The estimated cost of keeping a dairy cow in full profit during the winter months, including labour of milking and attendance, is not less than 1s.a day, charging the home-grown produce at market price. Green hay is greatly to be preferred for milking cows, tending to enhance the value of the produce. Grasses should not be allowed to stand till over-ripe, causing the soluble matters to become converted into indigestible woody fibre; and sufficient labour should be employed; the hay should be constantly stirred from the time it is cut until it is placed in the stack, unless meantime showery weather should intervene; hay barns, too, are indispensable to the dairy farmer. (Gilbert Murray.)
Turnips give a disagreeable flavour to butter, when used in feeding, in autumn and winter. No mode which will prevent the taste of turnips being imparted to the milk is better than the practice of giving the turnips to the cow after she has been milked, instead of before.
When at pasture, cows are often tethered with chains or ropes of 12 ft. and upwards in length, having swivels to prevent twisting. At one end there is a ring, through which the chain is passed to form a loop that is passed over and tightened round the base of the horns, or secured to a head stall. The lower half from the swivel is sometimes made of rope, and at this end the tether is attached to an eye in a pointed iron peg of 9 in. or so long and about 1¼ in. in diameter at the head, which is flattened like the head of a nail. This peg is driven into the ground. The cows are shifted according to the weather and the grass they have eaten, averaging perhaps 6 times a day, the swivel referred to usually preventing the chain from fouling; and they are left out at night in warm weather only. The amount of grass economised by the tethering system is considerable.
Pig.—To make it pay, any kind of stock must be well treated. This is even true of the pig, and no animal pays better when well housed and fed. Much depends upon the system adopted—whether sows are kept for breeding, or whether the pigs are fattened. Some persons do best with breeding sows, and cannot make any profit out of the fatting process; others declare that fatting is very lucrative. In keeping pigs for profit, several points are to be considered.
Styes.—The styes must be practicable, dry, warm, and easily cleaned, not facing the north, nor with a moist or damp earth bottom. Farmers generally fill the bottoms 1 ft. deep with chalk; but although this is better than nothing, it is a poor substitute for a proper floor, which should be of concrete, with a nice dry raised wooden bench at one end for sleeping. Wherever earth is found in a stye, there will be mud very soon—andvery filthy, unhealthy mud too. The stye must be warm, and the straw clean—wheat barley straw is not so healthy, and encourages vermin as well as dirt. If it is true that a pig, put up to fatten, should be either sleeping or eating, then the bed must be as sweet as the food, and even at 35s.a load in the country straw will be paid for; but in a bad stye twice as much will be used as is necessary.
Breed.—Choice small breeds are too small for the market; they have not quick growth, and that is what is wanted in breeding for sale at 8-10 weeks; again, choice breeds, from men who exhibit, are sometimes wanting in vitality, sometimes diseased, and never produce so many or such vigorous litters as hardy breeds of another type. The best breed to select is, perhaps, the larger or middle York, which has quickness of growth, and makes a big strapping youngster in a few weeks. A cross with a strain of the same type, but of entirely different blood, is quite necessary for vigour, and to obtain large, strong, and frequent litters.
Breeding.—It is an old practice to advise that the pig should never be used for breeding until at least 15 months old. There is soundness in the advice, if a man desires to obtain the finest animals for stock or exhibition: but not when the object is to obtain as much money out of your stock as you can. Some make a practice of obtaining first litters from yelts under a year old. A September litter is divided into boars and sows; the former are cut and fattened; the latter are well fed, and allowed to run out to increase their vigour until the following September, when they have a litter, having been put to the boar about the end of May. They thus grow fast during the best months of the year, and approach maturity just as they litter. The young do not show any symptoms of deficiency in stamina, but grow well, and are sold off in 8-9 weeks at 20s.-22s.each, and the mother is soon prepared for mating to the boar again, bringing the litter about the beginning of April.
A breeding sow costs very little when she is without pigs; but she is naturally an expensive animal when she has a litter. It has been said by many that a sow should be always in pig or with pigs, and this is very near the truth. When her pigs are taken from her, she should be dried and fed up for taking the boar as quickly as possible. Thus, as she goes 16 weeks with young, she will, if they are taken from her at 8 weeks produce 2 litters a year, if she has no accident, and if she is rightly managed, for she will at each time have just a fortnight for taking the boar. Of course, the thing will not always be managed so exact and so regular as could be wished; at the same time it is a good guide, and if 2 litters can be managed in the year, so much the better. Taking the pigs at 10l.at 8 weeks, this gives a return of 20l.and the value of the manure. Against this you may place 8l.as the cost of keeping the sow, where everything has to be bought, but much less where there is plenty of house wash, milk, roots, and refuse from gardens, &c.
In breeding little pigs for sale, there is not the same element of chance that exists when pigs are fatted. The little ones vary but a shilling or two if they have not done so well as usual, whereas with a fat pig the process is longer, much more expensive, and may not turn out so profitable after all. When a large quantity of skim milk or refuse has to be consumed, fatting may be necessary, and, valuing the food at much less than meal and corn would cost, it may pay very well; but as there are plenty of men who buy young pigs for the express purpose of fatting, and who have no milk, no refuse, and, indeed, no stubble for them to clear up at all, but have to purchase everything, there must be some return.
Fatting.—When fatting will invariably pay for purchased food, is when porkers come in just right for the London market, nice in size and quality, and realise about 5s.9d.per stone. A 16-stone pig would at this rate realise 4l.12s.; and there is no reason in the world why it should not be attained in 16-20 weeks, instead of which it would, as a store, be worth at this age some 2l.Breed, attention, and feeding will help to bring this about. The youngsters must be continually pushing ahead; if they get a check, somuch profit goes, and so much time is lost. To this end, too, it is of no use to go in for a small breed—the York or the York and Lincoln will do very well.
Feeding.—With regard to feeding there are many opinions; but barley meal is perhaps better than anything, only it must be good, and feeders should always grind their own. Mills are now generally made, and by no means expensive. Boiled barley is, again, first-rate food, and may be given with capital effect. Peas are useful for finishing off little pigs, and they make the flesh of fat hogs firm and sweet; but cannot be compared with barley when cheap, and do not yield the same return. Maize is a good food when cheap; but it is better boiled than raw or ground. Feeding upon potatoes, although very cheap, is not the way to sell a second lot; a buyer of potato-fed pork is not very often anxious for a second consignment. (Field.)
Fowls.—House.—Where eggs alone are required, a few pullets may be kept in a moderate-sized run, and, when they cease to be prolific, may be changed for fresh birds, whose stamina has not been injured by confinement over ground saturated with their own excretions; but for rearing chickens satisfactorily, a good run is absolutely necessary. No particular dwelling is essential; any unused cart-shed, coach or tool house, stable, or similar building may be modified to suit the requirements of the inmates. It is exceedingly desirable that the perches should be of one uniform height; otherwise the contest for the highest leads to quarrelling and fighting. Nor should the perches be high, as in that case the confined space in a house renders it necessary that the birds should fly down perpendicularly, to the great injury of the feet, and frequent fracture of the keel of the breast bone. The house must be kept clean, which is best accomplished by movable boards under the perches, from which the droppings can be removed daily. The house must be ventilated, and so constructed that the fowls can be out at daybreak. The nest places, if intended for hatching, should be on the ground; eggs, to hatch well, must be placed in natural conditions, i.e. on the comparatively cold ground, so that they are cooler below than above, and exposed to the moisture arising from the soil.
