1. Villenage.
1. Among some of the nations in question villenage still exists. Now where slavery, in any of its forms, prevails, the right of the slave or villein to support is a necessary and a safe consequence. It is necessary, because a person who is not a free agent cannot provide for himself. It is safe, because one of the principal evils of pauperism, improvidence, can scarcely exist among slaves, and the power of the master enables him to prevent idleness and fraud. The poor laws of Russia,therefore, if they can be called poor laws, are merely parts of her system of slavery.
2. Recency of the system.
2. Among most of the other nations in question the compulsory system is in its infancy. Denmark has only lately got rid of slavery, and her poor laws date from 1798. Those of Sweden, in their present form, of Mecklenburg, Saxony, Wurtemberg and Bavaria, all bear the appearance of recency. In Wurtemberg assessments had been long obsolete, until they were re-introduced during the famine of 1817. The only country in which the compulsory system appears to have continued as long as it has in England, is that in which it has produced effects resembling those which have followed it with us, namely, the Canton de Berne.
3. Small number of persons wholly dependent on wages.
3. Another circumstance which renders compulsory relief less dangerous in the countries which we have been considering than in our own, is the economical situation of their labouring population. In England the great mass of the people are day-labourers, enjoying, where they have escaped the oppression of poor law abuses, high wages and steady employment, but possessed of little visible property, and seldom living under their masters’ roof. Such persons are not deterred from demanding relief by the fear of losing their property, since, where they have any, it is capable of concealment; and they need not always even fear degradation, since the fact of their receiving it may often be concealed. There are many instances in the Poor Law Evidence in which the masters, and even the companions of paupers, were not aware of their receiving allowance. But the class of persons withoutvisible property, which constitutes the bulk of English society, forms the small minority of that of the north of Europe. The Norwegian return states, (698 and 699) that at the last census in 1825, out of a population of 1,051,318 persons, there were 59,464 freeholders. As by 59,464 freeholders must be meant 59,464 heads of families, or about 300,000 individuals, the freeholders must form more than a fourth of the whole population. Mr. Macgregor states (p. 300) that in Denmark (by which Zealand and the adjoining islands are probably meant), out of a population of 926,110, the number of landed proprietors and farmers is 415,110, or nearly one-half. In Sleswick Holstein, out of a population of 604,085, it is 196,017, or about one-third. The proportion of proprietors and farmers to the whole population is not given in Sweden; but the Stockholm return estimates the average quantity of land annexed to a labourer’s habitation at from one to five acres (p. 375); and though the Gottenburg return gives a lower estimate, it adds, that the peasants possess much of the land. (p. 387.) In Wurtemberg we are told that more than two-thirds of the labouring population are the proprietors of their own habitations, and that almost all own at least a garden of from three-quarters of an acre to an acre and a half. (p. 511.)
All the returns concur in stating the number of day-labourers to be very small.
The Norwegian report states, that “by law servants should never be hired for a shorter period than a twelvemonth. Employing labourers by theday, though often done in and about towns, is consequently illegal.” (p. 695.) Few day-labourers are to be met with. (p. 698.) The Gottenburgh, that “strictly speaking there are in Sweden few labourers on the same footing as in England.” (p. 387.) The Russian, that “the labourers are almost all slaves,” and that “the average quantity of land allowed by a proprietor to his slave is 15 acres.” (p. 334.) The Danish report, that “the day-labourers form in Zealand and the adjoining islands less than one-fifth, and in Sleswick Holstein less than one-third of the agricultural population.” (p. 300.) The Wurtemberg report states the labourers to amount to 41,913 (meaning of course heads of families, or about 210,000 individuals) out of a population of 1,518,147, being in fact less than 1-7th. (p. 514.) The Bavarian, that “in the country there are very few day-labourers, as almost every person has some ground of his own, and few are rich enough to hire labour.” (p. 556.)
