a year. Then the eldest brother of the deceased married her without any ceremony, regarding her children as his own. When the deceased left no brother (real or potential) the widow was free to select her next husband. Fellowhood (as in cases of Damon and Pythias, David and Jonathan) often continues through life.The Kansa had two kinds of criers or heralds: 1, the wadji'panyinor village crier; 2, the ie'kiye'(Omaha and Ponka i'ĕki'¢ĕ. In 1882, Sansile (a woman) was hereditary wadji'panyinof the Kansa, having succeeded her father, Pezihi, the last male crier. At the time of an[pg 233]issue (about 1882) Sansile's son-in-law died, so she, being a mourner, could not act as crier; hence her office devolved on K'axe of the Taqtci subgens. In that year one of the Ta yatcajĭ subgens (of the Taqtci or Deer gens) was iekiye number 1. Iekiye number 2 belonged to the Tadje or Kanze (Wind) gens.THE OSAGEIn the Osage nation there are three primary divisions, which are tribes in the original acceptation of that term. These are known as the Tsiɔu utse pe¢ŭnda, the Seven Tsiɔu fireplaces, Hañʞa utsse pe¢ŭda, the Seven Hañʞa fireplaces, and Waɔaɔe utse pe¢ŭda, the Seven Osage fireplaces. Each "fireplace" is a gens, so that there are twenty-one gentes in the Osage nation. The Seven Hañʞa fireplaces were the last to join the nation, according to the tradition of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe people. When this occurred, the seven Hañʞa gentes were reckoned as five, and the seven Osage gentes as two, in order to have not more than seven gentes on the right side of the tribal circle.At first the Hañʞa uta¢antse gens had seven pipes, and the Waɔaɔe had as many. The Waɔaɔe gave their seventh pipe to the Tsiɔu, with the right to make seven pipes from it, so now the Waɔaɔe people have but six pipes, though they retain the ceremonies pertaining to the seventh.Illustration: FIG. 38.—Osage camping circle.FIG. 38.—Osage camping circle.When there is sickness among the children on the Waɔaɔe or right (war) side of the circle, their parents apply to the Tsiɔu (Tsiɔu wactaʞe?) for food for them. In like manner, when the children on the left or Tsiɔu side are ill, their parents apply to the Panhka (wactaqe?), on the other side, in order to get food for them.The Seven Tsiɔu fireplaces occupy the left or peace side of the circle. Their names are:1. Tsiɔu Sĭntsaʞ¢e, Tsiɔu-wearing-a-tail (of hair)-on-the-head; also called Tsiɔu Wanŭn', Elder Tsiɔu; in two subgentes, Sintsaʞ¢ĕ, Sun and Comet people, and Cŭñʞe i'nik`ăcin'a, Wolf people.2. Tse ʇṵ'ʞa intse', Buffalo-bull face; in two subgentes, of which the second is Tse' ¢añka' or Min'paha', Hide-with-the-hair-on. The policemen or soldiers on the left side belong to these two gentes.3. Mink'in', Sun carriers, i.e., Carry-the-snn (or Buffalo hides)-on-their-backs. These have two subgentes,a, Mini'niɥk`acin'a, Sun people;b, Minxa' ska i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Swan people,4. Tsi'ɔu wacta'ʞe, Tsiɔu peacemaker, or Tan'wanʞa'xe, Village-maker, or, Ni'wa¢ĕ, Giver of life. These have two subgentes,a, Wapinit`a'ɔi, Touches-no-blood, or Qü¢a' ɔü'tse, Red-eagle (really a hawk);[pg 234]b, Qü¢a' pa san', Bald-eagle, or Ɔansan'u'niɥk`ăcin'a, Sycamore people, the leading gens on the left side of the circle.5. Hani'niɥk`ăcin'a, Night people, or Tsi'ɔu we'haʞi¢e, the Tsiɔu-at-the-end, or Tse'¢añka'. Their two subgentes are:a, Night people proper;b, Wasa'de, Black-bear people.6. Tse ʇṵ'ʞa, Buffalo bull. In two subgentes,a, Tse ʇṵ'ʞa, Buffalo bull;b, ¢u'qe, Reddish-yellow buffalo (corresponding to the Nuqe of the Ponka, Tuqe of the Quapaw, and Yuqe of the Kansa).7. ʞ¢ŭn, Thunder-being, or Tsi'hacin, Camp-last, or Ma'xe, Upper-world people, or Niɥ'ka wakan'ʇaʞi, Mysterious-male-being. Subgentes not recorded.On the right (Hañʞa or Waɔaɔe) side of the circle are the following:8. Waɔa'ɔe Wanŭn', Elder Osage, composed of six of the seven Osage fireplaces, as follows:a, Waɔa'ɔe ska', White Osage;b, Ke k'in', Turtle-carriers;c, Wake'¢e ste'tse, Tall-flags(?), Ehnan' min'tse tŭn', They-alone-have-bows, or Minke'¢e ste'tse, Tall-flags;d, Ta ¢a'xü, Deer-lights, or Ta i'niɥk'ăcin'a, Deer people;e, Hu i'niqk`ăcin'a, Fish people;f, Nan'panta, a deer gens, called by some Ke ʞa'tsü, Turtle-with-a-serrated-crest-along-the-shell (probably a water monster, as there is no such species of turtle).9. Hañ'ʞa uta'¢antsi, Hañʞa-apart-from-the-rest, or Qü¢a'qtsi i'niɥ-k`ăcin'a, Real eagle people—the War eagle gens, and one of the original Hañʞa fireplaces. The soldiers or policemen from the right side are chosen from the eighth and ninth gentes.10. The leading gens on the right side of the circle, and one of the original seven Osage fireplaces. Panɥ'ka wacta'ʞe, Ponka peace-maker, according to a Tsiɔu man; in two subgentes,a, Tse'wa¢ĕ, Pond-lily, andb, Waca'de, Dark-buffalo; but according to Panɥ'ka waʇa'yinʞa, a member of the gens, his people have three subgentes,a, Wake'¢e, Flags;b, Wa'tsetsi, meaning, perhaps, Has-come hither (tsi)-after-touching-the-foe (watse);c, Qŭntse', Red cedar.11. Hañ'ʞa a'hü tŭn', Hañʞa-having-wings, or Hü'saʇa, Limbs-stretched-stiff, or Qü¢ i'niɥk`ăcin'a, White-eagle people, in two subgentes, which were two of the original Hañʞa fireplaces:a, Hü'saʇa Wanŭn', Elder Hüsaʇa;b, Hü'saʇa, those wearing four locks of hair resembling those worn by the second division of the Wasape tun.12. Wasa'de tŭn, Having-black-bears. In two parts, which were originally two of the Hañʞa fireplaces: A, Sĭntsaʞ¢sĕ, Wearing-a-tail- (or lock)-of-hair-on-the-head; in two subgentes, (a) Wasade, Black bear, or Hañ'ʞa Wa'ts`ekawa' (meaning not learned); (b) Iñʞ¢ŭñ'ʞa ɔiũ'ʞa, Small cat. B, Wasa'de tŭn, Wearing-four-locks-of-hair, in two subgentes, (a) Minxa'ska, Swan; (b) Tse'wa¢ĕ qe'ʞa, Dried pond-lily.13. Ṵ'pqan, Elk, one of the seven Hañʞa fireplaces.14. Kan'se, Kansa, or I'dats`ĕ, Holds-a-firebrand-to-the-sacred-pipes-in-order-to-light-them, or A'k`a i'niɥak`ăcin'a, South-wind people, or Tatse' i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Wind people, or Pe'tse i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Fire people. One of the seven Hañʞa fireplaces.[pg 235]The following social divisions cannot be identified: Ɔa'de i`niɥk`ăcin'a, Beaver people, said to be a subgens of the Waɔaɔe, no gens specified; Pe'tqani'niɥk`ăcin'a, Crane people, said to be a subgens of the Hañʞa(?) sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ; Wapŭñ'ʞa i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Owl people; Manyiñ'ʞa i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Earth people;daqpü' i'niɥk`ăcin'a, meaning not recorded.There is some uncertainty respecting the true positions of a few subgentes in the camping circle. For instance, Alvin Wood said that the Tsewa¢e qeʞa formed the fourth subgens of the Tse ʇṵ'ʞa intse; but this was denied by ʞahiʞe waʇayiñʞa, of the Tsi'ɔu wacta'ʞe, who said that it belonged to the Panɥka wactaʞe prior to the extinction of the subgens. Tsepa ʞaxe of the Wasape gens said that it formed the fourth subgens of his own people. Some make the Tsiɔu wactaʞe the third gens on the left, instead of the fourth. According to ʞahiʞe waʇayiñʞa, "All the Waɔaɔe gentes claim to have come from the water, so they have ceremonies referring to beavers, because those animals swim in the water." The same authority said in 1883 that there were seven men who acted as wactaʞe, as follows: 1, Kaɥiʞe wactaʞe, of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe subgens, who had acted for eight years; 2, Pahü-ska, of the Bald-eagle or Qü¢a pa sansubgens; 3, ʞ¢eman, Clermont, of the kidananof the Tsiɔu wehaki¢ĕ or Night gens; 6, Panɥka waʇayiñʞa, Saucy Ponka, of the Wa'tsetsi or Ponka gens; 7, Niɥka waɔintana, of the same gens.On the death of the head chief among the Osage the leading men call a council. At this council four men are named as candidates for the office, and it is asked, "Which one shall be appointed?" At this council a cuka of the Watsetsi (Ponka gens, or else from some other gens on the right) carries his pipe around the circle of councilors from right to left, while a Tsiɔu cuka (one of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe gens, or else one from some other gens on the left) carries the other pipe around from left to right. The ceremonies resemble the Ponka ceremonies for making chiefs. When the chiefs assemble in council a member of the Kanse or Idats`ĕ gens (one on the right) lights the pipes. The criers are chosen from the Kanse, Ṵpqan, and Mink'ingentes. The Tsiɔu Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Tse ʇṵʞa intse gentes furnish the soldiers or policemen for the Tsiɔu wactaʞe. A similar function is performed for the Panɥka wactaʞe by the Waɔaɔe wanŭnand Hañʞa uʇa¢antsi gentes. The Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Hañʞa uʇa¢autsi are "akiʇa watañʞa," chiefs of the soldiers; the Tseʇṵʞa intse and Waɔaɔe Wanŭnbeing ordinary soldiers, i.e., subordinate to the others. The Waɔaɔe Ke k'inare the moccasin makers for the tribe. It is said that in the olden days the members of this gens used turtle shells instead of moccasins, with leeches for strings. The makers of the war-standards and war-pipes must belong to the Waɔaɔe ska.Saucy Chief is the authority for the following: "Should all the Osage wish to dwell very near another tribe, or in case two or three families of us wish to remove to another part of the reservation, we let the[pg 236]others know our desire to live near them. We make up prizes for them—a pony, a blanket, strouding, etc—and we ask them to race for them. The fastest horse takes the first prize, and so on. We take along a pipe and some sticks—one stick for each member of the party that is removing. The other people meet us and race with us back to their home. They make us sit in a row; then one of their men or children brings a pipe to one of our party to whom he intends giving a horse. The pipe is handed to the rest of the party. The newcomers are invited to feasts, all of which they are obliged to attend." When the Osage go on the hunt the Tsiɔu wactaʞe (chief) tells the Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Tse ʇṵʞa intse where the people must camp. The following evening the Panɥka wactaʞe (chief) tells the soldiers on his side (the Waɔaɔe and Hañʞa uʇa¢antsi) where the camp must be on the following day. The members of the four gentes of soldiers or policemen meet in council and decide on the time for departure. They consult the Tsiɔu wactaʞe and Hañʞa (Panɥka wactaʞe?) who attend the council. The crier is generally a man of either the Ṵpqanor Kanse gens, but sometimes a Mink'inman acts. The four leaders of the soldier gentes call on the crier to proclaim the next camping place, etc, which he does thus:"Ha+! | han'da | ʞasin'|ʇan| awahe'ɔún| tatsi' | a'pinʇau+! | Ha+! | (Niɔü'tse | masin'ta)Halloo! | day | tomorrow |on | you make up in packs | shall | they really say | Halloo! | Missouri river | on the other sidetci' | i'he¢a'e | ta'tsi | a'dintau+!"tent {?} | you place in a line {?} | shall | they really say.which is to say, "Halloo! tomorrow morning you shall pack your goods (strike camp). Halloo! you shall lay them down, after reaching (the other side of Missouri river)!"Then the four leaders of the soldier gentes choose a'kiʇa (policemen) who have a ʇuʇan'hañʞa or captain, who then acts as crier in giving orders, thus:"Ha+! | ni'kawasa'e! | Ha+! | ʞahi'ʞe | waʇa'yiñʞa | ni'kawasa'e! | a'¢aki'ʇa | tatsi'Halloo! | O warrior! | Halloo, | Chief | Saucy! | O warrior! | you guard | shalladintau' | ni'kawasa'e!"they say really | O warrior!which means, "Halloo, O warrior! Halloo, O warrior, Saucy Chief! They have really said that you shall act as policeman or guard, O warrior!"These a'kiʇa have to punish any persons who violate the laws of the hunt. But there is another grade of men; the four leaders of the soldier gentes tell the captain to call certain men wa'paʞ¢a'ɔi utsin', and they are expected to punish any a'kiʇa who fail to do their duty. Supposing Mink'inwaʇayiñʞa was selected, the crier would say:"Ha+! ni'kawasa'e! Ha+, Mink'in' waʇa'yiñʞa n'ikawasa'e! Ha+! u¢a'tsintatsi' a'dintau', ni'kawasa'e!""Halloo, O warrior! Halloo, O warrior, Saucy Sun Carrier! Halloo, it has been really said that you shall strike the offenders without hesitation, O warrior!"[pg 237]The four headmen direct a captain to order a Hañʞa uʇa¢antsi man to lead the scouts, and subsequently to call on a Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ man for that purpose, alternating between the two sides of the camping circle. There are thus three grades of men engaged in the hunt—the ordinary members of the soldier gentes, the akiʇa, and the wapaʞ¢aɔi utsin.Should the Osage be warring against the Kansa or any other tribe, and one of the foe slip into the Osage camp and beg for protection of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe (chief), the latter is obliged to help the suppliant. He must send for the Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Tse ʇṵʞa intse (leaders), whom he would thus address: "I have a man whom I wish to live. I desire you to act as my soldiers." At the same time the Tsiɔu wactaʞe would send word to the Panɥka wactaʞe, who would summon a Waɔaɔe and a Hañʞa uta¢antsi to act as his soldiers or policemen. Meantime the kettle of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe was hung over the fire as soon as possible and food was cooked and given to the fugitive. When he had eaten (a mouthful) he was safe. He could then go through the camp with impunity. This condition of affairs lasted as long as he remained with the tribe, but it terminated when he returned to his home. After food had been given to the fugitive by the Tsiɔu wactaʞe any prominent man of the tribe could invite the fugitive to a feast.The privilege of taking care of the children was given to the Tsiɔu wactaʞe and the Panɥka wactaʞe, according to Saucy Chief. When a child (on the Tsiɔu side) is named, a certain old man is required to sing songs outside of the camp, dropping some tobacco from his pipe down on the toes of his left foot as he sings each song. On the first day the old man of the Tsiɔu (wactaʞe?) takes four grains of corn, one grain being black, another red, a third blue, and a fourth white, answering to the four kinds of corn dropped by the four buffalo, as mentioned in the tradition of the Osage. After chewing the four grains and mixing them with his saliva, he passes them between the lips of the child to be named. Four stones are put into a fire, one stone toward each of the four quarters. The Tsiɔu old man orders some cedar and a few blades of a certain kind of grass that does not die in winter, to be put aside for his use on the second day. On the second day, before sunrise, the Tsiɔu old man speaks of the cedar tree and its branches, saying, "It shall be for the children." Then he mentions the river, the deep holes in it, and its branches, which he declares shall be medicine in future for the children. He takes the four heated stones, places them in a pile, on which he puts the grass and cedar. Over this he pours water, making steam, over which the child is held. Then four names are given by the headman of the gens to the father, who selects one of them as the name for the child. Meantime men of different gentes bring cedar, stones, etc, and perform their respective ceremonies. The headman (Tsiɔu wactaʞe?) takes some of the water (into which he puts some cedar), giving four sips to the child. Then he dips his own left hand into the water and rubs the child down the left[pg 238]side, from the top of the head to the feet; next he rubs it in front, then down the right side, and finally down the back. He invites all the women of his gens who wish to be blessed to come forward, and he treats them as he did the infant. At the same time the women of the other gentes are blessed in like manner by the headmen of their respective gentes.