Breeds.—In selecting a breed, the first question is the principal requirement of the household. If eggs are the main object, it would be absurd to select Dorking or game. Nothing can exceed the prolificacy of fowls of the Mediterranean type, which includes Spanish, Andalusian, Leghorn, Minorca, Ancona, and other less known varieties. Of these, as regards hardihood and size, Minorcas are in the front rank, and can be strongly recommended as splendid egg producers—not show birds with combs 4 in. high, such as some breeders aim at producing, but the ordinary bird common in the south-western counties of England. Leghorn is good, but smaller in size of egg; Andalusian very good, but not so much in demand as Minorca. All these birds are non-incubators, and their production of eggs is consequently not interfered with by weeks of broodiness, which renders Cochins, Brahmas, and other birds of the Asiatic type so unprofitable where eggs alone are required; though nothing can surpass the pullets as winter layers, as they produce eggs quite irrespective of temperature. Hamburghs, particularly the black and the spangled breeds, are admirable egg-producers, but the eggs are small as compared with those of the Minorca. The recently introduced Plymouth Rocks are very good layers, but they are sitters, and therefore not as prolific as the Mediterranean type. The same may be said of Houdans and some others. If eggs alone are required, the choice lies between the Minorcas and the Hamburghs. The latter may possibly excel in numbers; but, if weight and size of eggs be taken into consideration, the Minorcas will certainly carry off the palm. The birds of the Mediterranean type may be described as somewhat leggy, of small or moderate size, with largely-developed single combs, which are erect in the cocks and flaccid in the hens. They are not remarkable for abundance of breast meat, plumpness of body when killed, or any great tendency to fatten. The plumpest are the brown Leghorns; but these have been produced by crossing the white Leghorns with black and red game, and what they have gained as table fowl they have lost in egg-producing properties.
If there be no free and extended range, such as a farmyard, or grass run in orchard or paddock, the attempt to rear fowls for the table should be altogether abandoned; the profitable raising of chickens on ground saturated with the excrement of old birds is not to be thought of. But given a good grass run, the question arises as to the variety of fowls to be kept. If large household fowls are desired, the pullets of which will lay well in the winter, the Asiatic breeds may be selected, such as the Cochins, Brahmas, and Plymouth Rock. As table fowl the last is certainly preferable of the three, as, in consequence of its being bred from a cross with the old American farmyard fowl, the Dominique, it has more flesh on the breast, and, being free from the useless incumbrance of feathers on the legs, it is a better forager and scratcher on its own account. But as table fowl these breeds are far surpassed by a variety which has long been most highly esteemed in the West of England, where it is known as Indian Game. For plumpness and quantity of meat on the breast, these birds are unequalled by any large breed. The fighting Indian Game, known as Aseels, equal them in plumpness, but not in size. In both these breeds there is an absence of offal and waste parts that is remarkable. The bones are small, there is no large comb or superfluous feather, and the size of the pectoral muscles, which constitute the flesh on the breast, is very great. As market fowls, the fact that their legs are not white may in some cases be an objection, as there is in the minds of some cooks a stupid prejudice against any but white shanks.
The Dorking is of great excellence, but has its drawbacks. Dorkings are harder to rear than many other varieties; the chickens are delicate; and the deformity of the extra toe is most objectionable, leading to extra deaths among the chickens, which are trampled in the mire by the splay-footed hens; and the plumpness on the breast is not equal to that of the Game or Indian Game. Where fowls are bred for home use, no better large birds can be raised than will result from a cross between the Dorking and a large game, either the ordinary English breed or the so-called Indian Game, which, out of Cornwall and Devon, is frequently termed the Pheasant Malay. (W. B. Tegetmeier.)
The French breeds good for table purposes are La Flèche, Crèvecœur, and Houdan. The two latter have topknots, which are a disadvantage. La Flèche is most prized, as it grows to an enormous size, and is a prolific layer. They are usually prepared for market by penning them separately, fattening them with freshly-ground barley and buckwheat meal, mixed to about the consistency of gruel with milk; they will then require no water. They are crammed for the last few days. Another mode is to force the food down their throats, giving them as much as they can take without overtaxing the digestive organs. The usual time is about 3 weeks, but in France it is carried on sometimes for 3-4 months.
Formation of Eggs.—The chief egg-producing organ is the ovary, which is situated under the backbone at the end of the ribs, and protected by the pelvis. A young chicken has an ovary on both sides of the vertebræ, but only the one on the left side developes. The ova consists of different-sized granules, which, as the bird grows, become larger in size. They are attached to the ovary by a slight pedicle; when ready to enter the oviduct the ova breaks from this membrane, and sometimes, when eggs are formed too rapidly, this becomes ruptured, and a drop of blood will go down with the yolk—eggs in which this occurs should not be kept for breeding purposes. The oviduct is a funnel-mouthed canal into which the yolk enters; at its upper end it is very thin, but thickens as it nears the intestinal canal—the oviduct of a laying fowl is about 2 ft. long, and is folded backwards and forwards in the body of the bird. The yolk or ovum passes down the oviduct in a spiral manner, and becomes covered with layers of albumen, which are secreted by the oviduct. At one place the ovum is covered with a thicker stratum, and here the albumen becomes twisted at either end of the yolk into two cords which fasten the egg to the shell in such a manner, that the yolk, with the germ uppermost, is always near the upper side of the shell, though not touching it; if the egg is kept too long, and in one position, the albumen glues the germ to the shellwhen its vitality is destroyed. The ovum, covered with several layers of albumen, and the 2 cords (chalazæ), then goes down the oviduct, and becomes covered with 2 skins or membranes, which separate at the larger end to let the air into the germ; finally the egg is covered with its shell, which is formed with great resisting powers, its arch is much like a tunnel arch, and between the particles, or bricks, air passes into the egg. This shell, which is very strong at first, with the heat of the hen’s body disintegrates, and the particles separate, so that, when the chicken is ready to hatch, it is so brittle that the slight pecks of the horny cap on the mandible of the chicken is enough to break it to pieces. If the bird is fed on over-stimulating food, eggs are often produced too quickly. When such is the case monstrosities—such as two yolks in one shell, or two eggs one inside another—are produced, and very often they are laid without a shell.
Laying.—Several circumstances bear on the question of the supply of winter eggs; the most important are—(a) the food of the fowls; (b) their breed; (c) their age; and (d) their locality and lodging.
(a) The Food of the Fowls.—It cannot be too strongly impressed upon all poultry keepers that fowls do not create eggs: they only form them out of the materials existing in their food. This food also serves other purposes—namely, to keep up the warmth of the body, and to support the vital actions. If only sufficient food is given to supply these demands, it is evident that there can be none left for the production of eggs. The obvious inference from this is that it is necessary to feed your fowls very well if eggs are wanted in winter; and as the supply of nitrogenous food in the form of worms and insects is diminished, a little cooked refuse meat may be advantageously added during the very hard weather. A proportion of Indian corn, either whole or in the form of scalded meal, is a good addition to the winter food. It contains a larger amount of warmth-giving fat or oil than any other grain, and, by so keeping up the temperature of the animal, sets free the other foods to be employed in the secretion of the substances that compose the eggs.
(b) The Breed of the Fowls.—Small birds offer a much greater amount of surface to the action of the cold in proportion to their bulk than such as are larger. These latter especially, when thickly clothed with fluffy feathers, as are the Cochins and Brahmas, are hardly amenable to frost; hence, all other circumstances being equal, they will be found the best layers in winter.
(c) The age of the hens is a matter of great importance. Early hatched pullets that have passed completely through the moult and acquired their adult feathers some weeks since, can be readily induced to lay by good feeding; whereas old hens that moult later and later each succeeding season only produce eggs at this season very sparsely, if at all.
