Fig. 12. View, from the inner side, of one of each of the three spinnerets.Fig. 12. View, from the inner side, of one of each of the three spinnerets ofEpeira.A, anterior;B, median;C, posterior spinneret.
Fig. 12. View, from the inner side, of one of each of the three spinnerets ofEpeira.A, anterior;B, median;C, posterior spinneret.
In reality the line is double, emerging from thespigots (a) on the anterior spinnerets, and it can easily be separated into two—and two only—any where along its length. The multitudinous spools have emitted short lengths of silk to anchor the foundation line at its commencement, but they are then closed and have no share in the ever-lengthening line as the spider lets itself drop or crawls away to attach it to a new spot. One of their uses, then, is to anchor the main lines from the spigots to external objects, but they have another function not less important. Everybody has seen a garden-spider trussing up a captured fly. It is held in the jaws and front legs and slowly revolved while with its hind legs the spider draws out bands of silk from the spinnerets and swathes it like a mummy. No silken rope, this, of fused or interwoven threads, but a broad band, every strand of which is separate and distinct and proceeds from a different spool. Two or three hundred fine threads wound simultaneously round the insect form a much more effectual winding sheet than would a single cord composed of them all.
So far we have accounted for the spools, and for one pair of spigots—those on the anterior spinnerets. The lower spigot (b) on the middle spinneret often assists in laying down a foundation line when extra strength is required. In that case the line is fourfold, and can easily be split into four along its whole length, the threads from the middle spinnerets beingrather finer than those from the anterior, but composed of the same kind of silk.
There remain seven pairs of spigots whose function has still to be explained, two on the middle and five on the posterior spinnerets. The three which are clustered together on the posterior spinneret do not formsilkat all, that is, the material they emit does not harden on exposure to the air but remains fluid and adhesive. When the spider is spinning the “viscid spiral” of its web it is from these spigots that the sticky matter oozes, enveloping the true silken lines and presently resolving itself into little globules in the manner already described.
The remaining spigots—two on the middle and two on the posterior spinnerets are employed only in spinning the egg-cocoon, and the silk they produce is unlike that used in making the snare, being much stronger and less elastic, and—in the case of the garden-spider—of a yellow colour. In the occasional attempts which have been made to substitute spiders for silkworms as commercial silk producers, it is only this cocoon silk that has given any considerable results, the produce of the other glands being far too frail for profitable use. Such attempts, however, have always failed, principally for a reason quite unconnected with the particular nature of the silk, namely, the difficulty of keeping the spiders in captivity. It is a simple matter to supply dozens ofsilkworms in the same box with mulberry leaves, but spiders require separate compartments or they will fight and devour each other, and the provision of suitable food for them is such a troublesome matter that it has proved quite impracticable on a commercial scale.
We have incidentally seen that there are quite a number of different operations in which the spinning apparatus takes part. There is the line which most spiders lay down as they wander, and which secures them from the danger of a fall if they lose their footing; there is the snare for catching prey, the nest or retreat, and the egg-cocoon, and in addition, silk from the spinnerets may be used to enwrap and paralyse captured insects, or to assist the young spider to migrate. Since the Epeiridae perform all these operations, and are, moreover, the most finished of snare-makers, it does not surprise us to find in them the highest development of the silk glands and the most complete battery of spools and spigots on the spinnerets. Many spiders, as we know, make no snare at all, and in the case of some, very little spinning is attempted beyond the manufacture of a rather rudimentary covering for the eggs. Naturally a less complex spinning apparatus is required, and we accordingly find that jumping spiders, for instance, have only about fifty silk-glands comprising three different kinds of gland, while the glands found insuch of the large Aviculariidae as have been examined have been all alike.
There is in some spiders a spinning organ, not to be found in Epeira, which deserves a passing notice. It does not take the place of spinnerets, of which the usual three pairs are present, but it is situated in front of them, and only occurs in the female of the species. Its peculiarity is that the silk does not emerge from projecting spools; but through fine holes in a sieve-like plate, called acribellum, which is flush with the surface of the abdomen. It has no mobility, therefore, and the threads from it have to be combed out and distributed by the spider’s hind leg. For the better accomplishment of this purpose there is a special comb of stiff hairs or bristles, called acalamistrum, on each of the fourth pair of legs.
The web of these spiders is not unlike that of Agelena, but of a rather finer texture, and it can be seen, on magnification, to consist of an irregular ground-work over which have been spread wavy bands of excessively fine silk, combed out from the orifices of the cribellum glands. Some of these cribellate-spiders, of the genusAmaurobius, are not uncommon in our cellars and out-houses; their bodies are of stouter build and their legs much shorter than those of the common house-spider.