THE ASINIBOINThe Asiniboin were originally part of the Wazi-kute gens of the Yanktonai (Ihañktonwanna) Dakota. According to the report of E.T. Denig to Governor I.I. Stevens,5"the Asiniboin call themselves Dakota, meaning Our people." The Dakota style them Hohe, "rebels," but Denig says the term signifies "fish eaters," and that they may have been so called from the fact that they subsisted principally on fish while in British territory.Lists of the gentes of this people have been recorded by Denig, Maximilian, and Hayden, but in the opinion of the present writer they need revision.Asiniboin gentesDenigMaximilianHaydenWe-che-ap-pe-nah, 60 lodges, under Les Yeux GrisItschcabinè, Les gens des filles.Wi-ić-ap-i-naḣ, Girls' band.E-an-to-ah, Stone Indians, the original appellation for the whole nation; 50 lodges, under Premier qui Voile.Jatonabinè, Les gens des roches, the Stone Indians of the English. Call themselves "Eascab."I'-an-to'-an. Either Inyantonwan, Stone Village or Ihanktonwan, End village or Yankton. J.O.D.)Wah-to-pan-ah, Canoe Indians, 100 lodges, under Serpent.Otaopabinè, Les gens des canots.Waḣ-to'-pap-i-naḣWah-to-pah-han-da-toh, Old Gauché's gens, i.e., Those who row in canoes; 100 lodges, under Trembling Hand.Watópachnato, Les gens de l'age.Waḣ-to'-paḣ-an-da-to, Gens du Gauché or Left Hand.Wah-ze-ah we-chas-ta, Northern People (so called because they came from the north in 1839); 60 lodges, under Le Robe de Vent.O-see-gah (of Lewis and Clark, Discoveries, p. 43, 1806).Waḣ-zi-ah, or To-kum-pi, Gens du Nord.The following gentes have not been collated: Of Maximilian's list, Otopachgnato, les gens du large, possibly a duplication, by mistake, of Watopachnato, les gens de l'age; Tschantoga, les gens des bois; Tanin-tauei, les gens des osayes; Chábin, les gens des montagnes. Of Hayden's list, Min'-i-shi-nak'-a-to, gens du lac.The correct form in the Yankton dialect of the first name is Witcinyanpina (Wićiɳyaɳpina), girls; of the second, probably Inyantonwan(Iɳyaɳ toɳwaɳ); the third and fourth gentes derive their names from the verb watopa, to paddle a canoe; the fifth is Waziya witcacta (Waziya wićaṡta). Tschan in Tschantoga is the German notation of the Dakota tcan(ćaɳ), tree, wood. Cha in Chábin is the German notation of the Dakota word ḣe, a high ridge of hills, a mountain.In his report to Governor Stevens, from which the following information respecting the Asiniboin is condensed, Denig used the term "band" to denote a gens of the tribe, and "clans" instead of corporations, under which latter term are included the feasting and dancing societies and the orders of doctors, shamans, or theurgists.These bands are distinct and occupy different parts of the country, although they readily combine when required by circumstances, such as scarcity of game or an attack by a large body of the enemy.The roving tribes call no general council with other nations; indeed, they are suspicious even of those with whom they have been at peace for many years, so that they seldom act together in a large body. With the exception of the Hidatsa, Mandau, and Arikara, who are stationary and live in a manner together, the neighboring tribes are quite ignorant of one another's government, rarely knowing even the names of the principal chiefs and warriors.In all these tribes there is no such thing as hereditary rank. If a son of a chief is wanting in bravery, generosity, or other desirable qualities, he is regarded merely as an ordinary individual; at the same time it is true that one qualification for the position of chief consists in having a large number of kindred in the tribe or gens. Should there be two or more candidates, equally capable and socially well connected, the question would be decided on the day of the first removal of the camp, or else in council by the principal men. In the former[pg 224]case, each man would follow the leader whom he liked best, and the smaller body of Indians would soon adhere to the majority.Women are never acknowledged as chiefs, nor have they anything to say in the council. A chief would be deposed for any conduct causing general disgust or dissatisfaction, such as incest (marrying within his gens) or lack of generosity. Though crime in the abstract would not tend to create dissatisfaction with a chief, yet if he murdered, without sufficient cause, one whose kindred were numerous, a fight between the two bodies of kindred would result and an immediate separation of his former adherents would ensue; but should the murdered person be without friends, there would be no attempt to avenge the crime, and the people would fear the chief only the more. To preserve his popularity a chief must give away all his property, and he is consequently always the poorest man in the band; but he takes care to distribute his possessions to his own kindred or to the rich, from whom he might draw in times of need.The duties of a leading chief are to study the welfare of his people, by whom he is regarded as a father, and whom he addresses as his children. He must determine where the camp should be placed and when it should be moved; when war parties are advisable and of whom they should be composed—a custom radically different from that of the Omaha and Ponka,—and all other matters of like character. Power is tacitly committed to the leading chief, to be held so long as he governs to general satisfaction, subject, however, to the advice of the soldiers. Age, debility, or any other natural defect, or incapacity to act, advise, or command, would lead a chief to resign in favor of a younger man.When war is deemed necessary, any chief, soldier, or brave warrior has the privilege of raising and leading a war party, provided he can get followers. The powers of a warrior and civil chief may be united in one person, thus differing from the Omaha and Ponka custom. The leading chief may and often does lead the whole band to war; in fact, it devolves on him to lead any general expedition.The Akitcita (Akićita), soldiers or guards (policemen), form an important body among the Asiniboin as they do among the other Siouan tribes. These soldiers, who are chosen from the band on account of their bravery, are from 25 to 45 years of age, steady, resolute, and respected; and in them is vested the power of executing the decisions of the council. In a camp of 200 lodges these soldiers would number from 50 to 60 men; their lodge is pitched in the center of the camp and is occupied by some of them all the time, though the whole body is called together only when the chief wishes a public meeting or when their hunting regulations are to be decided. In their lodge all tribal and intertribal business is transacted, and all strangers, both white men and Indians, are domiciled. The young men, women, and children are not allowed to enter the soldiers' lodge during the time that tribal matters are being considered, and, indeed, they are seldom, if ever,[pg 225]seen there. All the choicest parts of meat and the tongues of animals killed in hunting are reserved for the soldiers' lodge, and are furnished by the young men from time to time. A tax is levied on the camp for the tobacco smoked there, which is no small quantity, and the women are obliged to furnish wood and water daily. This lodge corresponds in some degree to the two sacred lodges of the Hañga gens of the Omaha.Judging from the meager information which we possess concerning the Asiniboin kinship system, the latter closely resembles that of the Dakota tribes, descent being in the male line. After the smallpox epidemic of 1838, only 400 thinly populated lodges out of 1,000 remained, relationship was nearly annihilated, property lost, and but few, the very young and very old, were left to mourn the loss. Remnants of bands had to be collected and property acquired, and several years elapsed ere the young people were old enough to marry.The names of the wife's parents are never pronounced by the husband; to do so would excite the ridicule of the whole camp. The husband and the father-in-law never look on each other if they can avoid it, nor do they enter the same lodge. In like manner the wife never addresses her father-in-law.A plurality of wives is required by a good hunter, since in the labors of the chase women are of great service to their husbands. An Indian with one wife can not amass property, as she is constantly occupied in household labors, and has no time for preparing skins for trading. The first wife and the last are generally the favorites, all others being regarded as servants. The right of divorce lies altogether with the husband; if he has children by his wife, he seldom puts her away. Should they separate, all the larger children—those who require no further care—remain with the father, the smaller ones departing with the mother. When the women have no children they are divorced without scruple.After one gets acquainted with Indians the very opposite of taciturnity exists. The evenings are devoted to jests and amusing stories and the days to gambling. The soldiers' lodge, when the soldiers are not in session, is a very theater of amusement; all sorts of jokes are made and obscene stories are told, scarcely a woman in the camp escaping the ribaldry; but when business is in order decorum must prevail.The personal property of these tribes consists chiefly of horses. Possession of an article of small value is a right seldom disputed, if the article has been honestly obtained; but the possession of horses being almost the principal object in life of an Indian of the plains, the retention of them is a matter of great uncertainty, if he has not the large force necessary to defend them. Rights to property are based on the method of acquirement, as (1) articles found; (2) those made by themselves (the sole and undisputed property of the makers); (3) those stolen from enemies, and (4) those given or bought. Nothing is given except with[pg 226]a view to a gift in return. Property obtained by gambling is held by a very indefinite tenure.Murder is generally avenged by the kindred of the deceased, as among the Omaha and Ponka. Goods, horses, etc, may be offered to expiate the crime, when the murderer's friends are rich in these things, and sometimes they are accepted; but sooner or later the kindred of the murdered man will try to avenge him. Everything except loss of life or personal chastisement can be compensated among these Indians. Rape is nearly unknown, not that the crime is considered morally wrong, but the punishment would be death, as the price of the woman would be depreciated and the chances of marriage lessened. Besides, it would be an insult to her kindred, as implying contempt of their feelings and their power of protection. Marriage within the gens is regarded as incest and is a serious offense.THE OMAHAThe gentes keeping the sacred pipes and those having the sacred tents are designated among the Omaha by appropriate designs. The sacred tent of the Wejincte was the tent of war, those of the Hañga were the tents associated with the buffalo hunt and the cultivation of the soil. The diameter of the circle (figure 34) represents the road traveled by the tribe when going on the buffalo hunt, numbers 1 and 10 being the gentes which were always in the van. The tribe was divided into half tribes, each half tribe consisting of five gentes. The sacred tents of the Omaha and all the objects that were kept in them are now in the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge, Massachusetts.Illustration: FIG. 34.—Omaha camping circle.FIG. 34.—Omaha camping circle.The two groups of gentes forming the half tribes or phratries, sometimes composed of subgentes or sections, are as follows:Hañgacenu gentes—1, Wejincte, Elk. 2, Iñke-sabĕ, Black shoulder, a Buffalo gens; the custodian of the real pipes of peace. 3, Hañga or Ancestral, a Buffalo gens; the regulator of all the so-called pipes of peace and keeper of two sacred tents. 4, ¢atada, meaning uncertain; in four subgentes:a, Wasabe hit`ajĭ, Touch-not-the-skin-of-a-black-bear;b, Wajiñga ¢atajĭ, Eat-no-small-birds; Bird people;c, ʇe-da it`ajĭ, Touch-no-buffalo-head; Eagle people;d, ʞe-`in, Carry-a-turtle-on-the-back; Turtle people. 5, ʞanze, Wind people.Ictasanda gentes—6, Man¢iñka-gaxe, Earth-lodge-makers; coyote and wolf people. 7, ʇe-sĭnde, Buffalo-tail; a Buffalo-calf people. 8, ʇa-da, Deer-head; Deer people. 9, Iñg¢e-jide, Red dung; a Buffalo-calf gens.[pg 227]10, Icta-sanda, meaning uncertain ("gray eyes"?), said to refer to the effect of lightning on the eyes. This last gens consists of Thunder and Reptile people.The Iñke-sabĕ formerly consisted of four subgentes. When the gens met as a whole, the order of sitting was that shown in figure 35. In the tribal circle the Wa¢igije camped next to the Hañga gens, and the other Iñke-sabĕ people came next to the Wejincte; but in the gentile "council fire" the first became last and the last first.The Ieki¢ĕ or Criers.The Naq¢eit`a-bajĭ, Those-who-touch-no-charcoal.The three subgentes here named sat on the same side of fireplace.The Hañga formerly had four subgeutes, but two of them, the Wa¢iitanor Workers, and the Ha-ʇu-it`ajĭ, Touches-no-green(-corn)-husks, are extinct, the few survivors having joined the other subgentes. The remaining subgentes are each called by several names: 1, ʇcsanha-ʇa¢ican, pertaining to the sacred skin of an albino buffalo cow, or Wacabe, Dark buffalo; or Hañga-qti, real Hañga; or ʇe-¢eze-¢atajĭ, Do-not-eat-buffalo-tongues. 2, Janha-ʇa¢ican, pertaining to the sacred (cottonwood) bark; or Waq¢exe-a¢in, Keeps-the-"spotted-object" (the sacred pole); or Jan-waqube-a¢in, Keeps-the-sacred-or-mysterious-wood (pole); or ʇa-waqube-¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-the-sacred (mysterious)-buffalo-sides; or Minxa-san-¢atajĭ-kĭPetan-¢atajĭ, Eat-no-geese-or-swans-or-cranes.Illustration: FIG. 35.—Iñke-sabĕ gentile assembly. A, The Wa¢igije, Maze or Whorl, or Wagnbe-gaxe-aka, He-who-acts-mysteriously. B, The Watanzi-jide-¢atajĭ, Those-who-eat-no-red-corn.FIG. 35.—Iñke-sabĕ gentile assembly. A, The Wa¢igije, Maze or Whorl, or Wagnbe-gaxe-aka, He-who-acts-mysteriously. B, The Watanzi-jide-¢atajĭ, Those-who-eat-no-red-corn.In the tribal circle the Wacabe camped next to the Iñke-sabĕ, and the Waqe¢xe-acinwere next to the Wasabe-hit`ajĭ subgens of the ¢atada; but in the Hañga gentile assembly the positions were reversed, the Wacabe sitting on the right side of the fire and the Waq¢exe-a¢inon the left.The Wasabe-hit`ajĭ subgens of the ¢atada was divided into four sections: Black-bear, Raccoon, Grizzly-bear, and Porcupine. The only survivors are the Black-bear and Raccoon (Singers).The Wajiñga ¢atajĭ subgens was divided into four sections: 1, Hawk people, under the chief Standing Hawk (now dead). 2, Blackbird people, under the chief Wajina-gahiga. B, Starling or Thunder people. 4, Owl and Magpie people.The ʞanze gens was divided into at least two subgentes, the Keepers of the pipe and the Wind people. Lion, of the Deer-head gens, said that there were four subgentes, but this was denied in 1882 by Two Crows of the Hañga gens.[pg 228]The Man¢iñka-gaxe subgentes, as given by Lion, were: 1, Coyote and Wolf people. 2, In`ĕ-waqube-a¢in, Keepers-of-the-mysterious-stones. 3, Niniba-t`an, Keepers-of-the-pipe. 4, Minxa-san-wet`ajĭ. Touch(es)-not-swans. Cañge-skă, White Horse, chief of the Man¢iñ-ka-gaxe (in 1878-1880) named three subgentes, thus: 1, Qube, Mysterious person, a modern name (probably including the Miʞasi and In`ĕ-waqube-a¢in, and certainly consisting of the descendants of the chief Wa-jiñga-sabe or Blackbird). 2, Niniba-t`an. 3, Minxa-san-wet`ajĭ.The ʇa-da were divided into four parts: 1, Niniba-t`an, Keepers-of-the-pipe, under Lion. 2, Naq¢e-it`ajĭ, Touches-no-charcoal, under Boy Chief. 3, Thunder-people, under Pawnee Chief. 4, Deer-people, under Sinde-xanxan(Deer's-)tail-shows-red-at-intervals (-as-it-bounds-away).The Ictasanda gens also was in four parts: 1, Niniba-t`an, Keepers-of-the-pipe. 2, Real Ictasanda people, (Numbers 1 and 2 were consolidated prior to 1880.) 3, Wacetanor Reptile people, sometimes called Keepers-of-the-claws-of-a-wildcat. 4, Real Thunder people, or Those-who-do-not-touch-a-clamshell, or Keepers-of-the-clamshell-and-the-tooth-of-a-black-bear.The social organization of the Omaha has been treated at length by the author in his paper on Omaha Sociology.6THE PONKAThe Ponka tribal circle was divided equally between the Tcinju and Wajaje half-tribes. To the former belonged two phratries of two gentes each, i.e., numbers 1 to 4, inclusive, and to the latter two similar phratries, including gentes 5 to 8.Illustration: FIG. 36.—Ponka camping circle.FIG. 36.—Ponka camping circle.Tcinju half-tribe—Thunder or Fire phratry: Gens 1, Hisada, Legs-stretched-ont-stiff (refers to a dead quadruped); Thunder people. Gens 2, Touch-not-the-skin-of-a-black-bear. Wind-makers or War phratry: Gens 3, ¢ixida, Wildcat (in two subgentes: 1, Sinde-ag¢ĕ, Wears-tails, i.e., locks of hair; Naq¢e-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-charcoal; and Wascʇu-it`ajĭ, Does-not-tonch-verdigris. 2, Wami-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-blood). Gens 4, Nika-da-ɔna, "Bald human-head;" Elk people (in at least three subgentes: 1, ʇe-sĭnde-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-tail; 2, ʇe ¢eze ¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues; 3, ʇaqti kĭ Anpan¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-deer-and-elk).Wajaje half-tribe—Earth phratry: Gens 5, Maʞan, Medicine, a buffalo gens, also called ʇe-sĭnde it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-buffalo-tails (in two subgentes: 1, Real Ponka, Keepers-of-a-sacred-pipe; 2, Gray Ponka). Gens 6, Wacabe, Dark buffalo (in two subgentes: 1,[pg 229]Buffalo tail, or,ʇe-¢eze ¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues, or ʇe-jiñga ¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-a-very-young-buffalo-calf; 2, ʇe-da it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-head or skull). Water phratry (?): Gens 7, Wajaje, Osage (in two subgentes at present: 1, Dark Osage, Keepers-of-a-sacred-pipe, or Waseʇu-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-verdigris, or Naq¢e-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-charcoal; 2, Gray Osage, or Wĕs`ă wet`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-serpents; 3, Necta, an Owl subgens, now extinct). Gens 8, Nuqe, Reddish-yellow buffalo (miscalled Nuxe, Ice). Subgentes uncertain, but there are four taboo names: Does-not-touch-a-Buffalo-head (or skull), Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-calf, Does-not-touch-the-yellow-hide-of-a-buffalo-calf, and Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues.THE QUAPAW OR KWAPAWhen the Kwapa were discovered by the French they dwelt in five villages, described by the early chroniclers as the Imaha (Imaham, Imahao), Capaha, Toriman, Tonginga (Doginga, Topinga), and Southois (Atotchasi, Ossouteouez). Three of these village names are known to all the tribe: 1, Uʞa'qpa-qti, Real Kwapa; 2, Ti'-u-a'-d¢i-man(Toriman), Ti'-u-a-d¢i' man(of Mrs Stafford); 3, U-zu'-ti-u'-wĕ (Southois, etc). The fourth was Tan'wanji'ʞa, Small village. Judging from analogy and the fact that the fifth village, Imaha, was the farthest up Arkansas river, that village name must have meant, as did the term Omaha, the upstream people.The following names of Kwapa gentes were obtained chiefly from Alphonsus Vallière, a full-blood Kwapa, who assisted the author at Washington, from December, 1890, to March, 1891:Nan'panta, a Deer gens; Onphŭnenikaciʞa, the Elk gens; Qid¢ e'nikaci'ʞa, the Eagle gens; Wajiñ'ʞa enikaci'ʞa, the Small-bird gens; Hañ'ʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, the Hañ'ʞa or Ancestral gens; Wasa' e'nikaci'ʞa, the Black-bear gens; Mantu' e'nikaci'ʞa, the Grizzly-bear (?) gens; Te e'nikaci'ʞa, the Buffalo gens (the ordinary buffalo); Tuqe'-nikaci'ʞa, the Reddish-yellow Buffalo gens (answering to Nuqe of the Ponka, Yuqe of the Kansa, ¢uqe of the Osage); Jawe' nikaci'ʞa, the Beaver gens; Hu i'nikaci'ʞa, the Fish gens; Mika'q`e ni'kaci'ʞa, the Star gens; Pe'tane'nikaci'ʞa, the Crane gens; Cañʞe'-nikaci'ʞa, the Dog (or Wolf?) gens; Wakan'ʇă e'nikaci'ʞa, the Thunder-being gens; Tand¢an' e'nikaci'ʞa or Tan'd¢antañ'ʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, the Panther or Mountain-lion gens; Ke-ni'kaci'ʞa, the Turtle gens; Wĕs`ă e'nikaci'ʞa, the Serpent gens; Mi e'nikaci'ʞa, the Sun gens. Vallière was unable to say on which side of the tribal circle each gens camped, but he gave the personal names of some members of most of the gentes.On visiting the Kwapa, in the northeastern corner of Indian Territory, in January, 1894, the author recorded the following, with the assistance of Mrs Stafford, a full-blood Kwapa of about 90 years of age: Among[pg 230]the Hañka gentes are the Hañ'ʞa tañʞa, Large Hañʞa or Mancka' e'nikaci'ʞa, Crawfish people; Wajiñʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, Small-bird people; Jiñ'ʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, Small-bird people; Te ni'kaci'ʞa, Buffalo people, or Hañ'ʞa ji'ʞa, Small Hañʞa; An'pane'nikaci'ʞa, Elk people; Qid¢a' e'nikaci'ʞa, Eagle people; Tuqe'-nikaci'ʞa, Reddish-yellow Buffalo people; and Cañʞe'-nikaci'ʞa, Dog (or Wolf?) people. Mrs Stafford knew that five gentes were not on the Hañʞa side, three of them, Hu i´'nikaci'ʞa, Fish people, Ni'kia'ta (meaning unknown), and Ke-ni'kaci'ʞa, Turtle people, being on the same side; Mantu' e'nikaci'ʞa, Lion people; and Ti'ju (answering to the Osage Tsiɔu, the Kansa Tciju, and the Ponka Tcinju), meaning not obtained, which last is extinct. Mrs Stafford could not tell on which side camped any of the following gentes given by Vallière: Maqe, Wĕs`ă, Wasa, Jawe, Mikaq`e, Mi, etc. The only persons capable of giving the needed information are among those Kwapa who reside on Osage reservation. According to George Redeagle and Buffalo Calf, two full-blood Quapaw, the Maqe-nikaci'ʞa, Upper World people, were identical with the Wakanʇa e'nikaci'ʞa, Thunder-being people, of Vallière. These two men said, also, that there was no single gens known as the Hañʞa, that name belonging to a major division, probably a half-tribe.THE KAƝZE OR KANSAIllustration: FIG. 37.—Kansa camping circle.FIG. 37.—Kansa camping circle.Among the Omaha the Yata people are those who camp on the yata or left side of the tribal circle; the Ictŭñga people, those who camp on the Ictŭñga or right side. The tribe is divided into seven phratries, or, as the Kansa style each, wayunmindan, (i.e., those who sing together), as follows:PhratriesGentesSubgentesI1. Manyiñka, Earth, or Earth-lodge-makers.a, Manyinka tañga, Large earth.b, Manyiñka gaxe,&Manyiñka jiñga, Small earth.II2. Ta, Deer, or Wajaje, Osage.a, Taqtci, Real deer.b, Ta yatcajĭ, Eats-no-deer, or Ta ts'eyĕ, Kills-deer, or Wadjüta ts'eyĕ, Kills-quadrupeds.III3. Pañka, Ponkaa, Pañk unikacinga, Ponka people.b, Qŭndj-alan, Wear-red-cedar (-fronds)-on-their-heads.III4. Kanze, Kansa, or Tci hacin, Lodge-in-the-rear; Last-lodge.a, Tadje unikacinga, Wind people, or Ak'a unikacinga, South-wind people, or Tci hacinqtci, Real Tci hacin, Camp-behind-all.b, Tadje jiñga, Small-wind, or Mannanhind-je, Makes-a breeze-near-the-ground.III5. Wasabe, Black bear.a, Wasabĕqtci, Real Black-bear, or Sakŭnwayatce, Eats-raw (-food).b, Sindjalĕ, Wears-tails (locks of hair) -on-the-head.I6. Wanaxe, GhostNot learned.IV7. Ke k'in, Carries-a-turtle-on-his-back.Not learned.V8. Mink'in, Carries-the-sun-on-his-back.Not learned.I9. Ṵpan, Elka, Ṵpan-qtci, Real elk, or Mansanha, referring to the color of the fur.b, Sanhange, meaning unknown.VI10. Qüya, White eaglea, Hüsada, Legs-stretched-out-stiff; Qüyunikacinga, White-eagle people.b, Wabinijupye, Wade-in-blood; Wabinunikacinga, Blood people.VI11. Han, Nighta, Hannikacinga, Night people.b, Dakanmanyin, Walks-shining (Star people?)VII12. Ibatc`ĕ, Holds-the-firebrand-to-sacred-pipes, or Hañga jiñga, small Hañga.a, Qüyego jiñga, Hawk-that-has-a-tail-like-a-"king-eagle;" "Little-one-like-an-eagle."b, Mika unikacinga, Raccoon people, or Mika qla jiñga, Small lean racoon.VII13. Hañga tañga, Large Hañga; Hañga utanandji, Hañga-apart-from-the-rest, or Ta sindje qaga, Stiff-deer-tail.A black eagle with spots. Subgentes not recorded.II14. Tcedŭñga, Buffalo (bull), or Sitañga, Big feet.a, Tcedŭñga, Buffalo with dark hair.b, Yuqe, Reddish-yellow Buffalo. (See Ponka Nuqe, Osage ¢uqe, Kwapa Tuqe.)V15. Tci ju wactage, Tci-ju peacemaker.(Red-hawk people?). Subgentes not recorded.II16. Lṵ nikacinga, Thunder-being people; Ledanunikacinga, Gray-hawk people.Subgentes not recorded.Great changes have occurred among the Kansa since they have come in contact with the white race; but when Say visited them in the early part of the present century they still observed their aboriginal marriage laws. No Kansa could take a wife from a gens on his side of the tribal circle, nor could he marry any kinswoman, however remote the relationship might be. There are certain gentes that exchange personal names (jaje kik'übe au), as among the Osage. Civil and military distinctions were based on bravery and generosity. Say informs us that the Kansa had been at peace with the Osage since 1806; that they had intermarried freely with them, so that "in stature, features, and customs they are more and more closely approaching that people." He states also that the head chief of the Kansa was Gahinge Wadayiñga, Saucy Chief (which he renders "Fool Chief"), and that the ten or twelve underchiefs did not seem to have the respect of the people.Unmarried females labored in the fields, served their parents, carried wood and water, and cooked. When the eldest daughter married she controlled the lodge, her mother, and all the sisters; the latter were always the wives of the same man. Presents were exchanged when a youth took his first wife. On the death of the husband the widow scarified herself, rubbed her person with clay, and became careless about her dress for a year. Then the eldest brother of the deceased married her without any ceremony, regarding her children as his own. When the deceased left no brother (real or potential) the widow was free to select her next husband. Fellowhood (as in cases of Damon and Pythias, David and Jonathan) often continues through life.The Kansa had two kinds of criers or heralds: 1, the wadji'panyinor village crier; 2, the ie'kiye'(Omaha and Ponka i'ĕki'¢ĕ. In 1882, Sansile (a woman) was hereditary wadji'panyinof the Kansa, having succeeded her father, Pezihi, the last male crier. At the time of an[pg 233]issue (about 1882) Sansile's son-in-law died, so she, being a mourner, could not act as crier; hence her office devolved on K'axe of the Taqtci subgens. In that year one of the Ta yatcajĭ subgens (of the Taqtci or Deer gens) was iekiye number 1. Iekiye number 2 belonged to the Tadje or Kanze (Wind) gens.THE OSAGEIn the Osage nation there are three primary divisions, which are tribes in the original acceptation of that term. These are known as the Tsiɔu utse pe¢ŭnda, the Seven Tsiɔu fireplaces, Hañʞa utsse pe¢ŭda, the Seven Hañʞa fireplaces, and Waɔaɔe utse pe¢ŭda, the Seven Osage fireplaces. Each "fireplace" is a gens, so that there are twenty-one gentes in the Osage nation. The Seven Hañʞa fireplaces were the last to join the nation, according to the tradition of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe people. When this occurred, the seven Hañʞa gentes were reckoned as five, and the seven Osage gentes as two, in order to have not more than seven gentes on the right side of the tribal circle.At first the Hañʞa uta¢antse gens had seven pipes, and the Waɔaɔe had as many. The Waɔaɔe gave their seventh pipe to the Tsiɔu, with the right to make seven pipes from it, so now the Waɔaɔe people have but six pipes, though they retain the ceremonies pertaining to the seventh.Illustration: FIG. 38.—Osage camping circle.FIG. 38.—Osage camping circle.When there is sickness among the children on the Waɔaɔe or right (war) side of the circle, their parents apply to the Tsiɔu (Tsiɔu wactaʞe?) for food for them. In like manner, when the children on the left or Tsiɔu side are ill, their parents apply to the Panhka (wactaqe?), on the other side, in order to get food for them.The Seven Tsiɔu fireplaces occupy the left or peace side of the circle. Their names are:1. Tsiɔu Sĭntsaʞ¢e, Tsiɔu-wearing-a-tail (of hair)-on-the-head; also called Tsiɔu Wanŭn', Elder Tsiɔu; in two subgentes, Sintsaʞ¢ĕ, Sun and Comet people, and Cŭñʞe i'nik`ăcin'a, Wolf people.2. Tse ʇṵ'ʞa intse', Buffalo-bull face; in two subgentes, of which the second is Tse' ¢añka' or Min'paha', Hide-with-the-hair-on. The policemen or soldiers on the left side belong to these two gentes.3. Mink'in', Sun carriers, i.e., Carry-the-snn (or Buffalo hides)-on-their-backs. These have two subgentes,a, Mini'niɥk`acin'a, Sun people;b, Minxa' ska i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Swan people,4. Tsi'ɔu wacta'ʞe, Tsiɔu peacemaker, or Tan'wanʞa'xe, Village-maker, or, Ni'wa¢ĕ, Giver of life. These have two subgentes,a, Wapinit`a'ɔi, Touches-no-blood, or Qü¢a' ɔü'tse, Red-eagle (really a hawk);[pg 234]b, Qü¢a' pa san', Bald-eagle, or Ɔansan'u'niɥk`ăcin'a, Sycamore people, the leading gens on the left side of the circle.5. Hani'niɥk`ăcin'a, Night people, or Tsi'ɔu we'haʞi¢e, the Tsiɔu-at-the-end, or Tse'¢añka'. Their two subgentes are:a, Night people proper;b, Wasa'de, Black-bear people.6. Tse ʇṵ'ʞa, Buffalo bull. In two subgentes,a, Tse ʇṵ'ʞa, Buffalo bull;b, ¢u'qe, Reddish-yellow buffalo (corresponding to the Nuqe of the Ponka, Tuqe of the Quapaw, and Yuqe of the Kansa).7. ʞ¢ŭn, Thunder-being, or Tsi'hacin, Camp-last, or Ma'xe, Upper-world people, or Niɥ'ka wakan'ʇaʞi, Mysterious-male-being. Subgentes not recorded.On the right (Hañʞa or Waɔaɔe) side of the circle are the following:8. Waɔa'ɔe Wanŭn', Elder Osage, composed of six of the seven Osage fireplaces, as follows:a, Waɔa'ɔe ska', White Osage;b, Ke k'in', Turtle-carriers;c, Wake'¢e ste'tse, Tall-flags(?), Ehnan' min'tse tŭn', They-alone-have-bows, or Minke'¢e ste'tse, Tall-flags;d, Ta ¢a'xü, Deer-lights, or Ta i'niɥk'ăcin'a, Deer people;e, Hu i'niqk`ăcin'a, Fish people;f, Nan'panta, a deer gens, called by some Ke ʞa'tsü, Turtle-with-a-serrated-crest-along-the-shell (probably a water monster, as there is no such species of turtle).9. Hañ'ʞa uta'¢antsi, Hañʞa-apart-from-the-rest, or Qü¢a'qtsi i'niɥ-k`ăcin'a, Real eagle people—the War eagle gens, and one of the original Hañʞa fireplaces. The soldiers or policemen from the right side are chosen from the eighth and ninth gentes.10. The leading gens on the right side of the circle, and one of the original seven Osage fireplaces. Panɥ'ka wacta'ʞe, Ponka peace-maker, according to a Tsiɔu man; in two subgentes,a, Tse'wa¢ĕ, Pond-lily, andb, Waca'de, Dark-buffalo; but according to Panɥ'ka waʇa'yinʞa, a member of the gens, his people have three subgentes,a, Wake'¢e, Flags;b, Wa'tsetsi, meaning, perhaps, Has-come hither (tsi)-after-touching-the-foe (watse);c, Qŭntse', Red cedar.11. Hañ'ʞa a'hü tŭn', Hañʞa-having-wings, or Hü'saʇa, Limbs-stretched-stiff, or Qü¢ i'niɥk`ăcin'a, White-eagle people, in two subgentes, which were two of the original Hañʞa fireplaces:a, Hü'saʇa Wanŭn', Elder Hüsaʇa;b, Hü'saʇa, those wearing four locks of hair resembling those worn by the second division of the Wasape tun.12. Wasa'de tŭn, Having-black-bears. In two parts, which were originally two of the Hañʞa fireplaces: A, Sĭntsaʞ¢sĕ, Wearing-a-tail- (or lock)-of-hair-on-the-head; in two subgentes, (a) Wasade, Black bear, or Hañ'ʞa Wa'ts`ekawa' (meaning not learned); (b) Iñʞ¢ŭñ'ʞa ɔiũ'ʞa, Small cat. B, Wasa'de tŭn, Wearing-four-locks-of-hair, in two subgentes, (a) Minxa'ska, Swan; (b) Tse'wa¢ĕ qe'ʞa, Dried pond-lily.13. Ṵ'pqan, Elk, one of the seven Hañʞa fireplaces.14. Kan'se, Kansa, or I'dats`ĕ, Holds-a-firebrand-to-the-sacred-pipes-in-order-to-light-them, or A'k`a i'niɥak`ăcin'a, South-wind people, or Tatse' i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Wind people, or Pe'tse i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Fire people. One of the seven Hañʞa fireplaces.[pg 235]The following social divisions cannot be identified: Ɔa'de i`niɥk`ăcin'a, Beaver people, said to be a subgens of the Waɔaɔe, no gens specified; Pe'tqani'niɥk`ăcin'a, Crane people, said to be a subgens of the Hañʞa(?) sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ; Wapŭñ'ʞa i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Owl people; Manyiñ'ʞa i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Earth people;daqpü' i'niɥk`ăcin'a, meaning not recorded.There is some uncertainty respecting the true positions of a few subgentes in the camping circle. For instance, Alvin Wood said that the Tsewa¢e qeʞa formed the fourth subgens of the Tse ʇṵ'ʞa intse; but this was denied by ʞahiʞe waʇayiñʞa, of the Tsi'ɔu wacta'ʞe, who said that it belonged to the Panɥka wactaʞe prior to the extinction of the subgens. Tsepa ʞaxe of the Wasape gens said that it formed the fourth subgens of his own people. Some make the Tsiɔu wactaʞe the third gens on the left, instead of the fourth. According to ʞahiʞe waʇayiñʞa, "All the Waɔaɔe gentes claim to have come from the water, so they have ceremonies referring to beavers, because those animals swim in the water." The same authority said in 1883 that there were seven men who acted as wactaʞe, as follows: 1, Kaɥiʞe wactaʞe, of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe subgens, who had acted for eight years; 2, Pahü-ska, of the Bald-eagle or Qü¢a pa sansubgens; 3, ʞ¢eman, Clermont, of the kidananof the Tsiɔu wehaki¢ĕ or Night gens; 6, Panɥka waʇayiñʞa, Saucy Ponka, of the Wa'tsetsi or Ponka gens; 7, Niɥka waɔintana, of the same gens.On the death of the head chief among the Osage the leading men call a council. At this council four men are named as candidates for the office, and it is asked, "Which one shall be appointed?" At this council a cuka of the Watsetsi (Ponka gens, or else from some other gens on the right) carries his pipe around the circle of councilors from right to left, while a Tsiɔu cuka (one of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe gens, or else one from some other gens on the left) carries the other pipe around from left to right. The ceremonies resemble the Ponka ceremonies for making chiefs. When the chiefs assemble in council a member of the Kanse or Idats`ĕ gens (one on the right) lights the pipes. The criers are chosen from the Kanse, Ṵpqan, and Mink'ingentes. The Tsiɔu Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Tse ʇṵʞa intse gentes furnish the soldiers or policemen for the Tsiɔu wactaʞe. A similar function is performed for the Panɥka wactaʞe by the Waɔaɔe wanŭnand Hañʞa uʇa¢antsi gentes. The Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Hañʞa uʇa¢autsi are "akiʇa watañʞa," chiefs of the soldiers; the Tseʇṵʞa intse and Waɔaɔe Wanŭnbeing ordinary soldiers, i.e., subordinate to the others. The Waɔaɔe Ke k'inare the moccasin makers for the tribe. It is said that in the olden days the members of this gens used turtle shells instead of moccasins, with leeches for strings. The makers of the war-standards and war-pipes must belong to the Waɔaɔe ska.Saucy Chief is the authority for the following: "Should all the Osage wish to dwell very near another tribe, or in case two or three families of us wish to remove to another part of the reservation, we let the[pg 236]others know our desire to live near them. We make up prizes for them—a pony, a blanket, strouding, etc—and we ask them to race for them. The fastest horse takes the first prize, and so on. We take along a pipe and some sticks—one stick for each member of the party that is removing. The other people meet us and race with us back to their home. They make us sit in a row; then one of their men or children brings a pipe to one of our party to whom he intends giving a horse. The pipe is handed to the rest of the party. The newcomers are invited to feasts, all of which they are obliged to attend." When the Osage go on the hunt the Tsiɔu wactaʞe (chief) tells the Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Tse ʇṵʞa intse where the people must camp. The following evening the Panɥka wactaʞe (chief) tells the soldiers on his side (the Waɔaɔe and Hañʞa uʇa¢antsi) where the camp must be on the following day. The members of the four gentes of soldiers or policemen meet in council and decide on the time for departure. They consult the Tsiɔu wactaʞe and Hañʞa (Panɥka wactaʞe?) who attend the council. The crier is generally a man of either the Ṵpqanor Kanse gens, but sometimes a Mink'inman acts. The four leaders of the soldier gentes call on the crier to proclaim the next camping place, etc, which he does thus:"Ha+! | han'da | ʞasin'|ʇan| awahe'ɔún| tatsi' | a'pinʇau+! | Ha+! | (Niɔü'tse | masin'ta)Halloo! | day | tomorrow |on | you make up in packs | shall | they really say | Halloo! | Missouri river | on the other sidetci' | i'he¢a'e | ta'tsi | a'dintau+!"tent {?} | you place in a line {?} | shall | they really say.which is to say, "Halloo! tomorrow morning you shall pack your goods (strike camp). Halloo! you shall lay them down, after reaching (the other side of Missouri river)!"Then the four leaders of the soldier gentes choose a'kiʇa (policemen) who have a ʇuʇan'hañʞa or captain, who then acts as crier in giving orders, thus:"Ha+! | ni'kawasa'e! | Ha+! | ʞahi'ʞe | waʇa'yiñʞa | ni'kawasa'e! | a'¢aki'ʇa | tatsi'Halloo! | O warrior! | Halloo, | Chief | Saucy! | O warrior! | you guard | shalladintau' | ni'kawasa'e!"they say really | O warrior!which means, "Halloo, O warrior! Halloo, O warrior, Saucy Chief! They have really said that you shall act as policeman or guard, O warrior!"These a'kiʇa have to punish any persons who violate the laws of the hunt. But there is another grade of men; the four leaders of the soldier gentes tell the captain to call certain men wa'paʞ¢a'ɔi utsin', and they are expected to punish any a'kiʇa who fail to do their duty. Supposing Mink'inwaʇayiñʞa was selected, the crier would say:"Ha+! ni'kawasa'e! Ha+, Mink'in' waʇa'yiñʞa n'ikawasa'e! Ha+! u¢a'tsintatsi' a'dintau', ni'kawasa'e!""Halloo, O warrior! Halloo, O warrior, Saucy Sun Carrier! Halloo, it has been really said that you shall strike the offenders without hesitation, O warrior!"[pg 237]The four headmen direct a captain to order a Hañʞa uʇa¢antsi man to lead the scouts, and subsequently to call on a Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ man for that purpose, alternating between the two sides of the camping circle. There are thus three grades of men engaged in the hunt—the ordinary members of the soldier gentes, the akiʇa, and the wapaʞ¢aɔi utsin.Should the Osage be warring against the Kansa or any other tribe, and one of the foe slip into the Osage camp and beg for protection of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe (chief), the latter is obliged to help the suppliant. He must send for the Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Tse ʇṵʞa intse (leaders), whom he would thus address: "I have a man whom I wish to live. I desire you to act as my soldiers." At the same time the Tsiɔu wactaʞe would send word to the Panɥka wactaʞe, who would summon a Waɔaɔe and a Hañʞa uta¢antsi to act as his soldiers or policemen. Meantime the kettle of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe was hung over the fire as soon as possible and food was cooked and given to the fugitive. When he had eaten (a mouthful) he was safe. He could then go through the camp with impunity. This condition of affairs lasted as long as he remained with the tribe, but it terminated when he returned to his home. After food had been given to the fugitive by the Tsiɔu wactaʞe any prominent man of the tribe could invite the fugitive to a feast.The privilege of taking care of the children was given to the Tsiɔu wactaʞe and the Panɥka wactaʞe, according to Saucy Chief. When a child (on the Tsiɔu side) is named, a certain old man is required to sing songs outside of the camp, dropping some tobacco from his pipe down on the toes of his left foot as he sings each song. On the first day the old man of the Tsiɔu (wactaʞe?) takes four grains of corn, one grain being black, another red, a third blue, and a fourth white, answering to the four kinds of corn dropped by the four buffalo, as mentioned in the tradition of the Osage. After chewing the four grains and mixing them with his saliva, he passes them between the lips of the child to be named. Four stones are put into a fire, one stone toward each of the four quarters. The Tsiɔu old man orders some cedar and a few blades of a certain kind of grass that does not die in winter, to be put aside for his use on the second day. On the second day, before sunrise, the Tsiɔu old man speaks of the cedar tree and its branches, saying, "It shall be for the children." Then he mentions the river, the deep holes in it, and its branches, which he declares shall be medicine in future for the children. He takes the four heated stones, places them in a pile, on which he puts the grass and cedar. Over this he pours water, making steam, over which the child is held. Then four names are given by the headman of the gens to the father, who selects one of them as the name for the child. Meantime men of different gentes bring cedar, stones, etc, and perform their respective ceremonies. The headman (Tsiɔu wactaʞe?) takes some of the water (into which he puts some cedar), giving four sips to the child. Then he dips his own left hand into the water and rubs the child down the left[pg 238]side, from the top of the head to the feet; next he rubs it in front, then down the right side, and finally down the back. He invites all the women of his gens who wish to be blessed to come forward, and he treats them as he did the infant. At the same time the women of the other gentes are blessed in like manner by the headmen of their respective gentes.