(d) Much depends on the locality and lodging. To produce eggs in winter, the fowls must be in comfortable circumstances; they must have dry and well sheltered runs; they should not be confined to a small place, as they are apt to lose that high condition necessary to robust health, and then the production of eggs immediately ceases. Their roosting place should be well sheltered, and free from draughts of cold air or the access of moisture. Some suggest the use of a stove; but such an appliance is rather injurious than useful. The fowls are exposed to the cold during the day, and this alternating with the stuffy, close atmosphere produced by heating a fowl-house must be injurious. (W. B. Tegetmeier.)
Setting Eggs.—The favourite egg for setting appears to be as nearly oval as possible. The best breeders reject every pointed or irregular egg or a very large one. It is customary to pick out the eggs very carefully in breeding fine stock. Generally 80 per cent. are rejected as liable to produce inferior chickens. In the ordinary practice little attention is paid to the shape of the egg; 13 eggs are picked out “just as they come,” and put under the hen. Farmers generally have as an argument that the hen that “steals her nest” always brings out good chickens, even though the eggs are of allshapes and sizes. But few farmers can tell how really good these “stolen” chickens are. They appear to be vigorous when young, but running about as they do with other hens, any comparison as to egg production is mere guesswork. The ordinary farm poultry could be greatly improved by a more careful selection of eggs for setting. Eggs with soft shells, with a ring or crust on the shells, or with an uneven or rough surface, should be rejected. Very large eggs containing a double yolk are frequently set in hope of producing a very large chicken, two chickens, or a curious monstrosity. Such eggs very rarely hatch.
Testing Eggs.—All eggs should be tested on the tenth day of incubation. The best and easiest way is to cut a hole in a stiff piece of cardboard, a little smaller than the egg, hold the egg on its side close into the hole and put a strong light behind the cardboard, when the state of the eggs will be quite distinct. If the egg is fertile by the seventh day the body of the egg will be quite dark and a sharply cut air space will be quite distinct at the large end. If it is a sterile egg, the whole of the egg will have much the appearance of melted wax and the air space will not be very distinct. If the egg is sterile it is much better to take it away, as it is still fresh enough to be used for cooking, some people even using them for eating; they would at any rate be good for feeding young chickens, whilst if they were left in the nest they would decay, probably be broken, and dirty the whole nest. If the nests are dirtied by a broken egg, the straw should all be taken away, and fresh put in its place, and the eggs washed in warm water, care being taken to prevent the eggs being shaken more than possible. If an addled egg is left in the nest, the germ, having been killed either by inherent weakness or by chilling, would decay, and sulphuretted gas would be generated, which would burst the shell, if it were moved about, and taint the atmosphere, and in that way hurt the chances of the others hatching.
Sitting.—The best method, if practicable, is to let the hen choose her own nest, leaving the eggs that she lays in the nest, and when she has laid her clutch of eggs she will sit and probably bring out a chick from each egg. A hen in a state of nature would only sit at a seasonable time of year; she would scoop out a shallow hole under the shade of a bush so that the moisture rising from the ground should not all evaporate. If a hen cannot sit in the place she has laid her eggs in, the best method is to put her into a coop with the earth as a floor, scooping it out slightly, then putting in a thin layer of straw or leaves, and sitting the hen at night on a few dummy eggs for the first 24-36 hours. When she has fed and returned quietly to the nest by herself, she may be given the good eggs, and, unless disturbed by animals or vermin, which latter can be kept away by allowing the hen a heap of ashes about the nest to dust herself in, she will bring out her brood at the proper time. A very good nest for a sitting hen can be made from a flour barrel turned on its side with ½ barrow load of mould put in, or a half sieve basket nearly filled with earth. Care must be taken that the hen has not to jump from any height on to her eggs, or she is likely to break them. Reynolds’s terra coop is a good one, as the wire flooring having mould put into it allows the moisture to rise from the earth to the under side of the egg. The sitting hen should not be disturbed by other fowls coming to lay in the same nest.
Incubators.—Taking into consideration the number of conditions absolutely necessary, a home-made, roughly constructed incubator is not likely to be successful. A machine which automatically regulates the temperature of the eggs, irrespective of that of the external atmosphere, is essential. Regulators are attached to all incubators in use at the present time. Tomlinson’s works by the expansion of air; Christy’s by the flexing of a compound metallic bar; and Hearson’s by the volatilisation of fluid in a metallic capsule, which, by its sudden expansion at any desired temperature, cuts off the source of heat, and prevents the degree to which the machine is regulated being ever exceeded. In addition to the exact regulation of the temperature, an incubator, to be successful, must be so arranged that the eggs are heated from above, and that theremust be a constant supply of fresh, moist air (not saturated with watery vapour). The advantages of incubators from a practical point of view as regards market and table poultry are due to their supplying hens with full clutches of chickens. In France, chickens are hatched in large numbers for sale to small proprietors, and reared by them under ordinary fowls, or in larger numbers under turkey hens. In our own country numbers of fancy poultry for the early shows are reared under artificial foster-mothers heated by paraffin lamps; but the results of endeavouring to rear chickens, except upon fresh runs where they can obtain natural food, are not sufficiently encouraging to render it likely that foster-mothers will supersede the employment of hens in rearing fowls for the purposes of utility.
Chickens.—Chickens require no food for 24 hours, as just before they are hatched the yolk is absorbed, and they live upon this till it is finished. When the chickens are all out and dry, the hen would naturally come off and take them to where she could find them suitable food, such as eggs of ants, gentles, and small germinating seeds. The best food that can be given young chickens for the first week is custard, made of equal proportions of egg and milk, beaten up together, and just set by the fire. They should always be allowed from the very first plenty of green food, lettuces running to seed, dandelions, or onion tops chopped very fine. Rice boiled in milk, and with a little freshly-ground meal, is very good. Dari, millet, and canary seed are all good; grits and coarse oatmeal should only be given quite freshly ground, as they soon become pungent and rancid, and put the digestive organs out of order. Gentles, or flesh maggots, can easily be got in the summer for the young chickens by hanging a piece of meat or a dead fowl on a branch of a tree, or suspending it in some way out of doors, cutting a few slashes in the skin, and leaving it for a few days, when it will become thoroughly fly-blown; then bury it a few inches under the earth in a place that the fowls can get at; in a very short while the ova of the fly will hatch, and the maggots come to the surface of the earth; the hens will soon find them, and bring their chickens to them, and they will eat the maggots greedily. Milk is very good for the young chickens, but great care must be taken to prevent its turning sour. The chickens should also have fine-crushed quartz or gravel, such as is swept down the roadsides by heavy rain, to help their digestion. It is much better to let the hen free with her chickens, but if she must be cooped, the best method is to put a coop with an open front to it, and the back against the wall of some building, and then tether the hen. A good tether is made with a strip of leather, one end being turned down about 1½ in., and a small slit being made through the 2 thicknesses of the leather, put the leg of the hen between these, and then pull the other end through the 2 holes, through the turned-down end first; in this way it cannot be tightened or hurt the leg of the fowl; then fasten a long piece of string to the end of the leather so that the hen can have a good run, as in a state of nature the hen would move to fresh ground day after day.
Fatting for Table.—However young a cockerel may be, if he has been running with hens, and if on killing he appears blue, there is considerable risk of its eating hard, though only 7 months old. A pullet which has only laid one or two of her first eggs is anything but first-class, and after laying out, and getting once broody, is no better than a hen 5 years old. A first-class table bird is a young, “straight,” thick-breasted cockerel which has had nothing to do with hens, or a pullet a month before laying her first eggs.