We have no space for anything approaching a full description of the anatomy of spiders, but there is oneother point of structure of which the reader has been promised some account. Attention was directed to the fact that while some spiders are helpless on smooth perpendicular surfaces unless they have lines to cling to, others can run with ease upon the walls or even the ceiling, of a room.
Fig. 13. Foot of Jumping Spider (on left), foot of Garden Spider (on right).Fig. 13. Foot of Jumping Spider (on left), foot of Garden Spider (on right).
Fig. 13. Foot of Jumping Spider (on left), foot of Garden Spider (on right).
The last joint ortarsusof the spider’s leg is very different in the two cases. It always terminates in claws—either two or three—so that any species can make some show of climbing where the surface is rough and there is anything to cling to, but to obtain a hold on a polished surface it needs a special contrivance. This takes the form of a pad of curiously modified hairs, called ascopula. The hairs are club-shaped, narrow at their stalk and swelling towards the tip, and their clinging power seems to be due to a viscid secretion. The foot of any jumping spider will show this structure well. Epeira has no scopula, and its climbing is always laborious unless it has a threadto cling to, but it is supreme as a rope walker, treading daintily on the most delicate threads, mounting a line “hand over hand” with great agility, and manipulating the silk in its various spinning operations with unerring skill and facility.
THE ENEMIES OF SPIDERS
Whenone comes to consider the multitudinous risks to which a spider is exposed during the whole course of its life it seems at first a little surprising that the whole tribe has not long ago been exterminated. Spiders continue to flourish, however, and it is very clear that however careless Nature may be of the individual she is extremely solicitous about the race.
The infant mortality among these creatures must be appalling. There is first their cannibalistic propensity to be reckoned with. Newly hatched spiders while still within the cocoon seldom attack each other, but as soon as ever each sets up for itself, no quarter is given. It often happens that members of a brood of sedentary spiders spin their first snares in close contiguity, and if food is scarce they eat one another without compunction. It is said that a fewindividuals of a brood may be reared to maturity on no other food than their sisters and brothers! The case of the survivor of the “Nancy Bell” in the Bab Ballads would be exceedingly commonplace in the aranead world. We have seen, too, how, on occasion,Atypuswill devour her young if they do not leave the nest with due expedition. Then if the weather conditions chance to be unfavourable just at the period of departure from the cocoon broods are liable to perish wholesale, washed away and destroyed by deluges of rain; myriads, too, must be carried out to sea in the course of their ballooning operations, and never come safely to land.
But the mortality is probably even greater at a still earlier stage, for hosts of spiders’ eggs never hatch at all, and this for two reasons. In the first place, the silk of spiders is a favourite material with many birds for the lining of their nests, and many of them use the cocoons for this purpose. Secondly, there are numerous Ichneumon flies which attack and parasitise spiders’ cocoons, piercing them with their ovipositors and laying their eggs inside. The eggs of the Ichneumon fly hatch first and feed upon the eggs of the spider. Two such flies are known to attack the cocoons of the garden-spider, and not a single spider will emerge from a cocoon thus parasitised. The spiders whose cocoons are most subject to these attacks belong, as might perhapsbe expected, to the sedentary groups, and the most elaborate but unavailing precautions are often taken to render them Ichneumon-proof. The cocoons of the peripatetic wolf-spiders have never been observed to be parasitised.
Even if a spider has survived these early perils there are still many dangers ahead. During its period of growth it has to moult some eight or nine times, and the operation is at least as dangerous as, say, an attack of measles to the human infant. For some time beforehand feeding ceases, and the animal becomes inert and apparently dead, but presently the integument splits, and out struggles the spider, pale and soft, and leaving behind it not only the outer skin but the lining of most of its alimentary canal and of its breathing tubes. Sometimes, as we have said, it fails to extricate itself and dies; quite often it emerges with the loss of a limb, which will reappear—reduced in size—at the next moult. It is necessary to go into retreat for a time after moulting, till strength has returned and the integument has hardened.
But the dangers of moulting, though not negligible, are insignificant beside others to which the spider is exposed during its later stages, nor is a prolonged dearth of food necessarily fatal, for, as we have seen, a spider can fast for an astonishing time and yet retain its health if it has a fair supply of water. But thereare terrible enemies at hand from which it has little or no protection. Birds, of course, come first, for to most insectivorous birds spiders are acceptable morsels. I have seen a hedge sparrow going conscientiously over a trellis work and picking out all the spiders from the nooks and corners. Then insectivorous mammals make no distinction between the Insecta and the Arachnida, and often eat spiders with avidity, as also will toads and lizards.