It is probable therefore that the class of persons who in the north of Europe and Germany would be exposed to the temptation of applying for public relief if it were granted on the same terms as in England, would be a small minority instead of a large majority, and would be perhaps a seventh, fifth, or at most a third instead of three-fourths, or even a larger proportion of the whole community.
4. The situation of the pauper being made less eligible than that of the independent labourer.
4. But the conditions on which parochial assistance is afforded in the countries in question, form perhaps the principal difference between their systems and that which we have adopted. In England,where the scale and the allowance system prevail, no condition whatever can be said to be imposed on the pauper. What he receives is a mere gratuitous addition to his income. Even where work is required, the hours are in general fewer, and the labour less severe than those of the independent labourer. And the workhouse, the most powerful of our instruments of repression, affords, in general, food, lodging, clothing and warmth, better than can be found in the cottage,and may be quitted at a day’s notice.
But in all the countries which we have been considering, except the Canton de Berne and perhaps Denmark, the great object of pauper legislation, that of rendering the situation of the pauper less agreeable than that of the independent labourer, has been effectually attained.
On recurring to the statements which we have extracted, it will be seen that he loses all right to property; that he becomes incapable of contracting marriage while receiving relief, and in many countries, if he have once received relief, cannot marry until he has reimbursed the parish, or has procured security that his future family shall not become chargeable, or till three years have elapsed since he last received relief. If married, he loses control over his children, he cannot choose his residence or his occupation, and if he once becomes the inmate of a workhousehe incurs the risk of imprisonment for life. When such are the terms offered by the public, it is easy to understand that none but the really destitute will accept them.
5. Restraints imposed on the labouring classes.
5. The prevalence of habits productive of pauperism is repressed by subjecting the whole labouring population to superintendence and restrictions, which we should consider vexatious. As they are in a great measure interwoven with the laws for the relief of the unemployed, and have been in general already stated, it is not necessary to repeat them.
6. Prevention of improvident marriage.
6. In almost all the countries which have been mentioned, endeavours are made to prevent the existence of a redundant population, by throwing obstacles in the way of improvident marriage. Marriage on the part of persons in the actual receipt of relief, appears to be everywhere prohibited, and the marriage of those who are not likely to possess the means of independent support, is allowed by very few.
Thus we are told that in Norway no one can marry without “showing, to the satisfaction of the clergyman, that he is permanently settled in such a manner as to offer a fair prospect that he can maintain a family.” (p. 697.)
In Mecklenburg, that “marriages are delayed by conscription in the 22d year, and military service for six years; besides, the parties must have a dwelling, without which a clergyman is not permitted to marry them. The men marry at from 25 to 30, the women not much earlier, as both must first gain by service enough to establish themselves.” (p. 423.)
In Saxony, “that a man may not marry before he is 21 years old, if liable to serve in the army.” In Dresden, “professionists, (by which word artizans are probably meant,) may not marry until theybecome masters in their trade.” (p. 482.)
In Wurtemberg, “that no man is allowed to marry till his 25th year, on account of his military duties, unless permission be especially obtained or purchased: at that age he must also obtain permission, which is granted on proving that he and his wife would have together sufficient to maintain a family, or to establish themselves; in large towns, say from 800 to 1000 florins, (from 66l.13s.4d.to 84l.3s.4d.;) in smaller, from 400 to 500 florins; in villages, 200 florins, (16l.13s.4d.) They must not be persons of disorderly or dissolute lives, drunkards, or under suspicion of crime, and they must not have received any assistance from their parish within the last three years.” (p. 511.)
And we have seen that a similar law prevails and is strictly enforced in Bavaria.