In France, fowls to be fattened do not exceed 6-7 mouths old; pullets, put up before they have laid, are in good condition and well fed, from their birth up to the day on which they are cooped. Cramming is regarded as the most economical and effectual mode of proceeding. The fowls to be fattened are placed in coops in which each has its own compartment. The coop is a long narrow wooden box, standing on short legs; the outer walls and partitions are close boarded, and the bottom is made with rounded spars 1½ in. in diameter, running lengthways of the coop; on these spars the fowls perch.The top consists of a sliding door, by which the chickens are taken out and replaced. The partitions are 8 in. apart, so that the fowls cannot turn round. The length of each box is regulated by the number of divisions required, the cocks and pullets, and the lean and fat lots, not being mixed up indiscriminately, because their rations differ, and the new-comers would disturb the old settlers by their noise. The floor below the boxes is covered with ashes or dry earth, which is removed every 2 days with a scraper. The food is chiefly buckwheat meal, bolted quite fine. This is kneaded up with sweet milk till it acquires the consistency of baker’s dough; it is then cut up into rations each about the size of 2 eggs, which are made up into rolls about the thickness of a woman’s finger, but varying with the sizes of the fowls; these are subdivided by a sloping cut into pellets about 2½ in. long. A board is used for mixing the flour with the milk, which in winter should be lukewarm. This is poured into a hole made in the heap of flour, and mixed up little by little with a wooden spoon as long as it is taken up; the dough is then needed by the hands till it no longer adheres to them. Oatmeal, or after that barley-meal, is the best substitute for buckwheat-meal. Indian corn-meal makes a short crumbly paste, and produces yellow oily fat.
In cramming, the attendant has the buckwheat pellets at hand with a bowl of clear water; she takes the first fowl from its cage gently and carefully, not by the wings or the legs, but with both hands under the breast; she then seats herself with the fowl upon her knees, putting its tail under her left arm, by which she supports it; the left hand then opens its mouth (a little practice makes it very easy), and the right hand takes up a pellet, dips it in the water, shakes it on its way to the open mouth, puts it straight down and carefully crams it with the forefinger well into the gullet; when it is so far settled down that the fowl cannot eject it, she presses it down with the thumb and forefinger into the crop, taking care not to fracture the pellet. Other pellets follow the first, till the feeding is finished in less time than one would imagine. It sometimes happens in cramming that the windpipe is pressed together with the gullet; this causes the fowl to cough, but it is not of any serious consequence, and with a little care is easily avoided. The fowl when fed is again held with both hands under its breast, and replaced in its cage without fluttering; and so on with each fowl. The chickens have 2 meals in 24 hours, 12 hours apart, provided with the utmost punctuality. If they have to wait, they become uneasy; if fed too soon, they suffer from indigestion, and in either case lose weight. On the first day of cramming only a few pellets are given; the allowance being gradually increased till it reaches 12-15 pellets. The crop may be filled, but before the next meal the last must have passed out of the crop, which is easily ascertained by gentle handling. If there be any food in it, digestion has not gone on properly; the fowl must then miss a meal, have a little water or milk given it, and a smaller allowance next time; if too much food be forced upon the animal at first, it will get out of health and have to be set at liberty.
The fattening process ought to be complete in 2-3 weeks, but for extra fat poultry 25-26 days are required; with good management you may go on for 30 days; after this the creature may become choked with accumulated fat, waste away and die.
The fowls are killed instantaneously by piercing the brain with a sharp knife thrust through the back of the roof of the mouth.
After plucking and trussing, the chicken is bandaged, until cold, to mould its form; and if the weather is warm it is plunged for a short time into very cold water. A fowl takes usually rather more than a peck of buckwheat to fatten it. The fat of fowls so managed is of a dull white colour, and their flesh is covered with a transparent, delicate skin. Plucking should be done instantly the fowl is dead, as the feathers then come off with the greatest ease, and the skin is not liable to be torn. (W. B. Tegetmeier.)
Packing Eggs.—Packing in newspaper is found to be the best for the inside protection, and a wooden box better than anything for holding the eggs. Baskets and hampers are of no use at all; they are sure to get pressed in travelling, and cardboardboxes would be crushed directly. A wooden box, not necessarily of thick wood, resists all pressure, and the eggs are not likely to suffer from anything short of an actual fall if properly packed. Newspaper is best, and theTimesbest of all for packing them, the paper itself being so much stiffer than other newspapers. Tear the paper into pieces about 8-10 in. square; slightly crumple it in the hand in wrapping a piece round each egg, so as to show a rough surface; on no account rub it or make it soft, as it is the stiffness which gives support, and prevents the eggs getting too close together; they must neither be very near each other, nor to the sides or bottom of the box. Put a good layer of the crumpled paper at the bottom, then the eggs one at a time, each in its own crumpled wrapper; they must be so arranged as to fit closely and firmly together, the paper giving enough pressure to keep them firm; there must be no spaces; every corner must be filled with the crumpled paper, of which there must also be a good covering before closing the box.
Ducks.—With regard to the variety that should be kept, two circumstances have to be considered. If large size, early maturity, and white appearance for the market are required, the Aylesbury will be found pre-eminent. If, on the other hand, small size with a strongly pronounced suspicion of wild duck is required, then choose a smaller variety, as the small black, called with equal inaccuracy East Indian, Buenos Ayres, and Labrador, or, still better, the tame-bred wild, or a cross between the two; but for family use Aylesburies must be relied on.
The great error in the usual management of ducks is not bringing them to rapid maturity. A duck should be so fed as to be large enough to kill under 10 weeks old. If it is allowed to live longer, it begins to moult, and consequently is not so good in flavour, and the nourishment given to it goes to form feathers, and not to increase its weight. It is obvious that if one duck can be made ready for the market in 2 months, it must yield a larger profit than another that is not fit for use till it is 4 or 6.
Ducks should be always shut up during the night, as they generally lay at that time, and, if allowed to be at large, drop their eggs in the water, where they sink and are lost. As early as possible in the season they should be set under large hens. A good-sized Cochin, Brahma, or Dorking will cover 12 or 13. The hens should not be set in the crowded, vermin-infested nest places that are usually seen in fowl-houses, but on the ground or in a circular basket or American cheese box, nearly filled with moist earth, and covered with a very little bruised straw, not hay; this earth should be kept moist during the whole time of setting, so as to imitate the conditions of the nest in a state of nature.
The young should be hatched on the twenty-eighth day, that is, the same day of the week one month after they are placed under the hen.
When the young are hatched they should be left with the hen till well nestled, well dried, and strong enough to stand. Many scores of ducklings are lost by inexperienced persons through their impatience to remove them from the nest. The little duckling is at first clad with soft yellow down, which gradually disappears as the feathers grow. After a few days, 3 or 4 broods are put together with one hen, who is quite able to take care of them all. For market purposes the treatment of the ducklings is as follows: They are not allowed to go into any water, but are kept in hovels, or the rooms of cottages, each lot of 30 or 40 separated by low boards; it is no uncommon thing at Aylesbury to see 2000-3000 all in one establishment. They are kept very clean and dry on barley straw. Their food consists of hard-boiled eggs chopped fine, and mixed with boiled rice and bullock’s liver cut up small. This is given to them several times in the day for about a fortnight or more. When they are capable of consuming more, they are fed on barley meal and tallow greaves mixed, together with the water in which the greaves have previously been boiled; some also use horseflesh to mix with their other food. This constitutes all that is necessary to produce early ducklings for the table.
They are killed at 10-12 weeks old, just before the adult feathers come; as the energy up to that time has been spent in the growth of flesh, but is then directed to the feathers, and a duck at 5-6 months when plucked often does not weigh so much as one of 3 months. The hens should be set in December and not later than March, for then the demand for ducklings is greater than the supply.