Moreover, Ichneumon flies do not confine their attention to cocoons, but often attack well-grown spiders. They invariably lay their eggs on one spot—at the very front of the abdomen, near the cephalothorax, where the spider is powerless to dislodge them. The egg hatches out to a grub which is a veritable “old man of the sea” on the spider’s back, and there it remains until it causes the death of its victim by feeding on the contents of the abdomen. Four such Ichneumon flies have been found to attack the garden-spider, and no kind of spider seems exempt. How they contrive to deposit their eggs in the proper place without great danger of themselves falling a prey to their victims is a mystery. To venture into a garden-spider’s web for the purpose would seem a fool-hardy proceeding. The actual deposition of the egg has seldom been witnessed, but in one of the few cases that have come under observation the spider made little resistance andappeared quite demoralised. It was hanging from a thread, down which the Ichneumon fly was seen to crawl. When it reached the spider the latter dropped an inch lower on two or three occasions but then remained passive, and the parasite on nearing it, turned round, backed down the line, and with great care and deliberation attached an egg at the usual spot.
But no enemies of spiders are more terrible than some of the solitary wasps, and gruesome indeed is the fate of any creature that falls into their clutches. The social wasps often capture spiders to feed their young but in their case the proceeding is summary and without any finesse. They merely catch a spider, sting it to death, cut it to pieces with their jaws, and feed it into the mouths of their expectant grubs. The treatment is brutal enough, but at all events it is expeditious. Now the solitary “digger” wasps never see their young. They make cells, either by burrowing in the ground or by agglomerating particles of mud or gravel, and in each cell is placed an egg together with sufficient food to last the grub which hatches out for the whole of its larval existence. The mother will not be at hand—as is the social worker-wasp—to supply new food as required, and it is therefore necessary so to arrange matters that the food provided may retain its fresh condition for at least a fortnight. On the other hand the victims mustbe deprived of all power of motion, otherwise the egg will stand a great chance of being displaced and crushed, and even if it hatches it will be unable to commence its meal upon the struggling spider.
Now in the whole range of animal instinct there is nothing more remarkable than the manner in which the solitary wasps have learnt to solve this problem. The solution lies in so stinging the victim that it is paralysed but not killed, and though quite unable to move, it neither shrivels nor decays, but remains perfectly sound and edible for two or three weeks. To accomplish this result the wasp acts as though it possessed a knowledge of the minute anatomy of its victim, and knew to a hair’s breadth the position of the principal nerve ganglia which control its actions. Into these it unerringly thrusts its sting. But even accuracy of aim is not everything; there must be the finest discrimination in the severity of the wound. A slight excess, and the animal is killed; too timid a thrust will not destroy movement. When the delicate operation has been successfully performed, the paralysed spider is dragged into the cell, placed on its back, and an egg carefully deposited at the base of its abdomen, after which the cell is sealed up. Some wasps, instead of providing a single large spider, store their cells with a number of smaller victims, all rendered limp and motionless.
In attacking a spider the first action of one ofthese wasps is to remove it from its natural environment. A garden-spider in its web, or a burrowing spider in its tunnel are more or less formidable, but if the one can be thrown down, or the other dragged forth into the open, they are well-nigh defenceless. Therefore in attacking an Epeirid the wasp first darts at it, seizes a leg, and attempts to jerk it out of the web. If unsuccessful, the spider will now be on its guard, and the wasp leaves it and tries the same manœuvre on another individual. Taken by surprise, it is instantly thrown to the ground, and can then offer no effectual resistance. Even the large “bird-eaters” fall victims to these terrible foes.
SOME CONCLUDING REFLEXIONS
Inthe foregoing pages we have been able to deal with very few out of the vast number of known spiders; yet the examples we have chosen for study are fairly typical of some of the more important groups, and calculated to give a tolerably just idea of the general economy of the tribe. In any case even such a fragmentary study as the present gives us food for thought. There is a question which the writer has so often been asked that he is inclined to dealwith it in anticipation, though perhaps he is wronging his readers in supposing that they desire to propound any such conundrum. This question is: What is theuseof spiders?