7. Provision for the education of the labouring classes.
7. Another means by which the extension of pauperism is opposed in the countries which we have described, is the care taken by the government to provide for the education of the labouring classes. We are told (pp. 695 and 698) that in Norway their children have free access to the parish schools, and that the poor pay for the education of their children, and for religious teachers, nothing or nearly so. The general report from Russia states (p. 332) that every parish in every town has a school which is open to children of all classes, under the direction of the clergyman; and this is borne out by the consular return from Archangel. (p. 337.) The Gottenburg report states (p. 385) that in Sweden gratuitous education is provided forchildren of the indigent, and that it is asserted that there is not one person out of 1000 who cannot at least read. The Danish reports state (pp. 264, 293) that the children of all poor persons are educated gratuitously: that the parish is taxed for the payment of the schoolmaster, the repairs of the schoolhouse, books, papers, pens, ink, &c.; and that parents are bound under a penalty to send their children regularly to school until they have passed the age of 14, and been confirmed. Gratuitous education is also afforded in Mecklenburg (p. 491) and in Prussia. Mr. Gibsone states, as the general law of the country, that “all children capable of going to school are obliged to attend it. Those whose parents are unable to pay the expense, must be sent thither at the cost of the community to which they belong” (p. 460); “the expense of school-money and religious instruction is about 1s.6d.yearly for each child.” (p. 466.) In the detailed regulation for the relief of the poor in Berlin, (p. 455,) it is laid down that “the period of children being sent to school regularly commences at the beginning of the child’s seventh year, and terminates when the child, according to the testimony of the minister, has acquired the knowledge necessary for his station in life, which generally occurs on his attaining his 14th year. If parents allow their children to grow up without instruction, the commissioners for the relief of the poor are to remonstrate with them, and should this be of no avail, the commissary of police is to interfere.” In Saxony, “the local poor commission supports free schools.” (p. 480.)
The care which has been bestowed on this subject in Wurtemberg is remarkable. The government report, after stating the recent introduction and success of infant schools, adds that—
For older children, from the age of 6 to 14, there has long existed in Wurtemberg in every, even the smallest community, supported chiefly at the expense of the local church estate and community fund, and of the parents, with the co-operation, however, of the public treasury, aGerman or elementary school, which all children of that age, both boys and girls, must attend, and in which, with the exception of short holidays during the time of haymaking, harvest and vintage, they receive throughout the year every day, with the exception of Sundays and holidays, in winter for five and in summer for at least two hours, instruction in religion, morality, singing, the German language, reading, writing, arithmetic, and the elements of natural philosophy, natural history, geography and history. In summer, in consideration of the work in the fields, the instruction is given as much as possible in the morning; and at the season when the labours of the field are the most urgent, and in cases of great poverty, an exception is made in favour of those children, where it is required, who, on application, are excused two or three times a week from coming to school. With this exception, every illegal neglect of school is punished by a fine of two or three kreutzers, and if the neglect of attending is continued, from four to six kreutzers; and no child, even if it has completed the 14th year, is suffered to leave the elementary school till it has acquired sufficient knowledge of what is taught there. (p. 528.)As, however, many poor children endeavour notwithstanding to avoid attending the elementary schools, and in all cases the instruction in these elementary schools occupies only the smaller portion of the day, so that those poor children who are not properly attended and employed by their parents have still plenty of time for idleness and beggary; attempts have latterly been made in some places to put such children under special superintendence, as, for instance, by appointing a guardian for each poor child in the person of an overseer or other public officer of the community, or of a neighbour, who has to observe it every where, at home, at work, at play; or by periodical general summons to the several parents; or by periodical visitations in thehouses of poor families, especially of those who are suspected of not paying proper attention to the education of their children; or by the periodical exhibition of the work done at home; or by the public performance of some work as a specimen; or by gratuitously providing the poor children with tools and materials; by the distribution of rewards among the most diligent and skilful of the children; and by exhorting, summoning, and punishing negligent parents; by these means to acquire the certainty that such children are kept to the constant attendance of the church and school, and to doing their tasks; that they are sufficiently employed in a suitable manner; that they are not ill-treated, either by being overworked or by unmerited corporal chastisement; that they are not neglected with respect to clothing and cleanliness; and that they are not abandoned to idleness, beggary and other vices, &c. (p. 529.)Partly to retain, by practice, what they have learnt in the elementary schools, and partly to promote the further improvement of the grown-up youth, aSunday Schoolis kept in every community in Wurtemberg, in the common school-room, where every youth and girl above 14 years of age, in the Protestant places to their 18th, and in Catholic places to their 21st year, must go every Sunday, or where there is only one school-room the youths and girls every Sunday alternately, and attend the lessons for at least an hour and a half, on pain of paying four kreutzers, and if the neglect is of long continuance, six kreutzers, for every time that they remain away. It may be added, that, according to the existing laws, more care has lately been taken that young persons of this age, unless they are wanted to assist their parents in their domestic and field-work, particularly those who are educated at the public expense, and the poor girls and youths discharged from the penal establishments,do not remain at home with their families, or, out of love to a more unrestrained way of life, endeavour to gain a livelihood asEigenbrödler[9], as they are called, merely by sewing, knitting, &c., but that they try either to engage as servants or learn a trade. (p. 534.)