As to the treatment of such as are intended for breeding and exhibition. To produce birds of great frame and weight, the same food is given during the earliest stage; but, after about 3 weeks, they are allowed to go to the water, and their food is varied as soon as possible, by giving them maize (or better, oats) and barley alternately, when they can eat the same. They should be fed 3 times a day, and always have a trough of water by them, or the grain be thrown into the water; and it is an advantage to have some gravel or sand at the bottom, so that when drinking they also get hold of some grit, which helps digestion, and tends to keep the bill in proper colour. Maize is apt to render the birds too fat, and increase the tendency to accumulate internal abnormal fat, and to go “down behind,” in which condition they are perfectly useless as stock birds.
Geese.—Geese can only be profitably kept where there is abundance of grazing ground, as they derive the greater part of their nourishment from grass. Under suitable conditions no birds can be more profitable, but under other circumstances they cannot be recommended.
Of the three varieties, namely, the pure white or Emden, the grey or Toulouse, and the common saddle-back, the first name is to be preferred, as the birds pluck much better and clearer than the grey, and are much larger than the common parti-coloured breed.
The management of these birds in suitable localities is attended with very little trouble. In the early part of the year the old geese should be well fed with oats thrown into water, so as to stimulate them to early laying in February, if possible. When she has laid from eight to thirteen eggs, the goose remains on the nest, and her eggs may then be given to her.
The nest should be on the ground, without any intervening boards; and, if in a dry situation, should be watered, so as to keep the mould moist. The hatching goose should be well fed with oats thrown into a pan of water when she leaves the nest, and she should be allowed to go on to the pond or river.
When hatched, the goslings require grass, meal slaked with water, or porridge made with oatmeal. After a few days, oats, in water, may be given, and with the food they find by grazing, the young will do well until fattening time, when they should be fed on oats, in water. In many parts the geese are partially plucked two or three times a year for the sake of the feathers. Nothing can be more injurious than the practice; the small sum obtained for the plumage is much less than the deterioration in the value of the bird.
In rearing geese for the market, every endeavour should be made to attain early maturity. Young birds should never cease growing from the time they are hatched until they are ready to kill. If they are so fed as to be kept without growing, not only is all the food they eat during the time wasted, but they are deteriorating in quality and in tenderness of flesh.
Turkeys.—Turkeys dislike all that is necessary for their well-doing. They like to roam far and wide like peafowl, and will roost, if allowed to, in the open air, whereas they should sleep under cover, have an elevated roost, and a well-ventilated sleeping room. A turkey hen sits on her eggs for 32 days; she is a very gentle constant sitter, but a very careless mother, for she will, unless carefully watched or cooped, lead her chicks out in the damp grass or into a bed of stinging nettles, both of which proceedings are fatal to the brood, for wet kills them, and so does nettles; but boiled nettles are good for their health, and should be given chopped small mixed with barley meal.
The young birds should be left to effect their exit, if possible, unassisted, and allowed to remain for 12 hours afterwards under the mother’s wings. After that time they must be continually attended to and fed on curds, hard-boiled eggs, and crumbs, having a good boarded coop. Meal and grits must be given after the lapse of about 10 days; and when they are 5 weeks old, boiled potatoes, turnips, nettles, and lettuces may be chopped and mixed with their food.
Norfolk turkeys are considered the best breed to keep. When turkeys are put up to fatten, barley meal, bran, and potatoes well mashed and mixed, are the best food for them. Half-a-crown’s worth of meal and potatoes, with other garden produce, is about the cost of feeding each bird for one month, when it is considered fat enough for the table; but the birds will generally be in pretty good case when put up, if they have been allowed the run of the fields and the woods, for turkey chicks are only delicate in their first stages of growth. Some poultry-keepers cram their birds, but such turkeys are never so delicately flavoured as those fed in the natural way. (Helen Watney.)
Turkey hens are such admirable mothers, that they are largely employed in France to hatch and rear ordinary chickens. When young turkeys are hatched, they should be left undisturbed until they come out from under the mother, about 20-30 hours, and fed at first with equal parts of egg and milk beaten up together and set by heat. Fresh-ground oatmeal and milk should be given, and lettuces running to seed, full of bitter milky juice; this old and young will eat in large quantity and thrive exceedingly on it. Turkeys are much larger green vegetable eaters than fowls. In dry situations and seasons they are not delicate if properly fed and cared for. (W. B. Tegetmeier.)
Pigeons.—First and foremost comes the selection of the birds. The old-fashioned English so-called carrier is perfectly useless as a messenger or homing pigeon. The only breeds of any real value are Belgians. Of these, several somewhat distinct types exist, which are known as Liege, Antwerp birds, &c. In these birds the homing faculty has been developed by training for many generations, until at last an acquired instinct of indomitable perseverance in seeking their distant home has been developed, and this has become hereditary. Hence the necessity of breeding from good birds, and those which have been accustomed to fly long distances. To breed from birds without pedigrees is useless. So high a value is placed on the performance of the parents, that amateurs will spare no pains or expense in getting good, well-trained birds. Good birds, however, can be bought for moderate sums, when amateurs in Belgium are selling off the superfluous birds after the racing season is over; 1l.10s.to 2l.a pair will often procure birds that have done good work.
A flight of birds may be established in two modes. First, by obtaining pairs of old birds, shutting them up as prisoners, breeding from them, and turning out the young as soon as they can feed themselves and fly. The second is by buying young birds as they leave the nest, and letting them fly after they have been confined a few days in their new home.
As old birds would not remain in a new locality, they have necessarily to be confined as prisoners. For this purpose never select a close room or loft. A dry shed, not exposed to the north or east, if wired on the open side, is always filled with pure air. Shelves or open lockers, in which the birds will build their nests and rear their young, should be attached to the walls. A long, straight inclosure, covered at the top and sides with wire work, should communicate with the shed. In this the birds can take exercise, flying from the perch or landing-place at one end to that at the other. This open flight place should be, if possible, some 10 yd. long, and, being open-wired above, the birds enjoy the three great luxuries of fresh air, bright sunshine, and, above all, exposure to the rain.
For food, wheat, small round maize, sound beans, dark peas, and tares may all be given, and also millet, if it be accessible; some old mortar rubbish mixed with salt should be provided for the pigeons to pick at, this being most essential to their health;and, above all, a supply of clean water to drink, placed in vessels in which it cannot be defiled, is indispensable; also water for bathing, which may be put in a milk pan or shallow trough in the open flight place. Thus treated, the old birds do not suffer in health. (W. B. Tegetmeier.)
Homing pigeons are protected from birds of prey in China by means of a whistling machine made of about 10 small bamboo tubes, which is secured to the bird’s tail in such a manner that the rush of air across the tubes produces a shrill sound.
Bees.—The modern system of bee-keeping is entirely opposed to the older method, in which honey was obtained by the destruction of the bees, and almost equally to the more recent plan of removing the surplus honey in large supers. By the present system the hives and bees are under perfect control. The sizes of the former can be increased or diminished at the will of the owner to any required extent. The combs are in movable frames, which can be transferred at will from one hive to another without the slightest difficulty. The formation of new colonies can be accomplished as desired, or prevented altogether, and the whole energy of the bees devoted to honey gathering. The waste of honey in the secretion of wax can be in great part obviated—a most important matter, as each lb. of wax requires the consumption of 15-20 lb. of honey for its formation; and the pure honey, uncontaminated with brood or pollen, can be stored in small boxes, each containing 1-2 lb., capable of being conveyed by rail without injury, and possessing a marketable value at least 3 times as great as that of ordinary run honey. But in order to accomplish these desirable ends, bee-keeping must be followed with some amount of intelligence and interest, and a certain amount of capital must be invested in the pursuit. The knowledge of the modern system of bee-keeping has been very greatly extended by the labour of the British Bee-keepers’ Association, which has published an admirable series of tracts, with a sixpenny handbook for cottagers, has organised annual shows and expositions in many parts of the kingdom, and has raised bee-keeping in England to its present standard of excellence. Through its exertions a fixed size for frames has been determined, so that in a well-arranged apiary any frame of honey or brood comb can be transferred from one hive to any other with the greatest facility. The honey harvest is now gathered in great part in convenient sectional supers of a most marketable and attractive character, obtained without the destruction of a single bee; whereas it formerly consisted merely of run honey, acquired by the suffocation of the bees and the crushing of the comb, when honey, the fluid contents of the bodies of the larvæ, pollen, propolis, and wax, were all mixed indiscriminately together—the market value of this mess obtained by the destruction of the colony being less than one-third of the value of pure honey in virgin comb, as is obtained by the modern system.