THE ASINIBOINThe Asiniboin were originally part of the Wazi-kute gens of the Yanktonai (Ihañktonwanna) Dakota. According to the report of E.T. Denig to Governor I.I. Stevens,5"the Asiniboin call themselves Dakota, meaning Our people." The Dakota style them Hohe, "rebels," but Denig says the term signifies "fish eaters," and that they may have been so called from the fact that they subsisted principally on fish while in British territory.Lists of the gentes of this people have been recorded by Denig, Maximilian, and Hayden, but in the opinion of the present writer they need revision.Asiniboin gentesDenigMaximilianHaydenWe-che-ap-pe-nah, 60 lodges, under Les Yeux GrisItschcabinè, Les gens des filles.Wi-ić-ap-i-naḣ, Girls' band.E-an-to-ah, Stone Indians, the original appellation for the whole nation; 50 lodges, under Premier qui Voile.Jatonabinè, Les gens des roches, the Stone Indians of the English. Call themselves "Eascab."I'-an-to'-an. Either Inyantonwan, Stone Village or Ihanktonwan, End village or Yankton. J.O.D.)Wah-to-pan-ah, Canoe Indians, 100 lodges, under Serpent.Otaopabinè, Les gens des canots.Waḣ-to'-pap-i-naḣWah-to-pah-han-da-toh, Old Gauché's gens, i.e., Those who row in canoes; 100 lodges, under Trembling Hand.Watópachnato, Les gens de l'age.Waḣ-to'-paḣ-an-da-to, Gens du Gauché or Left Hand.Wah-ze-ah we-chas-ta, Northern People (so called because they came from the north in 1839); 60 lodges, under Le Robe de Vent.O-see-gah (of Lewis and Clark, Discoveries, p. 43, 1806).Waḣ-zi-ah, or To-kum-pi, Gens du Nord.The following gentes have not been collated: Of Maximilian's list, Otopachgnato, les gens du large, possibly a duplication, by mistake, of Watopachnato, les gens de l'age; Tschantoga, les gens des bois; Tanin-tauei, les gens des osayes; Chábin, les gens des montagnes. Of Hayden's list, Min'-i-shi-nak'-a-to, gens du lac.The correct form in the Yankton dialect of the first name is Witcinyanpina (Wićiɳyaɳpina), girls; of the second, probably Inyantonwan(Iɳyaɳ toɳwaɳ); the third and fourth gentes derive their names from the verb watopa, to paddle a canoe; the fifth is Waziya witcacta (Waziya wićaṡta). Tschan in Tschantoga is the German notation of the Dakota tcan(ćaɳ), tree, wood. Cha in Chábin is the German notation of the Dakota word ḣe, a high ridge of hills, a mountain.In his report to Governor Stevens, from which the following information respecting the Asiniboin is condensed, Denig used the term "band" to denote a gens of the tribe, and "clans" instead of corporations, under which latter term are included the feasting and dancing societies and the orders of doctors, shamans, or theurgists.These bands are distinct and occupy different parts of the country, although they readily combine when required by circumstances, such as scarcity of game or an attack by a large body of the enemy.The roving tribes call no general council with other nations; indeed, they are suspicious even of those with whom they have been at peace for many years, so that they seldom act together in a large body. With the exception of the Hidatsa, Mandau, and Arikara, who are stationary and live in a manner together, the neighboring tribes are quite ignorant of one another's government, rarely knowing even the names of the principal chiefs and warriors.In all these tribes there is no such thing as hereditary rank. If a son of a chief is wanting in bravery, generosity, or other desirable qualities, he is regarded merely as an ordinary individual; at the same time it is true that one qualification for the position of chief consists in having a large number of kindred in the tribe or gens. Should there be two or more candidates, equally capable and socially well connected, the question would be decided on the day of the first removal of the camp, or else in council by the principal men. In the former[pg 224]case, each man would follow the leader whom he liked best, and the smaller body of Indians would soon adhere to the majority.Women are never acknowledged as chiefs, nor have they anything to say in the council. A chief would be deposed for any conduct causing general disgust or dissatisfaction, such as incest (marrying within his gens) or lack of generosity. Though crime in the abstract would not tend to create dissatisfaction with a chief, yet if he murdered, without sufficient cause, one whose kindred were numerous, a fight between the two bodies of kindred would result and an immediate separation of his former adherents would ensue; but should the murdered person be without friends, there would be no attempt to avenge the crime, and the people would fear the chief only the more. To preserve his popularity a chief must give away all his property, and he is consequently always the poorest man in the band; but he takes care to distribute his possessions to his own kindred or to the rich, from whom he might draw in times of need.The duties of a leading chief are to study the welfare of his people, by whom he is regarded as a father, and whom he addresses as his children. He must determine where the camp should be placed and when it should be moved; when war parties are advisable and of whom they should be composed—a custom radically different from that of the Omaha and Ponka,—and all other matters of like character. Power is tacitly committed to the leading chief, to be held so long as he governs to general satisfaction, subject, however, to the advice of the soldiers. Age, debility, or any other natural defect, or incapacity to act, advise, or command, would lead a chief to resign in favor of a younger man.When war is deemed necessary, any chief, soldier, or brave warrior has the privilege of raising and leading a war party, provided he can get followers. The powers of a warrior and civil chief may be united in one person, thus differing from the Omaha and Ponka custom. The leading chief may and often does lead the whole band to war; in fact, it devolves on him to lead any general expedition.The Akitcita (Akićita), soldiers or guards (policemen), form an important body among the Asiniboin as they do among the other Siouan tribes. These soldiers, who are chosen from the band on account of their bravery, are from 25 to 45 years of age, steady, resolute, and respected; and in them is vested the power of executing the decisions of the council. In a camp of 200 lodges these soldiers would number from 50 to 60 men; their lodge is pitched in the center of the camp and is occupied by some of them all the time, though the whole body is called together only when the chief wishes a public meeting or when their hunting regulations are to be decided. In their lodge all tribal and intertribal business is transacted, and all strangers, both white men and Indians, are domiciled. The young men, women, and children are not allowed to enter the soldiers' lodge during the time that tribal matters are being considered, and, indeed, they are seldom, if ever,[pg 225]seen there. All the choicest parts of meat and the tongues of animals killed in hunting are reserved for the soldiers' lodge, and are furnished by the young men from time to time. A tax is levied on the camp for the tobacco smoked there, which is no small quantity, and the women are obliged to furnish wood and water daily. This lodge corresponds in some degree to the two sacred lodges of the Hañga gens of the Omaha.Judging from the meager information which we possess concerning the Asiniboin kinship system, the latter closely resembles that of the Dakota tribes, descent being in the male line. After the smallpox epidemic of 1838, only 400 thinly populated lodges out of 1,000 remained, relationship was nearly annihilated, property lost, and but few, the very young and very old, were left to mourn the loss. Remnants of bands had to be collected and property acquired, and several years elapsed ere the young people were old enough to marry.The names of the wife's parents are never pronounced by the husband; to do so would excite the ridicule of the whole camp. The husband and the father-in-law never look on each other if they can avoid it, nor do they enter the same lodge. In like manner the wife never addresses her father-in-law.A plurality of wives is required by a good hunter, since in the labors of the chase women are of great service to their husbands. An Indian with one wife can not amass property, as she is constantly occupied in household labors, and has no time for preparing skins for trading. The first wife and the last are generally the favorites, all others being regarded as servants. The right of divorce lies altogether with the husband; if he has children by his wife, he seldom puts her away. Should they separate, all the larger children—those who require no further care—remain with the father, the smaller ones departing with the mother. When the women have no children they are divorced without scruple.After one gets acquainted with Indians the very opposite of taciturnity exists. The evenings are devoted to jests and amusing stories and the days to gambling. The soldiers' lodge, when the soldiers are not in session, is a very theater of amusement; all sorts of jokes are made and obscene stories are told, scarcely a woman in the camp escaping the ribaldry; but when business is in order decorum must prevail.The personal property of these tribes consists chiefly of horses. Possession of an article of small value is a right seldom disputed, if the article has been honestly obtained; but the possession of horses being almost the principal object in life of an Indian of the plains, the retention of them is a matter of great uncertainty, if he has not the large force necessary to defend them. Rights to property are based on the method of acquirement, as (1) articles found; (2) those made by themselves (the sole and undisputed property of the makers); (3) those stolen from enemies, and (4) those given or bought. Nothing is given except with[pg 226]a view to a gift in return. Property obtained by gambling is held by a very indefinite tenure.Murder is generally avenged by the kindred of the deceased, as among the Omaha and Ponka. Goods, horses, etc, may be offered to expiate the crime, when the murderer's friends are rich in these things, and sometimes they are accepted; but sooner or later the kindred of the murdered man will try to avenge him. Everything except loss of life or personal chastisement can be compensated among these Indians. Rape is nearly unknown, not that the crime is considered morally wrong, but the punishment would be death, as the price of the woman would be depreciated and the chances of marriage lessened. Besides, it would be an insult to her kindred, as implying contempt of their feelings and their power of protection. Marriage within the gens is regarded as incest and is a serious offense.