Now underlying this question there is surely a very unwarranted assumption that all the myriad creatures which exist have, as a reason for their existence, some reference to the activities and desires of mankind. As far as it has any meaning at all it amounts to this: What benefit does man derive from spiders? But it seems to take for granted that some benefits must accrue to man from these creatures, or they would not have the audacity to persist in living. Well, if the question in this amended form is in urgent need of an answer, the reply must be: very little if any. Certainly spiders prey as a rule on insects and no doubt kill many which might injure us, and in the constant battles between man and insect pests, instances have been recorded where particular species of spider have fought on the side of man with appreciable effect. But then they are as likely to devour our insect friends as our insect enemies, impartially slaying the just together with the unjust, so that little stress can be laid on their utility on this score. Indeed there is quite as good a case to be made out of man benefiting spiders as of spiders benefiting man, for his architectural proclivities have provided some species with secure homes from whichmost of their enemies—except man himself—are excluded, and where they are sheltered from the storms which are so fatal to their relatives outside, protected from extremes of temperature, and rendered so independent of times and seasons that the number of broods they produce in the year has increased. Whether a creature is useful or injurious is entirely a matter of the point of view. There are several animals with regard to which the opinions of the farmer and the gamekeeper are diametrically opposed!
But if anything emerges from the study in which we have been engaged, it is surely this fact: that wherever there is a niche in nature capable of sustaining life, to that niche some animal will sooner or later adapt itself without any reference to man’s desires or interests. We have seen spiders, all built on the same ground-plan, so to speak, and with the same essential organs, so modified in the details of structure and inherited instincts as to be able to thrive under the most diverse conditions. Think, for instance, of the water-spider and the desert Tarantula, or consider the difference in mode of life between the sedentary garden-spider and the hunting Attid.
Incessant competition in the struggle for life no doubt urged on primeval spiders to strike out new modes of existence. Under slightly novel conditions the best adapted or most adaptable survived and were pioneers in the occupation of a new territorytill the widely different capacities and habits which we now wonder at were slowly evolved.
Another point to ponder on is the wonderful complexity of the instincts which govern the actions of spiders; the extraordinary operations they can perform, entirely untaught, and of the object of which it is impossible to believe they are aware. We have seen that, in the most highly organised species, the sense organs—except perhaps that of touch—are but moderately developed, and the power of memory, the basis of intelligent action, but feeble; yet their inherited impulses suffice for all ordinary emergencies, and recur with unfailing precision at the proper periods of their lives. They are machine-like, perhaps, but what extraordinarily competent machines! The light of what we call intelligence burns low, but a glimmer of it can be detected here and there.
If one comes to think of it, the egg of a creature of complex instincts is a particularly wonderful atom; it contains not only the germs of all the complicated bodily structure, but there are bound up in it also the impulses that are to come into play at certain definite periods only of the spider’s life-history. And these impulses are not mere vague reminders that now is the time to spin a snare, or to weave an egg-cocoon; they prescribe precisely how it is to be done, involving perhaps a dozen different spinning operations in one unvarying order. Viewed in thislight, the germ of an insect or a spider would seem in a sense to be more complex than that of an animal whose vague instinctive impulses are under the direction of intelligence, and can be carried out in a variety of ways according to circumstances.
One of the most surprising things about the egg of a spider is the amount ofenergystored up in it. A bird’s egg, huge in comparison, contains material sufficient to build up the body of a fledgeling just sufficiently active to be able to accept from the mother that first nutriment without which it will speedily die.
But turn back to the account of the tarantula-spider. Its egg is small—perhaps the twelfth of an inch in diameter; yet it not only produces a spiderling complete in form, and provided with all the complex instincts of its tribe, but there is so much energy to spare that, for months, without any new food-supply, the young spider can lead an active life, frequently descending from and remounting its mother’s back, and can even put forth silk on its own account! The objects which a conjuror produces from a hat seem trifles in comparison with the outcome of a spider’s egg—the actual material seems astonishing from so small a source, but whence comes all this surprising surplus of energy? Fabre suggests that it is supplied by the direct rays of the sun, to which the Tarantula exposes in turn all parts of the egg-cocoon.
All through their lives spiders seem to be gifted in a high degree with the power of extracting the utmost value, in substance and in energy, from their food. Consider the great Theraphosid spiders—the so called bird-eaters. They have a massive body, and great muscular power to sustain; yet they are never heavy feeders and can go for many months without any food at all. And it is not as though they were dormant during this period of abstention; their vital processes seem to be going on as usual the whole time, and they are ready at any moment to resent attack, or to employ their spinning organs during their long fast. True hibernation, as we have seen, does not occur in this group; if it did, there would be nothing remarkable in the occasional long abstention from food. The vitality of a hibernating animal is practically at a standstill; all its vital operations—breathing, blood-circulation, muscular action—are reduced to the lowest possible limit, and it very likely expends no more energy during its winter sleep than it would during a day or two of active summer life.