Improved hives such as are now employed by all intelligent bee-keepers are made, as before stated, on one uniform standard, and, thanks to the energy of the association, may be procured of a number of makers in various parts of the country. In the modern system the old-fashioned bell-shaped straw skep is discarded, and bees are kept in wooden hives, the best of which have double sides, with an interval between, so as to equalise the temperature. The combs are in frames, each of which is movable, so that the hive can be enlarged or diminished at any time, movable partitions, termed dummy boards, being used to shut off the empty space.
As an example of a practically useful modern hive may be taken one made by Baldwin, of Bromley, Kent. A flat platform or floor supported on 4 stout legs, and having a large oblique alighting board projecting to the front, supports the body of the hive. This has double sides, with air spaces, which may be filled with any non-conducting material, as powdered cork. On the front is a grooved penthouse, to prevent rain entering into the hive. The interior contains 9 movable frames, each of which is fitted with a thin sheet of pure wax foundation, which the beep utilise, to the great saving of honey, labour, and time. There are 2 dummy boards, so as to adjust the size of the interior to the number of framesin use. One section frame is made broader than the rest, so as to contain 6 sectional boxes, each fitted with a triangular piece of wax comb foundation. These in the season are rapidly filled with honey in virgin comb, and can when filled be removed and utilised separately. This frame is filled with sections, each with a triangular piece of wax foundation.
In order to prevent the queen bees laying eggs in any of these sections, a piece of perforated zinc is placed when required between the section frame and the front of the hive. The perforations are sufficiently small to prevent the queen passing through, but the workers pass readily.
The section frame is of use when the quantity of honey collected is comparatively small. In general the surplus stores, those that are available by the bee-keeper, are stored above the frames in a sectional super. This holds 21 sections, each perfectly distinct from the others, and all are furnished with triangular slips of foundation comb. As fast as these supers are filled they can be removed and marketed. The costlessness of these supers is one of their most remarkable qualities. Each is made of a slip of wood partially divided and stamped, so as to form the four sides of the super when folded, the ends being tongued so as to interlock when pressed together. The demand for these sectional supers may be inferred from the fact that they are made in thousands by means of machinery, and are so cheaply produced that their cost varies from ⅓d.to less than ½d.each.
Such time as the supers are not in use the frames are covered over with warm quilting, which gives access to the frames and interior of the hive at any time, as it is easily removed. Apertures are cut through the quilts, so as to permit of feeding when requisite. The top of the hive is covered by a deep capacious roof, which protects the interior, sheltering the supers when being filled, or the feeding bottle when in use, and keeping the quilts dry and snug during winter.
The demand for improved hives of the construction recommended is so great that machinery is brought into play in their construction, and the consequence is extreme cheapness. The hive described can be sold at somewhat about 20s., and cheaper hives, of the same kind, not quite so elaborately fitted, are made from 10s.to 15s., and can be obtained of Baldwin, Bromley; Neighbour, London; Abbott, Southall; Walton, Newark, and many other makers. (W. B. Tegetmeier.)
Supplementary Literature.
Sir F. Fitz-Wygram, Bart.: ‘Horses and Stables.’ London, 1886. 5s.
M. Horace Hayes: ‘Riding on the Flat and across Country: a Guide to Practical Horsemanship.’ London. 10s.6d.
Mrs. Power O’Donoghue: ‘Ladies on Horseback: Learning, Park-riding, and Hunting, with Hints upon Costumes, and numerous anecdotes.’ London. 1882. 5s.
James Long: ‘The Book of the Pig: its Selection, Breeding, Feeding, and Management.’ London, 1885. 15s.
Modern Bee-keeping. London. 6d.
T. W. Cowan: ‘British Bee-keeper’s Guide Book.’ London, 1885. 1s.6d.
F. R. Cheshire: ‘Bees and Bee-keeping.’ London, 1886. 7s.6d.
L. Wright: ‘The Practical Poultry-keeper: a Complete and Standard Guide to the Management of Poultry, whether for domestic use, the markets, or exhibition.’ London. Latest Edition. 3s.6d.
J. Coleman: ‘The Sheep and Pigs of Great Britain; being a series of articles on the various breeds of sheep and pigs of the United Kingdom, their history, management, &c.’ London. 18s.
I. E. B. C.: ‘The Farm.’ London. 5s.
I. E. B. C.: ‘The Stable.’ London, 5s.
January.—Wheel out manure, trench and make ground for crops, mend fences, clean the stems of fruit-trees, do rough pruning and felling, and complete all arrears in winter work, as weather may permit. Every effort should be made to lay up as much land in the rough as possible; the more it is frozen through, the greater will be its fertility. In hard frost, wheel out manure; in rain, clear up all rubbish and let it smoulder in a heap, using the ashes as manure. Make ready for sowing peas, beans, cabbages, lettuce, silver-skin onions, radishes, carrots, and spinach in warm borders or frames. Protect artichokes. Manure asparagus beds without digging. Sow beans in rich deeply-dug ground in the open in the last week. Plant out cabbages. Sow cauliflower in frames for putting out in March-April. Plant crowns of horseradish 15 in. deep in dunged trenches. Sow peas in wooden or old zinc troughs in frames, and put out in the last week. Sow mustard and cress (separate) in pans or boxes in frames. Cover seakale with pots or plenty of litter.
Lawns should be well rolled after wet weather, and kept clear of rubbish. Walks should be re-gravelled and rolled, and the edgings kept level and regular. In favourable weather all empty borders may be manured and deeply dug, leaving them as rough as possible on the surface, so that the soil may be acted on by frost. Rose-beds should receive a heavy dressing of a mixture of pig-dung and horse-dung, lightly forked in during dry open weather; and see that the plants have the necessary protection. Planting may still be done when the soil is dry, but November is the best time for planting roses. Standard roses must be well secured to stakes. After severe frost, carnations, pinks, wallflowers, alyssum, arabis, pansies, and other spring flowering-plants should be examined; if heaved or loosened, the soil when dry should be made firm round them. Hyacinths, tulips, and kindred flowers will be benefited by a mulching of old mushroom-dung or leaf-soil, and must be protected from heavy rain. If slugs are troublesome, occasional dustings with soot and dry wood-ashes will keep them in check; but hand-picking, resorted to early on mild mornings, is the best remedy. Examine crocuses frequently to see if they are discovered by mice. Keep conifers and evergreen shrubs free from snow, to prevent them from being broken or disfigured by its weight; and prune any deciduous trees and shrubs that may require it. Choice trees, shrubs, and any herbaceous plants that were set out in autumn or early winter should have their roots protected from frost by a mulching of fern or litter. Keep shrubberies free from fallen leaves and weeds; but digging amongst shrubs cannot be too severely condemned, for many of the fibrous feeders must be destroyed, and the plants injured in consequence. About the middle or end of the month place stock bedding plants (ageratums, alyssa, heliotropes, lobelias, verbenas) in moist heat, when they will readily furnish cuttings, which can be propagated in a hotbed of leaves and dung if no house is available. Calceolarias and pelargoniums must be kept cool and dry by ventilation, and decayed leaves should be picked off. Dahlia roots should have rotten portions removed with a sharp knife. Sow lobelias early in heat, and prepare to sow all subtropical plants. Get ready for potting pelargoniums.