The Asiniboin were originally part of the Wazi-kute gens of the Yanktonai (Ihañktonwanna) Dakota. According to the report of E.T. Denig to Governor I.I. Stevens,5"the Asiniboin call themselves Dakota, meaning Our people." The Dakota style them Hohe, "rebels," but Denig says the term signifies "fish eaters," and that they may have been so called from the fact that they subsisted principally on fish while in British territory.

Lists of the gentes of this people have been recorded by Denig, Maximilian, and Hayden, but in the opinion of the present writer they need revision.

Asiniboin gentes

The following gentes have not been collated: Of Maximilian's list, Otopachgnato, les gens du large, possibly a duplication, by mistake, of Watopachnato, les gens de l'age; Tschantoga, les gens des bois; Tanin-tauei, les gens des osayes; Chábin, les gens des montagnes. Of Hayden's list, Min'-i-shi-nak'-a-to, gens du lac.

The correct form in the Yankton dialect of the first name is Witcinyanpina (Wićiɳyaɳpina), girls; of the second, probably Inyantonwan(Iɳyaɳ toɳwaɳ); the third and fourth gentes derive their names from the verb watopa, to paddle a canoe; the fifth is Waziya witcacta (Waziya wićaṡta). Tschan in Tschantoga is the German notation of the Dakota tcan(ćaɳ), tree, wood. Cha in Chábin is the German notation of the Dakota word ḣe, a high ridge of hills, a mountain.

In his report to Governor Stevens, from which the following information respecting the Asiniboin is condensed, Denig used the term "band" to denote a gens of the tribe, and "clans" instead of corporations, under which latter term are included the feasting and dancing societies and the orders of doctors, shamans, or theurgists.

These bands are distinct and occupy different parts of the country, although they readily combine when required by circumstances, such as scarcity of game or an attack by a large body of the enemy.

The roving tribes call no general council with other nations; indeed, they are suspicious even of those with whom they have been at peace for many years, so that they seldom act together in a large body. With the exception of the Hidatsa, Mandau, and Arikara, who are stationary and live in a manner together, the neighboring tribes are quite ignorant of one another's government, rarely knowing even the names of the principal chiefs and warriors.

In all these tribes there is no such thing as hereditary rank. If a son of a chief is wanting in bravery, generosity, or other desirable qualities, he is regarded merely as an ordinary individual; at the same time it is true that one qualification for the position of chief consists in having a large number of kindred in the tribe or gens. Should there be two or more candidates, equally capable and socially well connected, the question would be decided on the day of the first removal of the camp, or else in council by the principal men. In the former[pg 224]case, each man would follow the leader whom he liked best, and the smaller body of Indians would soon adhere to the majority.