But of such reflexions there is no end, and many such will doubtless arise spontaneously in the mind of the thoughtful reader, and it is for that very reason that the study of the life-history of any animal is of such absorbing interest. It is not contended that spiders are any more wonderful than any othergroup that might have been selected. There is, of course, a special interest attaching to the study of animals very much nearer to man in bodily structure and mental equipment, but the endeavour to understand the actions and appreciate the outlook on nature of creatures far remote from man, however unsuccessful, has its own fascination.
And this is what the mere collector entirely misses. Collecting is of course necessary, for a complete examination is never possible in the living specimen, and moreover without examples kept as types for reference we should lose our way in the multitude of living forms. But as an end in itself it is of vastly inferior value. The writer will be well content if he has succeeded in arousing the curiosity of some with regard to the humble life that surrounds us, and in stimulating a few who possess the requisite keenness and patience to add to our store of knowledge by new observations of their own.
Most of the large publications on the Arachnid fauna of different countries give some preliminary account of the habits of spiders, but the only considerable work entirely devoted to that subject is McCook’sAmerican Spiders and their Spinning-work(Philadelphia, 1893). A small but interesting book onThe Structure and Habits of Spiderswas published ten years previously by Emerton (Boston, 1883). But the reader who wishes to pursue further the study of some point to which his attention has been called in the foregoing pages may desire to be referred, for fuller details, to the original papers.
Many writers have described the spinning of the circular snare, and indeed it is quite easy for any one to watch the operation for himself; but McCook goes into the matter in great detail and figures many interesting variants of its normal form. J. H. Fabre’s delightfulSouvenirs entomologiques(Delagrave, Paris) have been issued at intervals for many years past, and mostly deal with insects. In Series 9, however, he has an entertaining chapter on “Les Epeires.” That the “viscid globules” arranged themselves mechanically was first demonstrated by C. V. Boys (Nature, xl, 1889, p. 250). The same writer experimented on the sense of hearing in spiders (Nature, xxiii, 1880, p. 149). The interesting paper by G. and E. Peckham on the mental powers of spiders is to be found in theJournal of Morphology(Boston U.S.A. i, 1887, p. 403.)
The aeronautic habit has engaged the attention of many arachnologists. Blackwall dealt with it in various papers in theTransactions of the Linnaean Societybetween 1833 and 1841, but the most complete account is to be found in McCook’s original papers which are summarised in his book already cited.
With regard to the spinning operations ofAgelenathe readermay consult a paper by the present writer in theAnnals and Magazine of Natural History, August, 1891.
The habits of the Water Spider were first described by de Lignac in aMémoirepublished in 1749. Since that date many writers, notably Wagner and Plateau, have dealt with the subject. The paper by the last named in theAnnales des Sciences naturelles, 1867, p. 345, is particularly worth reading.
E. Peckham deals with “Protective Resemblances in Spiders” in the publication of theNatural History Society of Wisconsinfor 1889.
The reader interested in the habits of the Wolf-spiders must certainly consult the chapters on “La Lycose de Narbonne” in Series 9 of Fabre’sSouvenirs entomologiques.
The classical account by the Peckhams, of the love dances of jumping spiders appeared conjointly with the paper by E. Peckham on “Protective Resemblances” cited above.
For the habits ofAtypus affinis(orpiceus) the reader is referred to the very complete account given by Enock in theTransactions of the Entomological Society(London, 1885, p. 394) of observations extending through several years.
The larger Aviculariidae have been dealt with in various papers by Pocock, and the particulars given with regard toDugesiellawere taken from a paper by Petrunkevitch in theZoologischen Jahrbüchern, xxxi, 1911.
In theArchiv für Naturgeschichte, i, 1889, Apstein published an admirable piece of research on the structure and function of the spinning glands of spiders. He investigated the glands present in the various families, and the particular arrangement of the spools and spigots on the spinnerets.
A paper by the present writer in theQuarterly Journal of Microscopical Sciencefor April 1890 continued this investigation, and shewed the special operations in which the various glands participated in the case of the Garden Spider.
CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
THE
CAMBRIDGE MANUALS
OF SCIENCE AND LITERATURE
Published by the Cambridge University Press under the general editorship of P. Giles, Litt.D., Master of Emmanuel College, and A. C. Seward, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge.
A series of handy volumes dealing with a wide range of subjects and bringing the results of modern research and intellectual activity within the reach both of the student and of the ordinary reader.
A series of handy volumes dealing with a wide range of subjects and bringing the results of modern research and intellectual activity within the reach both of the student and of the ordinary reader.
A series of handy volumes dealing with a wide range of subjects and bringing the results of modern research and intellectual activity within the reach both of the student and of the ordinary reader.
HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY
42 Ancient Assyria. By Rev. C. H. W. Johns, Litt.D.51 Ancient Babylonia. By Rev. C. H. W. Johns, Litt.D.40 A History of Civilization in Palestine. By Prof. R. A. S. Macalister, M.A., F.S.A.78 The Peoples of India. By J. D. Anderson, M.A.49 China and the Manchus. By Prof. H. A. Giles, LL.D.79 The Evolution of New Japan. By Prof J. H. Longford.43 The Civilization of Ancient Mexico. By Lewis Spence.60 The Vikings. By Prof. Allen Mawer, M.A.24 New Zealand. By the Hon. Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G., LL.D., and J. Logan Stout, LL.B. (N.Z.).85 Military History. By the Hon. J. W. Fortescue.84 The Royal Navy. By John Leyland.76 Naval Warfare. By J. R. Thursfield, M.A.15 The Ground Plan of the English Parish Church. By A. Hamilton Thompson, M.A., F.S.A.16 The Historical Growth of the English Parish Church. By A. Hamilton Thompson, M.A., F.S.A.68 English Monasteries. By A. H. Thompson, M.A., F.S.A.50 Brasses. By J. S. M. Ward, B.A., F.R.Hist.S.59 Ancient Stained and Painted Glass. By F. S. Eden.80 A Grammar of English Heraldry. By W. H. St J. Hope, Litt.D.
42 Ancient Assyria. By Rev. C. H. W. Johns, Litt.D.
51 Ancient Babylonia. By Rev. C. H. W. Johns, Litt.D.
40 A History of Civilization in Palestine. By Prof. R. A. S. Macalister, M.A., F.S.A.
78 The Peoples of India. By J. D. Anderson, M.A.
49 China and the Manchus. By Prof. H. A. Giles, LL.D.
79 The Evolution of New Japan. By Prof J. H. Longford.
43 The Civilization of Ancient Mexico. By Lewis Spence.
60 The Vikings. By Prof. Allen Mawer, M.A.
24 New Zealand. By the Hon. Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G., LL.D., and J. Logan Stout, LL.B. (N.Z.).
85 Military History. By the Hon. J. W. Fortescue.
84 The Royal Navy. By John Leyland.
76 Naval Warfare. By J. R. Thursfield, M.A.
15 The Ground Plan of the English Parish Church. By A. Hamilton Thompson, M.A., F.S.A.
16 The Historical Growth of the English Parish Church. By A. Hamilton Thompson, M.A., F.S.A.
68 English Monasteries. By A. H. Thompson, M.A., F.S.A.
50 Brasses. By J. S. M. Ward, B.A., F.R.Hist.S.
59 Ancient Stained and Painted Glass. By F. S. Eden.
80 A Grammar of English Heraldry. By W. H. St J. Hope, Litt.D.
ECONOMICS
70 Copartnership in Industry. By C. R. Fay, M.A.6 Cash and Credit. By D. A. Barker.67 The Theory of Money. By D. A. Barker.86 Economics and Syndicalism. By Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy.
70 Copartnership in Industry. By C. R. Fay, M.A.
6 Cash and Credit. By D. A. Barker.
67 The Theory of Money. By D. A. Barker.
86 Economics and Syndicalism. By Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy.
LITERARY HISTORY
8 The Early Religious Poetry of the Hebrews. By the Rev. E. G. King, D.D.21 The Early Religious Poetry of Persia. By the Rev. Prof. J. Hope Moulton, D.D., D.Theol. (Berlin).9 The History of the English Bible. By John Brown, D.D.12 English Dialects from the Eighth Century to the Present Day. By W. W. Skeat, Litt.D., D.C.L., F.B.A.22 King Arthur in History and Legend. By Prof. W. Lewis Jones, M.A.54 The Icelandic Sagas. By W. A. Craigie, LL.D.23 Greek Tragedy. By J. T. Sheppard, M.A.33 The Ballad in Literature. By T. F. Henderson.37 Goethe and the Twentieth Century. By Prof. J. G. Robertson, M.A., Ph.D.39 The Troubadours. By the Rev. H. J. Chaytor, M.A.66 Mysticism in English Literature. By Miss C. F. E. Spurgeon.