February.—All empty ground must be dug deep and thrown up rough to admit the frost. On cropped ground, prick over lightly between the plants. Sow several sorts of cabbage for filling up blanks; also broccoli, in pans and on warm slopes. Sow early beans in warm dry situations, and late ones on strong land. Sow frame plants (capsicums, cucumbers, melons, tomatoes) in moderate heat, and avoid over-watering while frosts endure. When capsicums are large enough, prick out in good light soil, in greenhouse or a hot corner, for pickling pods. Early carrots may be sown in frames or warmest borders; and parsnips in very deep-dug ground. Cauliflower, sown in mild heat, on richest soil, well watered, should be pricked out in good mould when quite small, and finally transplanted at 2½-3 ft. apart. Plant early potatoes in warm, sheltered, dry ground, in open weather. Alternate 2 or 3 rows of potatoes with a row of early peas, at the same time; they help each other. Sow long radishes for early crops and round ones for stock, in old frames with plenty of manure. Let celery for September use be sown in gentle heat, and pricked out 3 in. apart on an old hotbed, watering well. Plant garlic and shallots on dry, strong, deep land. Make new rhubarb plantations, and cover old plants to induce early growth. Sow lettuce in frames and warm borders; plant out when hardened. Make very small sowings of mustard in frames at successive intervals. Sow parsley, and sow or divide most other herbs. Round-seeded spinach and small white turnips can be sown in warm borders.
Have the lawn rough-broomed or bush-harrowed to remove worm-casts, then rolled, and turfed where needed. New grass may be sown, having the land previously well-drained, deep-dug, and levelled, sow in dry weather, rake and roll the seeds in, and repeat the rolling at intervals. Finish planting shrubs and climbers, and do pruning to these and summer-flowering roses in mild weather. Cleanse ferneries from dead fronds and weeds, and replace the surface soil with a dressing of peat and loam pressed well round the plants. Dig and manure beds filled with herbaceous plants. Plant choice kinds of ranunculus, and set out calceolarias and violas that have been confined in cold frames during the winter, pinching off the tops when they begin to grow. Pelargoniums may be boxed or potted off in leaf-soil, loam, and a little sand, keeping them in mild heat till well rooted. Take cuttings from plants put in heat last month, e.g. heliotropes, lobelias, and verbenas. Seeds of subtropical plants may be sown in heat, for putting out in large beds. Hardy annuals to succeed those sown in autumn may now be sown in pots.
March.—Hotbeds are now all-important for sowing capsicums, celery, egg-plants, lettuce, melons, New Zealand spinach, tomatoes, and vegetable marrow. Suckers of globe artichokes should be set out 2 ft. apart in rows 4 ft. asunder; whole sets of Jerusalem artichokes may be planted in strong soil, and are especially useful for hiding ugly fences. Weed and manure asparagus beds, and prepare for sowing new beds. Earth up early beans, set out seedlings raised in frames, and sow for main crop. Sow early beet. Several kinds of broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, and kale, should be sown now, the more delicate sorts in frames, and planted out in mild weather when forward enough. A second sowing of capsicums may be wanted. Early carrots may be sown at once, but main crops somewhat later in the spring. Set out early-sown cauliflower, and sow later kinds. Renew sowing and pricking out of celery. Divide and re-plant chives, and lose no time in planting garlic and horseradish. Sow leeks for planting out. Plant out and re-sow lettuce of several kinds. Onions for salading and pickling may be sown in quantity. Do not forget parsley. The main crop of parsnips must be sown in good time. The later kinds of pea must now be sown for the main supply. Plant late potatoes in quantity and follow with early kinds (to avoid May frost). Make successive sowings of radishes out of doors. Sow or plant seakale. Sow plenty of spinach and turnips. Try watercress in pans standing in water.
Fork over the ground between spring-flowering plants and in shrubberies when the weather is dry and favourable. Remove protection from roses, and finish pruning.Start dahlias in a hotbed, and divide and pot when they show shoots 1-2 in. long; treat cannas and Salvia patens in a similar manner. Finish potting ageratums, coleus, cupheas, heliotropes and pelargoniums. Box variegated alyssum, lobelias and verbenas, or, when hardened, plant them in frames. Prick off subtropical plants into pans, or place them singly in small pots, when large enough to handle; remove into larger pots as they require it. Plant gladiolus bulbs either in warm sheltered beds, or first in pots in a cold frame. Canary creeper and sweet pea should be sown in pots for early flowers; the latter also in the open. Harden all annuals sown last month in pots, ready for planting out in April. Sow asters and stocks in a frame in mild heat. Watering needs much care this month, on account of drying winds and frosts.
April.—Pay the utmost attention to weeding and hoeing, and keep the soil opened to sunshine and rain. Again weed and dress asparagus beds and sow or plant new ones. Sow a few beans towards the end of the month. Make a sowing of beet early in the month and a heavier one towards the end. Renew the sowing of broccoli at intervals, and keep up a constant succession of cabbage. Sow cardoons on level, heavily-dunged land, and main crops of carrots. Plant out cauliflower in mild weather, and protect with old flower-pots in keen winds and frost. Sow successive lots of celery in a warm open bed, and some in pans under frames for pricking out. Sow egg-plants in heat and pot when ready. Herbs such as chervil, chicory, clary, fennel, and hyssop, should be sown now in a dry sunny spot. Sow a little kohlrabi towards the close of the month; re-sow leeks. Keep up a succession of lettuce, sowing in frames and planting out. Sow maize in boxes in pits; harden off for transplanting at the end of May. Sow winter onions, and parsley for roots. Keep sowing peas for succession. Sow salsify and scorzonera early in the month in deep rich soil. Renew sowing of seakale in any good deep soil. Sow spinach (prickly seeded), and have a succession of turnips, freely hoeing and thinning as they come on. Sow vegetable marrow in gentle heat.
Let lawns be regularly rolled and mowed, and weeds rooted out. On thin places scratch up the surface with an iron rake, sow some seed, dress with fine soil and wood-ashes, and finish by bush harrowing and rolling. Mulch newly planted roses, shrubs, and trees, and well water in dry weather. Set out golden lilies from their winter frames among shrubs. Keep up potting and boxing cuttings. Plant hardy edging flowers, and those for carpet-bedding. Divide and re-plant violets, which, if massed in a border, can be taken up in October, put in a frame, and will then continue flowering through the winter. Make two sowings of hardy annuals, one early the other late in the month; cover the seeds very lightly. Beware of slugs as soon as the plants show up. Sow half-hardy annuals in the frame prepared for them, in shallow drills, and shade with mats till the plants appear; apply tepid water through a very fine rose, air when the weather permits, and prick out in frames to harden gradually when large enough. Sow perennials and give them the same care as the last-named group.
May.—Every vegetable may be sown in this month, and it will often happen that seeds sown out of doors now will afford better plants than those sown previously in heat and gradually hardened. This said hardening process demands the most constant wariness. Thin asparagus seed-beds, scatter dry litter as a protection on the bearing beds, and cut shoots for table in a regular manner. Beans will hardly pay for sowing now; top the plants when in flower if black fly is present. Sow dwarf and runner kidney beans for summer supply. Make an early sowing of winter beet. Sow broccoli for succession and put out as convenient. Plant out the most forward Brussels sprouts for an early crop in a sunny spot; it is rather late for further sowing. Cabbage may be continually sown and planted out. Sow capsicums in the open in the second half of the month, and plant out from hotbeds in warmest localities. Thin carrots, and sow a little seed to afford a crop of miniature ones in late summer. Plant out cauliflower as weather and ground admit, providing shelter on cold nights and abundant water. In forward situations, celery may be planted out in well-damped trenches and kept wellwatered. Sow and plant cucumbers in large frames and out of doors, selecting the sorts. Sow dandelion for next spring’s salads, and endive for autumn and winter use. Keep on sowing and planting out lettuce, not neglecting water and shade. Sow melons in frames, which need a high temperature; never shade after first planting. Sow and plant out New Zealand spinach on poor but sunny ground. Sow pickling onions in poor soil and allow to grow as thickly as possible. Renew sowings of peas, if needed. Sow Savoy cabbages for small hearts for early winter consumption. Plant out tomatoes in warm weather, choosing sunny spots. Sow turnips for succession. Plant out vegetable marrows and their allies (gourds, pumpkins, &c.) in warm weather, and cultivate like common “ridge” cucumbers, covering during cold nights.