Women are never acknowledged as chiefs, nor have they anything to say in the council. A chief would be deposed for any conduct causing general disgust or dissatisfaction, such as incest (marrying within his gens) or lack of generosity. Though crime in the abstract would not tend to create dissatisfaction with a chief, yet if he murdered, without sufficient cause, one whose kindred were numerous, a fight between the two bodies of kindred would result and an immediate separation of his former adherents would ensue; but should the murdered person be without friends, there would be no attempt to avenge the crime, and the people would fear the chief only the more. To preserve his popularity a chief must give away all his property, and he is consequently always the poorest man in the band; but he takes care to distribute his possessions to his own kindred or to the rich, from whom he might draw in times of need.

The duties of a leading chief are to study the welfare of his people, by whom he is regarded as a father, and whom he addresses as his children. He must determine where the camp should be placed and when it should be moved; when war parties are advisable and of whom they should be composed—a custom radically different from that of the Omaha and Ponka,—and all other matters of like character. Power is tacitly committed to the leading chief, to be held so long as he governs to general satisfaction, subject, however, to the advice of the soldiers. Age, debility, or any other natural defect, or incapacity to act, advise, or command, would lead a chief to resign in favor of a younger man.

When war is deemed necessary, any chief, soldier, or brave warrior has the privilege of raising and leading a war party, provided he can get followers. The powers of a warrior and civil chief may be united in one person, thus differing from the Omaha and Ponka custom. The leading chief may and often does lead the whole band to war; in fact, it devolves on him to lead any general expedition.

The Akitcita (Akićita), soldiers or guards (policemen), form an important body among the Asiniboin as they do among the other Siouan tribes. These soldiers, who are chosen from the band on account of their bravery, are from 25 to 45 years of age, steady, resolute, and respected; and in them is vested the power of executing the decisions of the council. In a camp of 200 lodges these soldiers would number from 50 to 60 men; their lodge is pitched in the center of the camp and is occupied by some of them all the time, though the whole body is called together only when the chief wishes a public meeting or when their hunting regulations are to be decided. In their lodge all tribal and intertribal business is transacted, and all strangers, both white men and Indians, are domiciled. The young men, women, and children are not allowed to enter the soldiers' lodge during the time that tribal matters are being considered, and, indeed, they are seldom, if ever,[pg 225]seen there. All the choicest parts of meat and the tongues of animals killed in hunting are reserved for the soldiers' lodge, and are furnished by the young men from time to time. A tax is levied on the camp for the tobacco smoked there, which is no small quantity, and the women are obliged to furnish wood and water daily. This lodge corresponds in some degree to the two sacred lodges of the Hañga gens of the Omaha.

Judging from the meager information which we possess concerning the Asiniboin kinship system, the latter closely resembles that of the Dakota tribes, descent being in the male line. After the smallpox epidemic of 1838, only 400 thinly populated lodges out of 1,000 remained, relationship was nearly annihilated, property lost, and but few, the very young and very old, were left to mourn the loss. Remnants of bands had to be collected and property acquired, and several years elapsed ere the young people were old enough to marry.

The names of the wife's parents are never pronounced by the husband; to do so would excite the ridicule of the whole camp. The husband and the father-in-law never look on each other if they can avoid it, nor do they enter the same lodge. In like manner the wife never addresses her father-in-law.

A plurality of wives is required by a good hunter, since in the labors of the chase women are of great service to their husbands. An Indian with one wife can not amass property, as she is constantly occupied in household labors, and has no time for preparing skins for trading. The first wife and the last are generally the favorites, all others being regarded as servants. The right of divorce lies altogether with the husband; if he has children by his wife, he seldom puts her away. Should they separate, all the larger children—those who require no further care—remain with the father, the smaller ones departing with the mother. When the women have no children they are divorced without scruple.

After one gets acquainted with Indians the very opposite of taciturnity exists. The evenings are devoted to jests and amusing stories and the days to gambling. The soldiers' lodge, when the soldiers are not in session, is a very theater of amusement; all sorts of jokes are made and obscene stories are told, scarcely a woman in the camp escaping the ribaldry; but when business is in order decorum must prevail.

The personal property of these tribes consists chiefly of horses. Possession of an article of small value is a right seldom disputed, if the article has been honestly obtained; but the possession of horses being almost the principal object in life of an Indian of the plains, the retention of them is a matter of great uncertainty, if he has not the large force necessary to defend them. Rights to property are based on the method of acquirement, as (1) articles found; (2) those made by themselves (the sole and undisputed property of the makers); (3) those stolen from enemies, and (4) those given or bought. Nothing is given except with[pg 226]a view to a gift in return. Property obtained by gambling is held by a very indefinite tenure.

Murder is generally avenged by the kindred of the deceased, as among the Omaha and Ponka. Goods, horses, etc, may be offered to expiate the crime, when the murderer's friends are rich in these things, and sometimes they are accepted; but sooner or later the kindred of the murdered man will try to avenge him. Everything except loss of life or personal chastisement can be compensated among these Indians. Rape is nearly unknown, not that the crime is considered morally wrong, but the punishment would be death, as the price of the woman would be depreciated and the chances of marriage lessened. Besides, it would be an insult to her kindred, as implying contempt of their feelings and their power of protection. Marriage within the gens is regarded as incest and is a serious offense.

THE OMAHAThe gentes keeping the sacred pipes and those having the sacred tents are designated among the Omaha by appropriate designs. The sacred tent of the Wejincte was the tent of war, those of the Hañga were the tents associated with the buffalo hunt and the cultivation of the soil. The diameter of the circle (figure 34) represents the road traveled by the tribe when going on the buffalo hunt, numbers 1 and 10 being the gentes which were always in the van. The tribe was divided into half tribes, each half tribe consisting of five gentes. The sacred tents of the Omaha and all the objects that were kept in them are now in the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge, Massachusetts.Illustration: FIG. 34.—Omaha camping circle.FIG. 34.—Omaha camping circle.The two groups of gentes forming the half tribes or phratries, sometimes composed of subgentes or sections, are as follows:Hañgacenu gentes—1, Wejincte, Elk. 2, Iñke-sabĕ, Black shoulder, a Buffalo gens; the custodian of the real pipes of peace. 3, Hañga or Ancestral, a Buffalo gens; the regulator of all the so-called pipes of peace and keeper of two sacred tents. 4, ¢atada, meaning uncertain; in four subgentes:a, Wasabe hit`ajĭ, Touch-not-the-skin-of-a-black-bear;b, Wajiñga ¢atajĭ, Eat-no-small-birds; Bird people;c, ʇe-da it`ajĭ, Touch-no-buffalo-head; Eagle people;d, ʞe-`in, Carry-a-turtle-on-the-back; Turtle people. 5, ʞanze, Wind people.Ictasanda gentes—6, Man¢iñka-gaxe, Earth-lodge-makers; coyote and wolf people. 7, ʇe-sĭnde, Buffalo-tail; a Buffalo-calf people. 8, ʇa-da, Deer-head; Deer people. 9, Iñg¢e-jide, Red dung; a Buffalo-calf gens.[pg 227]10, Icta-sanda, meaning uncertain ("gray eyes"?), said to refer to the effect of lightning on the eyes. This last gens consists of Thunder and Reptile people.The Iñke-sabĕ formerly consisted of four subgentes. When the gens met as a whole, the order of sitting was that shown in figure 35. In the tribal circle the Wa¢igije camped next to the Hañga gens, and the other Iñke-sabĕ people came next to the Wejincte; but in the gentile "council fire" the first became last and the last first.The Ieki¢ĕ or Criers.The Naq¢eit`a-bajĭ, Those-who-touch-no-charcoal.The three subgentes here named sat on the same side of fireplace.The Hañga formerly had four subgeutes, but two of them, the Wa¢iitanor Workers, and the Ha-ʇu-it`ajĭ, Touches-no-green(-corn)-husks, are extinct, the few survivors having joined the other subgentes. The remaining subgentes are each called by several names: 1, ʇcsanha-ʇa¢ican, pertaining to the sacred skin of an albino buffalo cow, or Wacabe, Dark buffalo; or Hañga-qti, real Hañga; or ʇe-¢eze-¢atajĭ, Do-not-eat-buffalo-tongues. 2, Janha-ʇa¢ican, pertaining to the sacred (cottonwood) bark; or Waq¢exe-a¢in, Keeps-the-"spotted-object" (the sacred pole); or Jan-waqube-a¢in, Keeps-the-sacred-or-mysterious-wood (pole); or ʇa-waqube-¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-the-sacred (mysterious)-buffalo-sides; or Minxa-san-¢atajĭ-kĭPetan-¢atajĭ, Eat-no-geese-or-swans-or-cranes.Illustration: FIG. 35.—Iñke-sabĕ gentile assembly. A, The Wa¢igije, Maze or Whorl, or Wagnbe-gaxe-aka, He-who-acts-mysteriously. B, The Watanzi-jide-¢atajĭ, Those-who-eat-no-red-corn.FIG. 35.—Iñke-sabĕ gentile assembly. A, The Wa¢igije, Maze or Whorl, or Wagnbe-gaxe-aka, He-who-acts-mysteriously. B, The Watanzi-jide-¢atajĭ, Those-who-eat-no-red-corn.In the tribal circle the Wacabe camped next to the Iñke-sabĕ, and the Waqe¢xe-acinwere next to the Wasabe-hit`ajĭ subgens of the ¢atada; but in the Hañga gentile assembly the positions were reversed, the Wacabe sitting on the right side of the fire and the Waq¢exe-a¢inon the left.The Wasabe-hit`ajĭ subgens of the ¢atada was divided into four sections: Black-bear, Raccoon, Grizzly-bear, and Porcupine. The only survivors are the Black-bear and Raccoon (Singers).The Wajiñga ¢atajĭ subgens was divided into four sections: 1, Hawk people, under the chief Standing Hawk (now dead). 2, Blackbird people, under the chief Wajina-gahiga. B, Starling or Thunder people. 4, Owl and Magpie people.The ʞanze gens was divided into at least two subgentes, the Keepers of the pipe and the Wind people. Lion, of the Deer-head gens, said that there were four subgentes, but this was denied in 1882 by Two Crows of the Hañga gens.[pg 228]The Man¢iñka-gaxe subgentes, as given by Lion, were: 1, Coyote and Wolf people. 2, In`ĕ-waqube-a¢in, Keepers-of-the-mysterious-stones. 3, Niniba-t`an, Keepers-of-the-pipe. 4, Minxa-san-wet`ajĭ. Touch(es)-not-swans. Cañge-skă, White Horse, chief of the Man¢iñ-ka-gaxe (in 1878-1880) named three subgentes, thus: 1, Qube, Mysterious person, a modern name (probably including the Miʞasi and In`ĕ-waqube-a¢in, and certainly consisting of the descendants of the chief Wa-jiñga-sabe or Blackbird). 2, Niniba-t`an. 3, Minxa-san-wet`ajĭ.The ʇa-da were divided into four parts: 1, Niniba-t`an, Keepers-of-the-pipe, under Lion. 2, Naq¢e-it`ajĭ, Touches-no-charcoal, under Boy Chief. 3, Thunder-people, under Pawnee Chief. 4, Deer-people, under Sinde-xanxan(Deer's-)tail-shows-red-at-intervals (-as-it-bounds-away).The Ictasanda gens also was in four parts: 1, Niniba-t`an, Keepers-of-the-pipe. 2, Real Ictasanda people, (Numbers 1 and 2 were consolidated prior to 1880.) 3, Wacetanor Reptile people, sometimes called Keepers-of-the-claws-of-a-wildcat. 4, Real Thunder people, or Those-who-do-not-touch-a-clamshell, or Keepers-of-the-clamshell-and-the-tooth-of-a-black-bear.The social organization of the Omaha has been treated at length by the author in his paper on Omaha Sociology.6

The gentes keeping the sacred pipes and those having the sacred tents are designated among the Omaha by appropriate designs. The sacred tent of the Wejincte was the tent of war, those of the Hañga were the tents associated with the buffalo hunt and the cultivation of the soil. The diameter of the circle (figure 34) represents the road traveled by the tribe when going on the buffalo hunt, numbers 1 and 10 being the gentes which were always in the van. The tribe was divided into half tribes, each half tribe consisting of five gentes. The sacred tents of the Omaha and all the objects that were kept in them are now in the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Illustration: FIG. 34.—Omaha camping circle.FIG. 34.—Omaha camping circle.

FIG. 34.—Omaha camping circle.

The two groups of gentes forming the half tribes or phratries, sometimes composed of subgentes or sections, are as follows:

Hañgacenu gentes—1, Wejincte, Elk. 2, Iñke-sabĕ, Black shoulder, a Buffalo gens; the custodian of the real pipes of peace. 3, Hañga or Ancestral, a Buffalo gens; the regulator of all the so-called pipes of peace and keeper of two sacred tents. 4, ¢atada, meaning uncertain; in four subgentes:a, Wasabe hit`ajĭ, Touch-not-the-skin-of-a-black-bear;b, Wajiñga ¢atajĭ, Eat-no-small-birds; Bird people;c, ʇe-da it`ajĭ, Touch-no-buffalo-head; Eagle people;d, ʞe-`in, Carry-a-turtle-on-the-back; Turtle people. 5, ʞanze, Wind people.

Ictasanda gentes—6, Man¢iñka-gaxe, Earth-lodge-makers; coyote and wolf people. 7, ʇe-sĭnde, Buffalo-tail; a Buffalo-calf people. 8, ʇa-da, Deer-head; Deer people. 9, Iñg¢e-jide, Red dung; a Buffalo-calf gens.[pg 227]10, Icta-sanda, meaning uncertain ("gray eyes"?), said to refer to the effect of lightning on the eyes. This last gens consists of Thunder and Reptile people.

The Iñke-sabĕ formerly consisted of four subgentes. When the gens met as a whole, the order of sitting was that shown in figure 35. In the tribal circle the Wa¢igije camped next to the Hañga gens, and the other Iñke-sabĕ people came next to the Wejincte; but in the gentile "council fire" the first became last and the last first.

The Ieki¢ĕ or Criers.

The Naq¢eit`a-bajĭ, Those-who-touch-no-charcoal.

The three subgentes here named sat on the same side of fireplace.

The Hañga formerly had four subgeutes, but two of them, the Wa¢iitanor Workers, and the Ha-ʇu-it`ajĭ, Touches-no-green(-corn)-husks, are extinct, the few survivors having joined the other subgentes. The remaining subgentes are each called by several names: 1, ʇcsanha-ʇa¢ican, pertaining to the sacred skin of an albino buffalo cow, or Wacabe, Dark buffalo; or Hañga-qti, real Hañga; or ʇe-¢eze-¢atajĭ, Do-not-eat-buffalo-tongues. 2, Janha-ʇa¢ican, pertaining to the sacred (cottonwood) bark; or Waq¢exe-a¢in, Keeps-the-"spotted-object" (the sacred pole); or Jan-waqube-a¢in, Keeps-the-sacred-or-mysterious-wood (pole); or ʇa-waqube-¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-the-sacred (mysterious)-buffalo-sides; or Minxa-san-¢atajĭ-kĭPetan-¢atajĭ, Eat-no-geese-or-swans-or-cranes.

Illustration: FIG. 35.—Iñke-sabĕ gentile assembly. A, The Wa¢igije, Maze or Whorl, or Wagnbe-gaxe-aka, He-who-acts-mysteriously. B, The Watanzi-jide-¢atajĭ, Those-who-eat-no-red-corn.FIG. 35.—Iñke-sabĕ gentile assembly. A, The Wa¢igije, Maze or Whorl, or Wagnbe-gaxe-aka, He-who-acts-mysteriously. B, The Watanzi-jide-¢atajĭ, Those-who-eat-no-red-corn.

FIG. 35.—Iñke-sabĕ gentile assembly. A, The Wa¢igije, Maze or Whorl, or Wagnbe-gaxe-aka, He-who-acts-mysteriously. B, The Watanzi-jide-¢atajĭ, Those-who-eat-no-red-corn.

In the tribal circle the Wacabe camped next to the Iñke-sabĕ, and the Waqe¢xe-acinwere next to the Wasabe-hit`ajĭ subgens of the ¢atada; but in the Hañga gentile assembly the positions were reversed, the Wacabe sitting on the right side of the fire and the Waq¢exe-a¢inon the left.

The Wasabe-hit`ajĭ subgens of the ¢atada was divided into four sections: Black-bear, Raccoon, Grizzly-bear, and Porcupine. The only survivors are the Black-bear and Raccoon (Singers).

The Wajiñga ¢atajĭ subgens was divided into four sections: 1, Hawk people, under the chief Standing Hawk (now dead). 2, Blackbird people, under the chief Wajina-gahiga. B, Starling or Thunder people. 4, Owl and Magpie people.

The ʞanze gens was divided into at least two subgentes, the Keepers of the pipe and the Wind people. Lion, of the Deer-head gens, said that there were four subgentes, but this was denied in 1882 by Two Crows of the Hañga gens.

The Man¢iñka-gaxe subgentes, as given by Lion, were: 1, Coyote and Wolf people. 2, In`ĕ-waqube-a¢in, Keepers-of-the-mysterious-stones. 3, Niniba-t`an, Keepers-of-the-pipe. 4, Minxa-san-wet`ajĭ. Touch(es)-not-swans. Cañge-skă, White Horse, chief of the Man¢iñ-ka-gaxe (in 1878-1880) named three subgentes, thus: 1, Qube, Mysterious person, a modern name (probably including the Miʞasi and In`ĕ-waqube-a¢in, and certainly consisting of the descendants of the chief Wa-jiñga-sabe or Blackbird). 2, Niniba-t`an. 3, Minxa-san-wet`ajĭ.