8 The Early Religious Poetry of the Hebrews. By the Rev. E. G. King, D.D.
21 The Early Religious Poetry of Persia. By the Rev. Prof. J. Hope Moulton, D.D., D.Theol. (Berlin).
9 The History of the English Bible. By John Brown, D.D.
12 English Dialects from the Eighth Century to the Present Day. By W. W. Skeat, Litt.D., D.C.L., F.B.A.
22 King Arthur in History and Legend. By Prof. W. Lewis Jones, M.A.
54 The Icelandic Sagas. By W. A. Craigie, LL.D.
23 Greek Tragedy. By J. T. Sheppard, M.A.
33 The Ballad in Literature. By T. F. Henderson.
37 Goethe and the Twentieth Century. By Prof. J. G. Robertson, M.A., Ph.D.
39 The Troubadours. By the Rev. H. J. Chaytor, M.A.
66 Mysticism in English Literature. By Miss C. F. E. Spurgeon.
PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION
4 The Idea of God in Early Religions. By Dr F. B. Jevons.57 Comparative Religion. By Dr F. B. Jevons.69 Plato: Moral and Political Ideals. By Mrs J. Adam.26 The Moral Life and Moral Worth. By Prof. Sorley, Litt.D.3 The English Puritans. By John Brown, D.D.11 An Historical Account of the Rise and Development of Presbyterianism in Scotland. By the Rt Hon. the Lord Balfour of Burleigh, K.T., G.C.M.G.41 Methodism. By Rev. H. B. Workman, D.Lit.
4 The Idea of God in Early Religions. By Dr F. B. Jevons.
57 Comparative Religion. By Dr F. B. Jevons.
69 Plato: Moral and Political Ideals. By Mrs J. Adam.
26 The Moral Life and Moral Worth. By Prof. Sorley, Litt.D.
3 The English Puritans. By John Brown, D.D.
11 An Historical Account of the Rise and Development of Presbyterianism in Scotland. By the Rt Hon. the Lord Balfour of Burleigh, K.T., G.C.M.G.
41 Methodism. By Rev. H. B. Workman, D.Lit.
EDUCATION
38 Life in the Medieval University. By R. S. Rait, M.A.
38 Life in the Medieval University. By R. S. Rait, M.A.
LAW
13 The Administration of Justice in Criminal Matters (in England and Wales). By G. Glover Alexander, M.A., LL.M.
13 The Administration of Justice in Criminal Matters (in England and Wales). By G. Glover Alexander, M.A., LL.M.
BIOLOGY
1 The Coming of Evolution. By Prof. J. W. Judd, C.B., F.R.S.2 Heredity in the Light of Recent Research. By L. Doncaster, Sc.D.25 Primitive Animals. By Geoffrey Smith, M.A.73 The Life-story of Insects. By Prof. G. H. Carpenter.48 The Individual in the Animal Kingdom. By J. S. Huxley, B.A.27 Life in the Sea. By James Johnstone, B.Sc.75 Pearls. By Prof. W. J. Dakin.28 The Migration of Birds. By T. A. Coward.36 Spiders. By C. Warburton, M.A.61 Bees and Wasps. By O. H. Latter, M.A.46 House Flies. By C. G. Hewitt, D.Sc.32 Earthworms and their Allies. By F. E. Beddard, F.R.S.74 The Flea. By H. Russell.64 The Wanderings of Animals. By H. F. Gadow, F.R.S.
1 The Coming of Evolution. By Prof. J. W. Judd, C.B., F.R.S.
2 Heredity in the Light of Recent Research. By L. Doncaster, Sc.D.
25 Primitive Animals. By Geoffrey Smith, M.A.
73 The Life-story of Insects. By Prof. G. H. Carpenter.
48 The Individual in the Animal Kingdom. By J. S. Huxley, B.A.
27 Life in the Sea. By James Johnstone, B.Sc.
75 Pearls. By Prof. W. J. Dakin.
28 The Migration of Birds. By T. A. Coward.
36 Spiders. By C. Warburton, M.A.
61 Bees and Wasps. By O. H. Latter, M.A.
46 House Flies. By C. G. Hewitt, D.Sc.
32 Earthworms and their Allies. By F. E. Beddard, F.R.S.
74 The Flea. By H. Russell.
64 The Wanderings of Animals. By H. F. Gadow, F.R.S.
ANTHROPOLOGY
20 The Wanderings of Peoples. By Dr A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.29 Prehistoric Man. By Dr W. L. H. Duckworth.