Attend to lawn and footpaths, and plentifully water flowering shrubs in dry weather. Apply liquid manure to roses, search for insects and syringe often; disbud, and remove the weakest shoots and all suckers from the stocks. Lift plants which have done flowering; divide and replant them for autumn use. Propagate cuttings from them under glass. Lift bulbs, and spread them in a warm place to mature, storing as soon as the tops are dead. Dig and dress the borders ready for summer bedding-plants, which must now be hardened. Use soft tepid water only. Bed out the hardiest plants in good weather at the close of the month, beginning with calceolarias, verbenas, &c. Plant hollyhocks and pentstemons around shrubberies and in mixed borders, securing them to stakes. Thin hardy annuals and perennials, and sow again for the later season. Stake and tie out plants needing it. Plant out tender annuals when forward enough.
June.—Pay attention to weeding and watering, and remember with reference to the latter that it is better to water less often and copiously than frequently and in driblets. When the supply is short, reserve it for newly planted stuff. Dress asparagus with salt and liquid manure; cease cutting about mid-June. A few beans may still be sown for late crop. Plant out broccoli, and sow a little seed for the next April cutting. Sow plenty of cabbage and greens to put out as the ground becomes empty. Plant out, water, and shade cauliflowers, and sow for the autumn crop. Plant out celery, and give plenty of water and shade. Sow pickling cucumbers (gherkins) in the open. Repeat sowing and planting lettuce. Sow mushroom spawn in cucumber frames or in heaps of horse-dung. Sow salad onions and thin out keeping sorts. A few peas (earliest kinds) may still be sown. Sow turnips abundantly in the last week, hastening the early growth, then thinning well.
Keep shrubberies well hoed, remove or shorten sprawling branches, and gather seed vessels. Trim box edging. Thin and tie shoots of climbing shrubs. Mulch rose bushes, and never cease hunting for grubs. Hasten the filling of borders with bedding plants, avoiding too fine a surface to the soil. Plant strong-growing things deep, and press the soil well about them, not omitting stakes and pegs when wind may do damage. Let subtropical plants have good deep soil and shelter from shrubberies. Plant chrysanthemums and dahlias in mixed borders and around shrubberies. Keep the hoe going everywhere, and remove all dead flower-stalks except such as are needed for seed. Propagate cuttings of pansies and wallflowers; sow mignonette and sweet peas for late returns; sow and prick out stocks, and do not cease planting tender annuals, such as asters.
July.—Watering is the most important item in this month, even though occasionally showery. Avoid nuisance from rotting refuse by digging it into trenches. Sow a few early dwarf beans. Broccoli for succession may still be planted out, not forgetting the water; also sow walcheren. Sow several kinds of cabbage in some quantity. Thin out cardoons. Water and fork among cauliflower, and shade young heads from too much sun. Plant out celery, and sow a little seed for a supply for soups if liked. Water ridge and frame cucumbers with soft sunned water abundantly at intervals of some days. Sow endive early and late in the month, and plant out in frames or sheltered beds when ready. Take up garlic, onions and shallots when fully ripe, and plant out leeks in trenches as celery. Sow parsley. A few early peas may be sown still. Lift potatoesas soon as mature, leaving the foliage to finish withering afterwards; plant a few of a quick growing sort for digging as “new” in the autumn. Sow black Spanish radishes for winter crop. Make an early and plentiful sowing of turnips, and keep them thinned and weeded. Plant out abundance of winter green-stuff, in well-dug land, and water if needful.
Do not neglect the lawn; daisy-heads are best removed by a scythe. Cut back expanding shrubs, and trim box-edging and hedges, using the knife for large-leaved growths. Supply rose bushes with liquid manure, and begin budding when the sap flows freely and the bark commences to peel; take cuttings late in the month. Weed and fork round bedding plants and regulate edging plants, leading out and pegging down specimens required to fill a certain vacancy. Freely administer liquid manure to strong subtropical plants in dry weather. Lay carnations, cloves, and picotees, and prick out stocks and other seedlings. Get a shady bed ready for cuttings of pinks, taken at the third or fourth joint on bottom shoots from old plants. Take cuttings of wallflowers and pansies, potting or planting out the former, and transplanting the latter when rooted. Hoe round, trim, water, and thoroughly syringe violets. Stake and thin out chrysanthemums, freely dosing with liquid manure.
August.—Autumn seed-sowing demands the greatest care, to ensure the ground being previously sufficiently moist, and to avoid having the plants too forward when frosts commence. Cut down artichokes as soon as the heads are taken. Plant out broccoli where they will have a low screen against the north wind. Sow Brussels sprouts for spring planting out. Renew sowings and plantings of cabbages. Sow cauliflower in shelter or frames for spring growth, and water standing heads in driest weather. Earth-up celery when well grown. Sow corn salad for spring use. Plant out endive in shelter, and sow a little more. Sow hardy lettuce in a dry poor plot for winter and spring supplies. Make a couple of sowings (early and late) of several kinds of onion to stand the winter; take up and sun-dry the ripe crop. Sow prickly spinach at both ends of the month. Cut tomatoes and hang indoors in the sun to mature. Make a final sowing of turnips for spring crop.
Continue industrious in weeding, cleaning, trimming, pegging, and staking the flower beds, and begin to propagate cuttings. With the latter, commence with those which straggle and weak-growing kinds of plant first in order. Strike flowers of the heliotrope and verbena class in pots, put in a cold frame, shaded and watered. Look after dahlias, staking, thinning, and applying liquid manure. Propagate pansies and phloxes, and stake chrysanthemums and gladioli. Bud, thin, and well water roses.
September.—Weeding now demands more energy than is often devoted to it, and the remains of gathered crops must be cleared off. Keep on planting all available ground with cabbage while plants last. Plant out winter cauliflower, and re-sow a little under cover. Earth-up celery. Plant out and blanche endive; ditto lettuce, and make occasional fresh sowings where dry and open. Thin parsley by pulling out whole plants as wanted; cut down the strongest plants to induce fresh growth. Take up potatoes before wet weather sets in. Thin spinach when well up.
Harden all rooted cuttings of flowers by thorough ventilation of the frames. Keep up watering and vermin-hunting. Remove dead leaves and blooms from pelargoniums, and pinch out the points of heliotropes, verbenas, &c. Well weed and water the reserve of daisies, forget-me-nots, &c. Stake all plants needing it. Select firm and well-matured bulbs for flowering in beds, embracing crocus, hyacinth, narcissus, ranunculus, snowdrop, tulip, &c. At the end of the month sow hardy annuals for next spring flowers. Plant out seedling perennials where they are to remain, so that they may get well rooted before frosts come. Sever layers of carnations, clove-pinks, and picotees when rooted, and pot them in cold frames, protected from sun and rain. Plant out pinks that have been rooted under frames. Continue budding roses, and loosen tiers which are injuring the bark. Trim and secure all climbers. Prepare for planting pansies.