The ʇa-da were divided into four parts: 1, Niniba-t`an, Keepers-of-the-pipe, under Lion. 2, Naq¢e-it`ajĭ, Touches-no-charcoal, under Boy Chief. 3, Thunder-people, under Pawnee Chief. 4, Deer-people, under Sinde-xanxan(Deer's-)tail-shows-red-at-intervals (-as-it-bounds-away).

The Ictasanda gens also was in four parts: 1, Niniba-t`an, Keepers-of-the-pipe. 2, Real Ictasanda people, (Numbers 1 and 2 were consolidated prior to 1880.) 3, Wacetanor Reptile people, sometimes called Keepers-of-the-claws-of-a-wildcat. 4, Real Thunder people, or Those-who-do-not-touch-a-clamshell, or Keepers-of-the-clamshell-and-the-tooth-of-a-black-bear.

The social organization of the Omaha has been treated at length by the author in his paper on Omaha Sociology.6

THE PONKAThe Ponka tribal circle was divided equally between the Tcinju and Wajaje half-tribes. To the former belonged two phratries of two gentes each, i.e., numbers 1 to 4, inclusive, and to the latter two similar phratries, including gentes 5 to 8.Illustration: FIG. 36.—Ponka camping circle.FIG. 36.—Ponka camping circle.Tcinju half-tribe—Thunder or Fire phratry: Gens 1, Hisada, Legs-stretched-ont-stiff (refers to a dead quadruped); Thunder people. Gens 2, Touch-not-the-skin-of-a-black-bear. Wind-makers or War phratry: Gens 3, ¢ixida, Wildcat (in two subgentes: 1, Sinde-ag¢ĕ, Wears-tails, i.e., locks of hair; Naq¢e-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-charcoal; and Wascʇu-it`ajĭ, Does-not-tonch-verdigris. 2, Wami-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-blood). Gens 4, Nika-da-ɔna, "Bald human-head;" Elk people (in at least three subgentes: 1, ʇe-sĭnde-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-tail; 2, ʇe ¢eze ¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues; 3, ʇaqti kĭ Anpan¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-deer-and-elk).Wajaje half-tribe—Earth phratry: Gens 5, Maʞan, Medicine, a buffalo gens, also called ʇe-sĭnde it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-buffalo-tails (in two subgentes: 1, Real Ponka, Keepers-of-a-sacred-pipe; 2, Gray Ponka). Gens 6, Wacabe, Dark buffalo (in two subgentes: 1,[pg 229]Buffalo tail, or,ʇe-¢eze ¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues, or ʇe-jiñga ¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-a-very-young-buffalo-calf; 2, ʇe-da it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-head or skull). Water phratry (?): Gens 7, Wajaje, Osage (in two subgentes at present: 1, Dark Osage, Keepers-of-a-sacred-pipe, or Waseʇu-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-verdigris, or Naq¢e-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-charcoal; 2, Gray Osage, or Wĕs`ă wet`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-serpents; 3, Necta, an Owl subgens, now extinct). Gens 8, Nuqe, Reddish-yellow buffalo (miscalled Nuxe, Ice). Subgentes uncertain, but there are four taboo names: Does-not-touch-a-Buffalo-head (or skull), Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-calf, Does-not-touch-the-yellow-hide-of-a-buffalo-calf, and Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues.

The Ponka tribal circle was divided equally between the Tcinju and Wajaje half-tribes. To the former belonged two phratries of two gentes each, i.e., numbers 1 to 4, inclusive, and to the latter two similar phratries, including gentes 5 to 8.

Illustration: FIG. 36.—Ponka camping circle.FIG. 36.—Ponka camping circle.

FIG. 36.—Ponka camping circle.

Tcinju half-tribe—Thunder or Fire phratry: Gens 1, Hisada, Legs-stretched-ont-stiff (refers to a dead quadruped); Thunder people. Gens 2, Touch-not-the-skin-of-a-black-bear. Wind-makers or War phratry: Gens 3, ¢ixida, Wildcat (in two subgentes: 1, Sinde-ag¢ĕ, Wears-tails, i.e., locks of hair; Naq¢e-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-charcoal; and Wascʇu-it`ajĭ, Does-not-tonch-verdigris. 2, Wami-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-blood). Gens 4, Nika-da-ɔna, "Bald human-head;" Elk people (in at least three subgentes: 1, ʇe-sĭnde-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-tail; 2, ʇe ¢eze ¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues; 3, ʇaqti kĭ Anpan¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-deer-and-elk).

Wajaje half-tribe—Earth phratry: Gens 5, Maʞan, Medicine, a buffalo gens, also called ʇe-sĭnde it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-buffalo-tails (in two subgentes: 1, Real Ponka, Keepers-of-a-sacred-pipe; 2, Gray Ponka). Gens 6, Wacabe, Dark buffalo (in two subgentes: 1,[pg 229]Buffalo tail, or,ʇe-¢eze ¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues, or ʇe-jiñga ¢atajĭ, Does-not-eat-a-very-young-buffalo-calf; 2, ʇe-da it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-head or skull). Water phratry (?): Gens 7, Wajaje, Osage (in two subgentes at present: 1, Dark Osage, Keepers-of-a-sacred-pipe, or Waseʇu-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-verdigris, or Naq¢e-it`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-charcoal; 2, Gray Osage, or Wĕs`ă wet`ajĭ, Does-not-touch-serpents; 3, Necta, an Owl subgens, now extinct). Gens 8, Nuqe, Reddish-yellow buffalo (miscalled Nuxe, Ice). Subgentes uncertain, but there are four taboo names: Does-not-touch-a-Buffalo-head (or skull), Does-not-touch-a-buffalo-calf, Does-not-touch-the-yellow-hide-of-a-buffalo-calf, and Does-not-eat-buffalo-tongues.

THE QUAPAW OR KWAPAWhen the Kwapa were discovered by the French they dwelt in five villages, described by the early chroniclers as the Imaha (Imaham, Imahao), Capaha, Toriman, Tonginga (Doginga, Topinga), and Southois (Atotchasi, Ossouteouez). Three of these village names are known to all the tribe: 1, Uʞa'qpa-qti, Real Kwapa; 2, Ti'-u-a'-d¢i-man(Toriman), Ti'-u-a-d¢i' man(of Mrs Stafford); 3, U-zu'-ti-u'-wĕ (Southois, etc). The fourth was Tan'wanji'ʞa, Small village. Judging from analogy and the fact that the fifth village, Imaha, was the farthest up Arkansas river, that village name must have meant, as did the term Omaha, the upstream people.The following names of Kwapa gentes were obtained chiefly from Alphonsus Vallière, a full-blood Kwapa, who assisted the author at Washington, from December, 1890, to March, 1891:Nan'panta, a Deer gens; Onphŭnenikaciʞa, the Elk gens; Qid¢ e'nikaci'ʞa, the Eagle gens; Wajiñ'ʞa enikaci'ʞa, the Small-bird gens; Hañ'ʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, the Hañ'ʞa or Ancestral gens; Wasa' e'nikaci'ʞa, the Black-bear gens; Mantu' e'nikaci'ʞa, the Grizzly-bear (?) gens; Te e'nikaci'ʞa, the Buffalo gens (the ordinary buffalo); Tuqe'-nikaci'ʞa, the Reddish-yellow Buffalo gens (answering to Nuqe of the Ponka, Yuqe of the Kansa, ¢uqe of the Osage); Jawe' nikaci'ʞa, the Beaver gens; Hu i'nikaci'ʞa, the Fish gens; Mika'q`e ni'kaci'ʞa, the Star gens; Pe'tane'nikaci'ʞa, the Crane gens; Cañʞe'-nikaci'ʞa, the Dog (or Wolf?) gens; Wakan'ʇă e'nikaci'ʞa, the Thunder-being gens; Tand¢an' e'nikaci'ʞa or Tan'd¢antañ'ʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, the Panther or Mountain-lion gens; Ke-ni'kaci'ʞa, the Turtle gens; Wĕs`ă e'nikaci'ʞa, the Serpent gens; Mi e'nikaci'ʞa, the Sun gens. Vallière was unable to say on which side of the tribal circle each gens camped, but he gave the personal names of some members of most of the gentes.On visiting the Kwapa, in the northeastern corner of Indian Territory, in January, 1894, the author recorded the following, with the assistance of Mrs Stafford, a full-blood Kwapa of about 90 years of age: Among[pg 230]the Hañka gentes are the Hañ'ʞa tañʞa, Large Hañʞa or Mancka' e'nikaci'ʞa, Crawfish people; Wajiñʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, Small-bird people; Jiñ'ʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, Small-bird people; Te ni'kaci'ʞa, Buffalo people, or Hañ'ʞa ji'ʞa, Small Hañʞa; An'pane'nikaci'ʞa, Elk people; Qid¢a' e'nikaci'ʞa, Eagle people; Tuqe'-nikaci'ʞa, Reddish-yellow Buffalo people; and Cañʞe'-nikaci'ʞa, Dog (or Wolf?) people. Mrs Stafford knew that five gentes were not on the Hañʞa side, three of them, Hu i´'nikaci'ʞa, Fish people, Ni'kia'ta (meaning unknown), and Ke-ni'kaci'ʞa, Turtle people, being on the same side; Mantu' e'nikaci'ʞa, Lion people; and Ti'ju (answering to the Osage Tsiɔu, the Kansa Tciju, and the Ponka Tcinju), meaning not obtained, which last is extinct. Mrs Stafford could not tell on which side camped any of the following gentes given by Vallière: Maqe, Wĕs`ă, Wasa, Jawe, Mikaq`e, Mi, etc. The only persons capable of giving the needed information are among those Kwapa who reside on Osage reservation. According to George Redeagle and Buffalo Calf, two full-blood Quapaw, the Maqe-nikaci'ʞa, Upper World people, were identical with the Wakanʇa e'nikaci'ʞa, Thunder-being people, of Vallière. These two men said, also, that there was no single gens known as the Hañʞa, that name belonging to a major division, probably a half-tribe.

When the Kwapa were discovered by the French they dwelt in five villages, described by the early chroniclers as the Imaha (Imaham, Imahao), Capaha, Toriman, Tonginga (Doginga, Topinga), and Southois (Atotchasi, Ossouteouez). Three of these village names are known to all the tribe: 1, Uʞa'qpa-qti, Real Kwapa; 2, Ti'-u-a'-d¢i-man(Toriman), Ti'-u-a-d¢i' man(of Mrs Stafford); 3, U-zu'-ti-u'-wĕ (Southois, etc). The fourth was Tan'wanji'ʞa, Small village. Judging from analogy and the fact that the fifth village, Imaha, was the farthest up Arkansas river, that village name must have meant, as did the term Omaha, the upstream people.

The following names of Kwapa gentes were obtained chiefly from Alphonsus Vallière, a full-blood Kwapa, who assisted the author at Washington, from December, 1890, to March, 1891:

Nan'panta, a Deer gens; Onphŭnenikaciʞa, the Elk gens; Qid¢ e'nikaci'ʞa, the Eagle gens; Wajiñ'ʞa enikaci'ʞa, the Small-bird gens; Hañ'ʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, the Hañ'ʞa or Ancestral gens; Wasa' e'nikaci'ʞa, the Black-bear gens; Mantu' e'nikaci'ʞa, the Grizzly-bear (?) gens; Te e'nikaci'ʞa, the Buffalo gens (the ordinary buffalo); Tuqe'-nikaci'ʞa, the Reddish-yellow Buffalo gens (answering to Nuqe of the Ponka, Yuqe of the Kansa, ¢uqe of the Osage); Jawe' nikaci'ʞa, the Beaver gens; Hu i'nikaci'ʞa, the Fish gens; Mika'q`e ni'kaci'ʞa, the Star gens; Pe'tane'nikaci'ʞa, the Crane gens; Cañʞe'-nikaci'ʞa, the Dog (or Wolf?) gens; Wakan'ʇă e'nikaci'ʞa, the Thunder-being gens; Tand¢an' e'nikaci'ʞa or Tan'd¢antañ'ʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, the Panther or Mountain-lion gens; Ke-ni'kaci'ʞa, the Turtle gens; Wĕs`ă e'nikaci'ʞa, the Serpent gens; Mi e'nikaci'ʞa, the Sun gens. Vallière was unable to say on which side of the tribal circle each gens camped, but he gave the personal names of some members of most of the gentes.

On visiting the Kwapa, in the northeastern corner of Indian Territory, in January, 1894, the author recorded the following, with the assistance of Mrs Stafford, a full-blood Kwapa of about 90 years of age: Among[pg 230]the Hañka gentes are the Hañ'ʞa tañʞa, Large Hañʞa or Mancka' e'nikaci'ʞa, Crawfish people; Wajiñʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, Small-bird people; Jiñ'ʞa e'nikaci'ʞa, Small-bird people; Te ni'kaci'ʞa, Buffalo people, or Hañ'ʞa ji'ʞa, Small Hañʞa; An'pane'nikaci'ʞa, Elk people; Qid¢a' e'nikaci'ʞa, Eagle people; Tuqe'-nikaci'ʞa, Reddish-yellow Buffalo people; and Cañʞe'-nikaci'ʞa, Dog (or Wolf?) people. Mrs Stafford knew that five gentes were not on the Hañʞa side, three of them, Hu i´'nikaci'ʞa, Fish people, Ni'kia'ta (meaning unknown), and Ke-ni'kaci'ʞa, Turtle people, being on the same side; Mantu' e'nikaci'ʞa, Lion people; and Ti'ju (answering to the Osage Tsiɔu, the Kansa Tciju, and the Ponka Tcinju), meaning not obtained, which last is extinct. Mrs Stafford could not tell on which side camped any of the following gentes given by Vallière: Maqe, Wĕs`ă, Wasa, Jawe, Mikaq`e, Mi, etc. The only persons capable of giving the needed information are among those Kwapa who reside on Osage reservation. According to George Redeagle and Buffalo Calf, two full-blood Quapaw, the Maqe-nikaci'ʞa, Upper World people, were identical with the Wakanʇa e'nikaci'ʞa, Thunder-being people, of Vallière. These two men said, also, that there was no single gens known as the Hañʞa, that name belonging to a major division, probably a half-tribe.

THE KAƝZE OR KANSAIllustration: FIG. 37.—Kansa camping circle.FIG. 37.—Kansa camping circle.Among the Omaha the Yata people are those who camp on the yata or left side of the tribal circle; the Ictŭñga people, those who camp on the Ictŭñga or right side. The tribe is divided into seven phratries, or, as the Kansa style each, wayunmindan, (i.e., those who sing together), as follows:PhratriesGentesSubgentesI1. Manyiñka, Earth, or Earth-lodge-makers.a, Manyinka tañga, Large earth.b, Manyiñka gaxe,&Manyiñka jiñga, Small earth.II2. Ta, Deer, or Wajaje, Osage.a, Taqtci, Real deer.b, Ta yatcajĭ, Eats-no-deer, or Ta ts'eyĕ, Kills-deer, or Wadjüta ts'eyĕ, Kills-quadrupeds.III3. Pañka, Ponkaa, Pañk unikacinga, Ponka people.b, Qŭndj-alan, Wear-red-cedar (-fronds)-on-their-heads.III4. Kanze, Kansa, or Tci hacin, Lodge-in-the-rear; Last-lodge.a, Tadje unikacinga, Wind people, or Ak'a unikacinga, South-wind people, or Tci hacinqtci, Real Tci hacin, Camp-behind-all.b, Tadje jiñga, Small-wind, or Mannanhind-je, Makes-a breeze-near-the-ground.III5. Wasabe, Black bear.a, Wasabĕqtci, Real Black-bear, or Sakŭnwayatce, Eats-raw (-food).b, Sindjalĕ, Wears-tails (locks of hair) -on-the-head.I6. Wanaxe, GhostNot learned.IV7. Ke k'in, Carries-a-turtle-on-his-back.Not learned.V8. Mink'in, Carries-the-sun-on-his-back.Not learned.I9. Ṵpan, Elka, Ṵpan-qtci, Real elk, or Mansanha, referring to the color of the fur.b, Sanhange, meaning unknown.VI10. Qüya, White eaglea, Hüsada, Legs-stretched-out-stiff; Qüyunikacinga, White-eagle people.b, Wabinijupye, Wade-in-blood; Wabinunikacinga, Blood people.VI11. Han, Nighta, Hannikacinga, Night people.b, Dakanmanyin, Walks-shining (Star people?)VII12. Ibatc`ĕ, Holds-the-firebrand-to-sacred-pipes, or Hañga jiñga, small Hañga.a, Qüyego jiñga, Hawk-that-has-a-tail-like-a-"king-eagle;" "Little-one-like-an-eagle."b, Mika unikacinga, Raccoon people, or Mika qla jiñga, Small lean racoon.VII13. Hañga tañga, Large Hañga; Hañga utanandji, Hañga-apart-from-the-rest, or Ta sindje qaga, Stiff-deer-tail.A black eagle with spots. Subgentes not recorded.II14. Tcedŭñga, Buffalo (bull), or Sitañga, Big feet.a, Tcedŭñga, Buffalo with dark hair.b, Yuqe, Reddish-yellow Buffalo. (See Ponka Nuqe, Osage ¢uqe, Kwapa Tuqe.)V15. Tci ju wactage, Tci-ju peacemaker.(Red-hawk people?). Subgentes not recorded.II16. Lṵ nikacinga, Thunder-being people; Ledanunikacinga, Gray-hawk people.Subgentes not recorded.Great changes have occurred among the Kansa since they have come in contact with the white race; but when Say visited them in the early part of the present century they still observed their aboriginal marriage laws. No Kansa could take a wife from a gens on his side of the tribal circle, nor could he marry any kinswoman, however remote the relationship might be. There are certain gentes that exchange personal names (jaje kik'übe au), as among the Osage. Civil and military distinctions were based on bravery and generosity. Say informs us that the Kansa had been at peace with the Osage since 1806; that they had intermarried freely with them, so that "in stature, features, and customs they are more and more closely approaching that people." He states also that the head chief of the Kansa was Gahinge Wadayiñga, Saucy Chief (which he renders "Fool Chief"), and that the ten or twelve underchiefs did not seem to have the respect of the people.Unmarried females labored in the fields, served their parents, carried wood and water, and cooked. When the eldest daughter married she controlled the lodge, her mother, and all the sisters; the latter were always the wives of the same man. Presents were exchanged when a youth took his first wife. On the death of the husband the widow scarified herself, rubbed her person with clay, and became careless about her dress for a year. Then the eldest brother of the deceased married her without any ceremony, regarding her children as his own. When the deceased left no brother (real or potential) the widow was free to select her next husband. Fellowhood (as in cases of Damon and Pythias, David and Jonathan) often continues through life.The Kansa had two kinds of criers or heralds: 1, the wadji'panyinor village crier; 2, the ie'kiye'(Omaha and Ponka i'ĕki'¢ĕ. In 1882, Sansile (a woman) was hereditary wadji'panyinof the Kansa, having succeeded her father, Pezihi, the last male crier. At the time of an[pg 233]issue (about 1882) Sansile's son-in-law died, so she, being a mourner, could not act as crier; hence her office devolved on K'axe of the Taqtci subgens. In that year one of the Ta yatcajĭ subgens (of the Taqtci or Deer gens) was iekiye number 1. Iekiye number 2 belonged to the Tadje or Kanze (Wind) gens.