20 The Wanderings of Peoples. By Dr A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.
29 Prehistoric Man. By Dr W. L. H. Duckworth.
GEOLOGY
35 Rocks and their Origins. By Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole.44 The Work of Rain and Rivers. By T. G. Bonney, Sc.D.7 The Natural History of Coal. By Dr E. A. Newell Arber.30 The Natural History of Clay. By Alfred B. Searle.34 The Origin of Earthquakes. By C. Davison, Sc.D., F.G.S.62 Submerged Forests. By Clement Reid, F.R.S.72 The Fertility of the Soil. By E. J. Russell, D.Sc.
35 Rocks and their Origins. By Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole.
44 The Work of Rain and Rivers. By T. G. Bonney, Sc.D.
7 The Natural History of Coal. By Dr E. A. Newell Arber.
30 The Natural History of Clay. By Alfred B. Searle.
34 The Origin of Earthquakes. By C. Davison, Sc.D., F.G.S.
62 Submerged Forests. By Clement Reid, F.R.S.
72 The Fertility of the Soil. By E. J. Russell, D.Sc.
BOTANY
5 Plant-Animals: a Study in Symbiosis. By Prof. F. W. Keeble.10 Plant-Life on Land. By Prof. F. O. Bower, Sc.D., F.R.S.19 Links with the Past in the Plant-World. By Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S.
5 Plant-Animals: a Study in Symbiosis. By Prof. F. W. Keeble.
10 Plant-Life on Land. By Prof. F. O. Bower, Sc.D., F.R.S.
19 Links with the Past in the Plant-World. By Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S.
PHYSICS
52 The Earth. By Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.53 The Atmosphere. By A. J. Berry, M.A.81 The Sun. By Prof. R. A. Sampson, D.Sc., F.R.S.65 Beyond the Atom. By John Cox, M.A.55 The Physical Basis of Music. By A. Wood, M.A.71 Natural Sources of Energy. By Prof. A. H. Gibson, D.Sc.
52 The Earth. By Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.
53 The Atmosphere. By A. J. Berry, M.A.
81 The Sun. By Prof. R. A. Sampson, D.Sc., F.R.S.
65 Beyond the Atom. By John Cox, M.A.
55 The Physical Basis of Music. By A. Wood, M.A.
71 Natural Sources of Energy. By Prof. A. H. Gibson, D.Sc.
PSYCHOLOGY
14 An Introduction to Experimental Psychology. By Dr C. S. Myers.45 The Psychology of Insanity. By Bernard Hart, M.D.77 The Beautiful. By Vernon Lee.
14 An Introduction to Experimental Psychology. By Dr C. S. Myers.
45 The Psychology of Insanity. By Bernard Hart, M.D.
77 The Beautiful. By Vernon Lee.
INDUSTRIAL AND MECHANICAL SCIENCE
31 The Modern Locomotive. By C. Edgar Allen, A.M.I.Mech.E.56 The Modern Warship. By E. L. Attwood.17 Aerial Locomotion. By E. H. Harper, M.A., and Allan E. Ferguson, B.Sc.18 Electricity in Locomotion. By A. G. Whyte, B.Sc.63 Wireless Telegraphy. By Prof. C. L. Fortescue, M.A.58 The Story of a Loaf of Bread. By Prof. T. B. Wood, M.A.47 Brewing. By A. Chaston Chapman, F.I.C.82 Coal-Mining. By T. C. Cantrill.83 Leather. By Prof. H. R. Procter.
31 The Modern Locomotive. By C. Edgar Allen, A.M.I.Mech.E.
56 The Modern Warship. By E. L. Attwood.
17 Aerial Locomotion. By E. H. Harper, M.A., and Allan E. Ferguson, B.Sc.
18 Electricity in Locomotion. By A. G. Whyte, B.Sc.
63 Wireless Telegraphy. By Prof. C. L. Fortescue, M.A.
58 The Story of a Loaf of Bread. By Prof. T. B. Wood, M.A.
47 Brewing. By A. Chaston Chapman, F.I.C.
82 Coal-Mining. By T. C. Cantrill.
83 Leather. By Prof. H. R. Procter.
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