Illustration: FIG. 37.—Kansa camping circle.FIG. 37.—Kansa camping circle.

FIG. 37.—Kansa camping circle.

Among the Omaha the Yata people are those who camp on the yata or left side of the tribal circle; the Ictŭñga people, those who camp on the Ictŭñga or right side. The tribe is divided into seven phratries, or, as the Kansa style each, wayunmindan, (i.e., those who sing together), as follows:

Great changes have occurred among the Kansa since they have come in contact with the white race; but when Say visited them in the early part of the present century they still observed their aboriginal marriage laws. No Kansa could take a wife from a gens on his side of the tribal circle, nor could he marry any kinswoman, however remote the relationship might be. There are certain gentes that exchange personal names (jaje kik'übe au), as among the Osage. Civil and military distinctions were based on bravery and generosity. Say informs us that the Kansa had been at peace with the Osage since 1806; that they had intermarried freely with them, so that "in stature, features, and customs they are more and more closely approaching that people." He states also that the head chief of the Kansa was Gahinge Wadayiñga, Saucy Chief (which he renders "Fool Chief"), and that the ten or twelve underchiefs did not seem to have the respect of the people.

Unmarried females labored in the fields, served their parents, carried wood and water, and cooked. When the eldest daughter married she controlled the lodge, her mother, and all the sisters; the latter were always the wives of the same man. Presents were exchanged when a youth took his first wife. On the death of the husband the widow scarified herself, rubbed her person with clay, and became careless about her dress for a year. Then the eldest brother of the deceased married her without any ceremony, regarding her children as his own. When the deceased left no brother (real or potential) the widow was free to select her next husband. Fellowhood (as in cases of Damon and Pythias, David and Jonathan) often continues through life.

The Kansa had two kinds of criers or heralds: 1, the wadji'panyinor village crier; 2, the ie'kiye'(Omaha and Ponka i'ĕki'¢ĕ. In 1882, Sansile (a woman) was hereditary wadji'panyinof the Kansa, having succeeded her father, Pezihi, the last male crier. At the time of an[pg 233]issue (about 1882) Sansile's son-in-law died, so she, being a mourner, could not act as crier; hence her office devolved on K'axe of the Taqtci subgens. In that year one of the Ta yatcajĭ subgens (of the Taqtci or Deer gens) was iekiye number 1. Iekiye number 2 belonged to the Tadje or Kanze (Wind) gens.

THE OSAGEIn the Osage nation there are three primary divisions, which are tribes in the original acceptation of that term. These are known as the Tsiɔu utse pe¢ŭnda, the Seven Tsiɔu fireplaces, Hañʞa utsse pe¢ŭda, the Seven Hañʞa fireplaces, and Waɔaɔe utse pe¢ŭda, the Seven Osage fireplaces. Each "fireplace" is a gens, so that there are twenty-one gentes in the Osage nation. The Seven Hañʞa fireplaces were the last to join the nation, according to the tradition of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe people. When this occurred, the seven Hañʞa gentes were reckoned as five, and the seven Osage gentes as two, in order to have not more than seven gentes on the right side of the tribal circle.At first the Hañʞa uta¢antse gens had seven pipes, and the Waɔaɔe had as many. The Waɔaɔe gave their seventh pipe to the Tsiɔu, with the right to make seven pipes from it, so now the Waɔaɔe people have but six pipes, though they retain the ceremonies pertaining to the seventh.Illustration: FIG. 38.—Osage camping circle.FIG. 38.—Osage camping circle.When there is sickness among the children on the Waɔaɔe or right (war) side of the circle, their parents apply to the Tsiɔu (Tsiɔu wactaʞe?) for food for them. In like manner, when the children on the left or Tsiɔu side are ill, their parents apply to the Panhka (wactaqe?), on the other side, in order to get food for them.The Seven Tsiɔu fireplaces occupy the left or peace side of the circle. Their names are:1. Tsiɔu Sĭntsaʞ¢e, Tsiɔu-wearing-a-tail (of hair)-on-the-head; also called Tsiɔu Wanŭn', Elder Tsiɔu; in two subgentes, Sintsaʞ¢ĕ, Sun and Comet people, and Cŭñʞe i'nik`ăcin'a, Wolf people.2. Tse ʇṵ'ʞa intse', Buffalo-bull face; in two subgentes, of which the second is Tse' ¢añka' or Min'paha', Hide-with-the-hair-on. The policemen or soldiers on the left side belong to these two gentes.3. Mink'in', Sun carriers, i.e., Carry-the-snn (or Buffalo hides)-on-their-backs. These have two subgentes,a, Mini'niɥk`acin'a, Sun people;b, Minxa' ska i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Swan people,4. Tsi'ɔu wacta'ʞe, Tsiɔu peacemaker, or Tan'wanʞa'xe, Village-maker, or, Ni'wa¢ĕ, Giver of life. These have two subgentes,a, Wapinit`a'ɔi, Touches-no-blood, or Qü¢a' ɔü'tse, Red-eagle (really a hawk);[pg 234]b, Qü¢a' pa san', Bald-eagle, or Ɔansan'u'niɥk`ăcin'a, Sycamore people, the leading gens on the left side of the circle.5. Hani'niɥk`ăcin'a, Night people, or Tsi'ɔu we'haʞi¢e, the Tsiɔu-at-the-end, or Tse'¢añka'. Their two subgentes are:a, Night people proper;b, Wasa'de, Black-bear people.6. Tse ʇṵ'ʞa, Buffalo bull. In two subgentes,a, Tse ʇṵ'ʞa, Buffalo bull;b, ¢u'qe, Reddish-yellow buffalo (corresponding to the Nuqe of the Ponka, Tuqe of the Quapaw, and Yuqe of the Kansa).7. ʞ¢ŭn, Thunder-being, or Tsi'hacin, Camp-last, or Ma'xe, Upper-world people, or Niɥ'ka wakan'ʇaʞi, Mysterious-male-being. Subgentes not recorded.On the right (Hañʞa or Waɔaɔe) side of the circle are the following:8. Waɔa'ɔe Wanŭn', Elder Osage, composed of six of the seven Osage fireplaces, as follows:a, Waɔa'ɔe ska', White Osage;b, Ke k'in', Turtle-carriers;c, Wake'¢e ste'tse, Tall-flags(?), Ehnan' min'tse tŭn', They-alone-have-bows, or Minke'¢e ste'tse, Tall-flags;d, Ta ¢a'xü, Deer-lights, or Ta i'niɥk'ăcin'a, Deer people;e, Hu i'niqk`ăcin'a, Fish people;f, Nan'panta, a deer gens, called by some Ke ʞa'tsü, Turtle-with-a-serrated-crest-along-the-shell (probably a water monster, as there is no such species of turtle).9. Hañ'ʞa uta'¢antsi, Hañʞa-apart-from-the-rest, or Qü¢a'qtsi i'niɥ-k`ăcin'a, Real eagle people—the War eagle gens, and one of the original Hañʞa fireplaces. The soldiers or policemen from the right side are chosen from the eighth and ninth gentes.10. The leading gens on the right side of the circle, and one of the original seven Osage fireplaces. Panɥ'ka wacta'ʞe, Ponka peace-maker, according to a Tsiɔu man; in two subgentes,a, Tse'wa¢ĕ, Pond-lily, andb, Waca'de, Dark-buffalo; but according to Panɥ'ka waʇa'yinʞa, a member of the gens, his people have three subgentes,a, Wake'¢e, Flags;b, Wa'tsetsi, meaning, perhaps, Has-come hither (tsi)-after-touching-the-foe (watse);c, Qŭntse', Red cedar.11. Hañ'ʞa a'hü tŭn', Hañʞa-having-wings, or Hü'saʇa, Limbs-stretched-stiff, or Qü¢ i'niɥk`ăcin'a, White-eagle people, in two subgentes, which were two of the original Hañʞa fireplaces:a, Hü'saʇa Wanŭn', Elder Hüsaʇa;b, Hü'saʇa, those wearing four locks of hair resembling those worn by the second division of the Wasape tun.12. Wasa'de tŭn, Having-black-bears. In two parts, which were originally two of the Hañʞa fireplaces: A, Sĭntsaʞ¢sĕ, Wearing-a-tail- (or lock)-of-hair-on-the-head; in two subgentes, (a) Wasade, Black bear, or Hañ'ʞa Wa'ts`ekawa' (meaning not learned); (b) Iñʞ¢ŭñ'ʞa ɔiũ'ʞa, Small cat. B, Wasa'de tŭn, Wearing-four-locks-of-hair, in two subgentes, (a) Minxa'ska, Swan; (b) Tse'wa¢ĕ qe'ʞa, Dried pond-lily.13. Ṵ'pqan, Elk, one of the seven Hañʞa fireplaces.14. Kan'se, Kansa, or I'dats`ĕ, Holds-a-firebrand-to-the-sacred-pipes-in-order-to-light-them, or A'k`a i'niɥak`ăcin'a, South-wind people, or Tatse' i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Wind people, or Pe'tse i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Fire people. One of the seven Hañʞa fireplaces.[pg 235]The following social divisions cannot be identified: Ɔa'de i`niɥk`ăcin'a, Beaver people, said to be a subgens of the Waɔaɔe, no gens specified; Pe'tqani'niɥk`ăcin'a, Crane people, said to be a subgens of the Hañʞa(?) sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ; Wapŭñ'ʞa i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Owl people; Manyiñ'ʞa i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Earth people;daqpü' i'niɥk`ăcin'a, meaning not recorded.There is some uncertainty respecting the true positions of a few subgentes in the camping circle. For instance, Alvin Wood said that the Tsewa¢e qeʞa formed the fourth subgens of the Tse ʇṵ'ʞa intse; but this was denied by ʞahiʞe waʇayiñʞa, of the Tsi'ɔu wacta'ʞe, who said that it belonged to the Panɥka wactaʞe prior to the extinction of the subgens. Tsepa ʞaxe of the Wasape gens said that it formed the fourth subgens of his own people. Some make the Tsiɔu wactaʞe the third gens on the left, instead of the fourth. According to ʞahiʞe waʇayiñʞa, "All the Waɔaɔe gentes claim to have come from the water, so they have ceremonies referring to beavers, because those animals swim in the water." The same authority said in 1883 that there were seven men who acted as wactaʞe, as follows: 1, Kaɥiʞe wactaʞe, of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe subgens, who had acted for eight years; 2, Pahü-ska, of the Bald-eagle or Qü¢a pa sansubgens; 3, ʞ¢eman, Clermont, of the kidananof the Tsiɔu wehaki¢ĕ or Night gens; 6, Panɥka waʇayiñʞa, Saucy Ponka, of the Wa'tsetsi or Ponka gens; 7, Niɥka waɔintana, of the same gens.On the death of the head chief among the Osage the leading men call a council. At this council four men are named as candidates for the office, and it is asked, "Which one shall be appointed?" At this council a cuka of the Watsetsi (Ponka gens, or else from some other gens on the right) carries his pipe around the circle of councilors from right to left, while a Tsiɔu cuka (one of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe gens, or else one from some other gens on the left) carries the other pipe around from left to right. The ceremonies resemble the Ponka ceremonies for making chiefs. When the chiefs assemble in council a member of the Kanse or Idats`ĕ gens (one on the right) lights the pipes. The criers are chosen from the Kanse, Ṵpqan, and Mink'ingentes. The Tsiɔu Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Tse ʇṵʞa intse gentes furnish the soldiers or policemen for the Tsiɔu wactaʞe. A similar function is performed for the Panɥka wactaʞe by the Waɔaɔe wanŭnand Hañʞa uʇa¢antsi gentes. The Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Hañʞa uʇa¢autsi are "akiʇa watañʞa," chiefs of the soldiers; the Tseʇṵʞa intse and Waɔaɔe Wanŭnbeing ordinary soldiers, i.e., subordinate to the others. The Waɔaɔe Ke k'inare the moccasin makers for the tribe. It is said that in the olden days the members of this gens used turtle shells instead of moccasins, with leeches for strings. The makers of the war-standards and war-pipes must belong to the Waɔaɔe ska.Saucy Chief is the authority for the following: "Should all the Osage wish to dwell very near another tribe, or in case two or three families of us wish to remove to another part of the reservation, we let the[pg 236]others know our desire to live near them. We make up prizes for them—a pony, a blanket, strouding, etc—and we ask them to race for them. The fastest horse takes the first prize, and so on. We take along a pipe and some sticks—one stick for each member of the party that is removing. The other people meet us and race with us back to their home. They make us sit in a row; then one of their men or children brings a pipe to one of our party to whom he intends giving a horse. The pipe is handed to the rest of the party. The newcomers are invited to feasts, all of which they are obliged to attend." When the Osage go on the hunt the Tsiɔu wactaʞe (chief) tells the Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Tse ʇṵʞa intse where the people must camp. The following evening the Panɥka wactaʞe (chief) tells the soldiers on his side (the Waɔaɔe and Hañʞa uʇa¢antsi) where the camp must be on the following day. The members of the four gentes of soldiers or policemen meet in council and decide on the time for departure. They consult the Tsiɔu wactaʞe and Hañʞa (Panɥka wactaʞe?) who attend the council. The crier is generally a man of either the Ṵpqanor Kanse gens, but sometimes a Mink'inman acts. The four leaders of the soldier gentes call on the crier to proclaim the next camping place, etc, which he does thus:"Ha+! | han'da | ʞasin'|ʇan| awahe'ɔún| tatsi' | a'pinʇau+! | Ha+! | (Niɔü'tse | masin'ta)Halloo! | day | tomorrow |on | you make up in packs | shall | they really say | Halloo! | Missouri river | on the other sidetci' | i'he¢a'e | ta'tsi | a'dintau+!"tent {?} | you place in a line {?} | shall | they really say.which is to say, "Halloo! tomorrow morning you shall pack your goods (strike camp). Halloo! you shall lay them down, after reaching (the other side of Missouri river)!"Then the four leaders of the soldier gentes choose a'kiʇa (policemen) who have a ʇuʇan'hañʞa or captain, who then acts as crier in giving orders, thus:"Ha+! | ni'kawasa'e! | Ha+! | ʞahi'ʞe | waʇa'yiñʞa | ni'kawasa'e! | a'¢aki'ʇa | tatsi'Halloo! | O warrior! | Halloo, | Chief | Saucy! | O warrior! | you guard | shalladintau' | ni'kawasa'e!"they say really | O warrior!which means, "Halloo, O warrior! Halloo, O warrior, Saucy Chief! They have really said that you shall act as policeman or guard, O warrior!"These a'kiʇa have to punish any persons who violate the laws of the hunt. But there is another grade of men; the four leaders of the soldier gentes tell the captain to call certain men wa'paʞ¢a'ɔi utsin', and they are expected to punish any a'kiʇa who fail to do their duty. Supposing Mink'inwaʇayiñʞa was selected, the crier would say:"Ha+! ni'kawasa'e! Ha+, Mink'in' waʇa'yiñʞa n'ikawasa'e! Ha+! u¢a'tsintatsi' a'dintau', ni'kawasa'e!""Halloo, O warrior! Halloo, O warrior, Saucy Sun Carrier! Halloo, it has been really said that you shall strike the offenders without hesitation, O warrior!"[pg 237]The four headmen direct a captain to order a Hañʞa uʇa¢antsi man to lead the scouts, and subsequently to call on a Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ man for that purpose, alternating between the two sides of the camping circle. There are thus three grades of men engaged in the hunt—the ordinary members of the soldier gentes, the akiʇa, and the wapaʞ¢aɔi utsin.Should the Osage be warring against the Kansa or any other tribe, and one of the foe slip into the Osage camp and beg for protection of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe (chief), the latter is obliged to help the suppliant. He must send for the Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Tse ʇṵʞa intse (leaders), whom he would thus address: "I have a man whom I wish to live. I desire you to act as my soldiers." At the same time the Tsiɔu wactaʞe would send word to the Panɥka wactaʞe, who would summon a Waɔaɔe and a Hañʞa uta¢antsi to act as his soldiers or policemen. Meantime the kettle of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe was hung over the fire as soon as possible and food was cooked and given to the fugitive. When he had eaten (a mouthful) he was safe. He could then go through the camp with impunity. This condition of affairs lasted as long as he remained with the tribe, but it terminated when he returned to his home. After food had been given to the fugitive by the Tsiɔu wactaʞe any prominent man of the tribe could invite the fugitive to a feast.The privilege of taking care of the children was given to the Tsiɔu wactaʞe and the Panɥka wactaʞe, according to Saucy Chief. When a child (on the Tsiɔu side) is named, a certain old man is required to sing songs outside of the camp, dropping some tobacco from his pipe down on the toes of his left foot as he sings each song. On the first day the old man of the Tsiɔu (wactaʞe?) takes four grains of corn, one grain being black, another red, a third blue, and a fourth white, answering to the four kinds of corn dropped by the four buffalo, as mentioned in the tradition of the Osage. After chewing the four grains and mixing them with his saliva, he passes them between the lips of the child to be named. Four stones are put into a fire, one stone toward each of the four quarters. The Tsiɔu old man orders some cedar and a few blades of a certain kind of grass that does not die in winter, to be put aside for his use on the second day. On the second day, before sunrise, the Tsiɔu old man speaks of the cedar tree and its branches, saying, "It shall be for the children." Then he mentions the river, the deep holes in it, and its branches, which he declares shall be medicine in future for the children. He takes the four heated stones, places them in a pile, on which he puts the grass and cedar. Over this he pours water, making steam, over which the child is held. Then four names are given by the headman of the gens to the father, who selects one of them as the name for the child. Meantime men of different gentes bring cedar, stones, etc, and perform their respective ceremonies. The headman (Tsiɔu wactaʞe?) takes some of the water (into which he puts some cedar), giving four sips to the child. Then he dips his own left hand into the water and rubs the child down the left[pg 238]side, from the top of the head to the feet; next he rubs it in front, then down the right side, and finally down the back. He invites all the women of his gens who wish to be blessed to come forward, and he treats them as he did the infant. At the same time the women of the other gentes are blessed in like manner by the headmen of their respective gentes.

In the Osage nation there are three primary divisions, which are tribes in the original acceptation of that term. These are known as the Tsiɔu utse pe¢ŭnda, the Seven Tsiɔu fireplaces, Hañʞa utsse pe¢ŭda, the Seven Hañʞa fireplaces, and Waɔaɔe utse pe¢ŭda, the Seven Osage fireplaces. Each "fireplace" is a gens, so that there are twenty-one gentes in the Osage nation. The Seven Hañʞa fireplaces were the last to join the nation, according to the tradition of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe people. When this occurred, the seven Hañʞa gentes were reckoned as five, and the seven Osage gentes as two, in order to have not more than seven gentes on the right side of the tribal circle.

At first the Hañʞa uta¢antse gens had seven pipes, and the Waɔaɔe had as many. The Waɔaɔe gave their seventh pipe to the Tsiɔu, with the right to make seven pipes from it, so now the Waɔaɔe people have but six pipes, though they retain the ceremonies pertaining to the seventh.

Illustration: FIG. 38.—Osage camping circle.FIG. 38.—Osage camping circle.

FIG. 38.—Osage camping circle.

When there is sickness among the children on the Waɔaɔe or right (war) side of the circle, their parents apply to the Tsiɔu (Tsiɔu wactaʞe?) for food for them. In like manner, when the children on the left or Tsiɔu side are ill, their parents apply to the Panhka (wactaqe?), on the other side, in order to get food for them.

The Seven Tsiɔu fireplaces occupy the left or peace side of the circle. Their names are:

1. Tsiɔu Sĭntsaʞ¢e, Tsiɔu-wearing-a-tail (of hair)-on-the-head; also called Tsiɔu Wanŭn', Elder Tsiɔu; in two subgentes, Sintsaʞ¢ĕ, Sun and Comet people, and Cŭñʞe i'nik`ăcin'a, Wolf people.

2. Tse ʇṵ'ʞa intse', Buffalo-bull face; in two subgentes, of which the second is Tse' ¢añka' or Min'paha', Hide-with-the-hair-on. The policemen or soldiers on the left side belong to these two gentes.

3. Mink'in', Sun carriers, i.e., Carry-the-snn (or Buffalo hides)-on-their-backs. These have two subgentes,a, Mini'niɥk`acin'a, Sun people;b, Minxa' ska i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Swan people,

4. Tsi'ɔu wacta'ʞe, Tsiɔu peacemaker, or Tan'wanʞa'xe, Village-maker, or, Ni'wa¢ĕ, Giver of life. These have two subgentes,a, Wapinit`a'ɔi, Touches-no-blood, or Qü¢a' ɔü'tse, Red-eagle (really a hawk);[pg 234]b, Qü¢a' pa san', Bald-eagle, or Ɔansan'u'niɥk`ăcin'a, Sycamore people, the leading gens on the left side of the circle.

5. Hani'niɥk`ăcin'a, Night people, or Tsi'ɔu we'haʞi¢e, the Tsiɔu-at-the-end, or Tse'¢añka'. Their two subgentes are:a, Night people proper;b, Wasa'de, Black-bear people.

6. Tse ʇṵ'ʞa, Buffalo bull. In two subgentes,a, Tse ʇṵ'ʞa, Buffalo bull;b, ¢u'qe, Reddish-yellow buffalo (corresponding to the Nuqe of the Ponka, Tuqe of the Quapaw, and Yuqe of the Kansa).

7. ʞ¢ŭn, Thunder-being, or Tsi'hacin, Camp-last, or Ma'xe, Upper-world people, or Niɥ'ka wakan'ʇaʞi, Mysterious-male-being. Subgentes not recorded.

On the right (Hañʞa or Waɔaɔe) side of the circle are the following:

8. Waɔa'ɔe Wanŭn', Elder Osage, composed of six of the seven Osage fireplaces, as follows:a, Waɔa'ɔe ska', White Osage;b, Ke k'in', Turtle-carriers;c, Wake'¢e ste'tse, Tall-flags(?), Ehnan' min'tse tŭn', They-alone-have-bows, or Minke'¢e ste'tse, Tall-flags;d, Ta ¢a'xü, Deer-lights, or Ta i'niɥk'ăcin'a, Deer people;e, Hu i'niqk`ăcin'a, Fish people;f, Nan'panta, a deer gens, called by some Ke ʞa'tsü, Turtle-with-a-serrated-crest-along-the-shell (probably a water monster, as there is no such species of turtle).

9. Hañ'ʞa uta'¢antsi, Hañʞa-apart-from-the-rest, or Qü¢a'qtsi i'niɥ-k`ăcin'a, Real eagle people—the War eagle gens, and one of the original Hañʞa fireplaces. The soldiers or policemen from the right side are chosen from the eighth and ninth gentes.

10. The leading gens on the right side of the circle, and one of the original seven Osage fireplaces. Panɥ'ka wacta'ʞe, Ponka peace-maker, according to a Tsiɔu man; in two subgentes,a, Tse'wa¢ĕ, Pond-lily, andb, Waca'de, Dark-buffalo; but according to Panɥ'ka waʇa'yinʞa, a member of the gens, his people have three subgentes,a, Wake'¢e, Flags;b, Wa'tsetsi, meaning, perhaps, Has-come hither (tsi)-after-touching-the-foe (watse);c, Qŭntse', Red cedar.

11. Hañ'ʞa a'hü tŭn', Hañʞa-having-wings, or Hü'saʇa, Limbs-stretched-stiff, or Qü¢ i'niɥk`ăcin'a, White-eagle people, in two subgentes, which were two of the original Hañʞa fireplaces:a, Hü'saʇa Wanŭn', Elder Hüsaʇa;b, Hü'saʇa, those wearing four locks of hair resembling those worn by the second division of the Wasape tun.

12. Wasa'de tŭn, Having-black-bears. In two parts, which were originally two of the Hañʞa fireplaces: A, Sĭntsaʞ¢sĕ, Wearing-a-tail- (or lock)-of-hair-on-the-head; in two subgentes, (a) Wasade, Black bear, or Hañ'ʞa Wa'ts`ekawa' (meaning not learned); (b) Iñʞ¢ŭñ'ʞa ɔiũ'ʞa, Small cat. B, Wasa'de tŭn, Wearing-four-locks-of-hair, in two subgentes, (a) Minxa'ska, Swan; (b) Tse'wa¢ĕ qe'ʞa, Dried pond-lily.

13. Ṵ'pqan, Elk, one of the seven Hañʞa fireplaces.

14. Kan'se, Kansa, or I'dats`ĕ, Holds-a-firebrand-to-the-sacred-pipes-in-order-to-light-them, or A'k`a i'niɥak`ăcin'a, South-wind people, or Tatse' i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Wind people, or Pe'tse i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Fire people. One of the seven Hañʞa fireplaces.

The following social divisions cannot be identified: Ɔa'de i`niɥk`ăcin'a, Beaver people, said to be a subgens of the Waɔaɔe, no gens specified; Pe'tqani'niɥk`ăcin'a, Crane people, said to be a subgens of the Hañʞa(?) sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ; Wapŭñ'ʞa i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Owl people; Manyiñ'ʞa i'niɥk`ăcin'a, Earth people;daqpü' i'niɥk`ăcin'a, meaning not recorded.

There is some uncertainty respecting the true positions of a few subgentes in the camping circle. For instance, Alvin Wood said that the Tsewa¢e qeʞa formed the fourth subgens of the Tse ʇṵ'ʞa intse; but this was denied by ʞahiʞe waʇayiñʞa, of the Tsi'ɔu wacta'ʞe, who said that it belonged to the Panɥka wactaʞe prior to the extinction of the subgens. Tsepa ʞaxe of the Wasape gens said that it formed the fourth subgens of his own people. Some make the Tsiɔu wactaʞe the third gens on the left, instead of the fourth. According to ʞahiʞe waʇayiñʞa, "All the Waɔaɔe gentes claim to have come from the water, so they have ceremonies referring to beavers, because those animals swim in the water." The same authority said in 1883 that there were seven men who acted as wactaʞe, as follows: 1, Kaɥiʞe wactaʞe, of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe subgens, who had acted for eight years; 2, Pahü-ska, of the Bald-eagle or Qü¢a pa sansubgens; 3, ʞ¢eman, Clermont, of the kidananof the Tsiɔu wehaki¢ĕ or Night gens; 6, Panɥka waʇayiñʞa, Saucy Ponka, of the Wa'tsetsi or Ponka gens; 7, Niɥka waɔintana, of the same gens.

On the death of the head chief among the Osage the leading men call a council. At this council four men are named as candidates for the office, and it is asked, "Which one shall be appointed?" At this council a cuka of the Watsetsi (Ponka gens, or else from some other gens on the right) carries his pipe around the circle of councilors from right to left, while a Tsiɔu cuka (one of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe gens, or else one from some other gens on the left) carries the other pipe around from left to right. The ceremonies resemble the Ponka ceremonies for making chiefs. When the chiefs assemble in council a member of the Kanse or Idats`ĕ gens (one on the right) lights the pipes. The criers are chosen from the Kanse, Ṵpqan, and Mink'ingentes. The Tsiɔu Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Tse ʇṵʞa intse gentes furnish the soldiers or policemen for the Tsiɔu wactaʞe. A similar function is performed for the Panɥka wactaʞe by the Waɔaɔe wanŭnand Hañʞa uʇa¢antsi gentes. The Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Hañʞa uʇa¢autsi are "akiʇa watañʞa," chiefs of the soldiers; the Tseʇṵʞa intse and Waɔaɔe Wanŭnbeing ordinary soldiers, i.e., subordinate to the others. The Waɔaɔe Ke k'inare the moccasin makers for the tribe. It is said that in the olden days the members of this gens used turtle shells instead of moccasins, with leeches for strings. The makers of the war-standards and war-pipes must belong to the Waɔaɔe ska.

Saucy Chief is the authority for the following: "Should all the Osage wish to dwell very near another tribe, or in case two or three families of us wish to remove to another part of the reservation, we let the[pg 236]others know our desire to live near them. We make up prizes for them—a pony, a blanket, strouding, etc—and we ask them to race for them. The fastest horse takes the first prize, and so on. We take along a pipe and some sticks—one stick for each member of the party that is removing. The other people meet us and race with us back to their home. They make us sit in a row; then one of their men or children brings a pipe to one of our party to whom he intends giving a horse. The pipe is handed to the rest of the party. The newcomers are invited to feasts, all of which they are obliged to attend." When the Osage go on the hunt the Tsiɔu wactaʞe (chief) tells the Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Tse ʇṵʞa intse where the people must camp. The following evening the Panɥka wactaʞe (chief) tells the soldiers on his side (the Waɔaɔe and Hañʞa uʇa¢antsi) where the camp must be on the following day. The members of the four gentes of soldiers or policemen meet in council and decide on the time for departure. They consult the Tsiɔu wactaʞe and Hañʞa (Panɥka wactaʞe?) who attend the council. The crier is generally a man of either the Ṵpqanor Kanse gens, but sometimes a Mink'inman acts. The four leaders of the soldier gentes call on the crier to proclaim the next camping place, etc, which he does thus:

"Ha+! | han'da | ʞasin'|ʇan| awahe'ɔún| tatsi' | a'pinʇau+! | Ha+! | (Niɔü'tse | masin'ta)

Halloo! | day | tomorrow |on | you make up in packs | shall | they really say | Halloo! | Missouri river | on the other side

tci' | i'he¢a'e | ta'tsi | a'dintau+!"

tent {?} | you place in a line {?} | shall | they really say.

which is to say, "Halloo! tomorrow morning you shall pack your goods (strike camp). Halloo! you shall lay them down, after reaching (the other side of Missouri river)!"

Then the four leaders of the soldier gentes choose a'kiʇa (policemen) who have a ʇuʇan'hañʞa or captain, who then acts as crier in giving orders, thus:

"Ha+! | ni'kawasa'e! | Ha+! | ʞahi'ʞe | waʇa'yiñʞa | ni'kawasa'e! | a'¢aki'ʇa | tatsi'

Halloo! | O warrior! | Halloo, | Chief | Saucy! | O warrior! | you guard | shall

adintau' | ni'kawasa'e!"

they say really | O warrior!

which means, "Halloo, O warrior! Halloo, O warrior, Saucy Chief! They have really said that you shall act as policeman or guard, O warrior!"

These a'kiʇa have to punish any persons who violate the laws of the hunt. But there is another grade of men; the four leaders of the soldier gentes tell the captain to call certain men wa'paʞ¢a'ɔi utsin', and they are expected to punish any a'kiʇa who fail to do their duty. Supposing Mink'inwaʇayiñʞa was selected, the crier would say:

"Ha+! ni'kawasa'e! Ha+, Mink'in' waʇa'yiñʞa n'ikawasa'e! Ha+! u¢a'tsintatsi' a'dintau', ni'kawasa'e!"

"Halloo, O warrior! Halloo, O warrior, Saucy Sun Carrier! Halloo, it has been really said that you shall strike the offenders without hesitation, O warrior!"

The four headmen direct a captain to order a Hañʞa uʇa¢antsi man to lead the scouts, and subsequently to call on a Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ man for that purpose, alternating between the two sides of the camping circle. There are thus three grades of men engaged in the hunt—the ordinary members of the soldier gentes, the akiʇa, and the wapaʞ¢aɔi utsin.

Should the Osage be warring against the Kansa or any other tribe, and one of the foe slip into the Osage camp and beg for protection of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe (chief), the latter is obliged to help the suppliant. He must send for the Sĭntsaʞ¢ĕ and Tse ʇṵʞa intse (leaders), whom he would thus address: "I have a man whom I wish to live. I desire you to act as my soldiers." At the same time the Tsiɔu wactaʞe would send word to the Panɥka wactaʞe, who would summon a Waɔaɔe and a Hañʞa uta¢antsi to act as his soldiers or policemen. Meantime the kettle of the Tsiɔu wactaʞe was hung over the fire as soon as possible and food was cooked and given to the fugitive. When he had eaten (a mouthful) he was safe. He could then go through the camp with impunity. This condition of affairs lasted as long as he remained with the tribe, but it terminated when he returned to his home. After food had been given to the fugitive by the Tsiɔu wactaʞe any prominent man of the tribe could invite the fugitive to a feast.

The privilege of taking care of the children was given to the Tsiɔu wactaʞe and the Panɥka wactaʞe, according to Saucy Chief. When a child (on the Tsiɔu side) is named, a certain old man is required to sing songs outside of the camp, dropping some tobacco from his pipe down on the toes of his left foot as he sings each song. On the first day the old man of the Tsiɔu (wactaʞe?) takes four grains of corn, one grain being black, another red, a third blue, and a fourth white, answering to the four kinds of corn dropped by the four buffalo, as mentioned in the tradition of the Osage. After chewing the four grains and mixing them with his saliva, he passes them between the lips of the child to be named. Four stones are put into a fire, one stone toward each of the four quarters. The Tsiɔu old man orders some cedar and a few blades of a certain kind of grass that does not die in winter, to be put aside for his use on the second day. On the second day, before sunrise, the Tsiɔu old man speaks of the cedar tree and its branches, saying, "It shall be for the children." Then he mentions the river, the deep holes in it, and its branches, which he declares shall be medicine in future for the children. He takes the four heated stones, places them in a pile, on which he puts the grass and cedar. Over this he pours water, making steam, over which the child is held. Then four names are given by the headman of the gens to the father, who selects one of them as the name for the child. Meantime men of different gentes bring cedar, stones, etc, and perform their respective ceremonies. The headman (Tsiɔu wactaʞe?) takes some of the water (into which he puts some cedar), giving four sips to the child. Then he dips his own left hand into the water and rubs the child down the left[pg 238]side, from the top of the head to the feet; next he rubs it in front, then down the right side, and finally down the back. He invites all the women of his gens who wish to be blessed to come forward, and he treats them as he did the infant. At the same time the women of the other gentes are blessed in like manner by the headmen of their respective gentes.

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