For older children, from the age of 6 to 14, there has long existed in Wurtemberg in every, even the smallest community, supported chiefly at the expense of the local church estate and community fund, and of the parents, with the co-operation, however, of the public treasury, aGerman or elementary school, which all children of that age, both boys and girls, must attend, and in which, with the exception of short holidays during the time of haymaking, harvest and vintage, they receive throughout the year every day, with the exception of Sundays and holidays, in winter for five and in summer for at least two hours, instruction in religion, morality, singing, the German language, reading, writing, arithmetic, and the elements of natural philosophy, natural history, geography and history. In summer, in consideration of the work in the fields, the instruction is given as much as possible in the morning; and at the season when the labours of the field are the most urgent, and in cases of great poverty, an exception is made in favour of those children, where it is required, who, on application, are excused two or three times a week from coming to school. With this exception, every illegal neglect of school is punished by a fine of two or three kreutzers, and if the neglect of attending is continued, from four to six kreutzers; and no child, even if it has completed the 14th year, is suffered to leave the elementary school till it has acquired sufficient knowledge of what is taught there. (p. 528.)
As, however, many poor children endeavour notwithstanding to avoid attending the elementary schools, and in all cases the instruction in these elementary schools occupies only the smaller portion of the day, so that those poor children who are not properly attended and employed by their parents have still plenty of time for idleness and beggary; attempts have latterly been made in some places to put such children under special superintendence, as, for instance, by appointing a guardian for each poor child in the person of an overseer or other public officer of the community, or of a neighbour, who has to observe it every where, at home, at work, at play; or by periodical general summons to the several parents; or by periodical visitations in thehouses of poor families, especially of those who are suspected of not paying proper attention to the education of their children; or by the periodical exhibition of the work done at home; or by the public performance of some work as a specimen; or by gratuitously providing the poor children with tools and materials; by the distribution of rewards among the most diligent and skilful of the children; and by exhorting, summoning, and punishing negligent parents; by these means to acquire the certainty that such children are kept to the constant attendance of the church and school, and to doing their tasks; that they are sufficiently employed in a suitable manner; that they are not ill-treated, either by being overworked or by unmerited corporal chastisement; that they are not neglected with respect to clothing and cleanliness; and that they are not abandoned to idleness, beggary and other vices, &c. (p. 529.)
Partly to retain, by practice, what they have learnt in the elementary schools, and partly to promote the further improvement of the grown-up youth, aSunday Schoolis kept in every community in Wurtemberg, in the common school-room, where every youth and girl above 14 years of age, in the Protestant places to their 18th, and in Catholic places to their 21st year, must go every Sunday, or where there is only one school-room the youths and girls every Sunday alternately, and attend the lessons for at least an hour and a half, on pain of paying four kreutzers, and if the neglect is of long continuance, six kreutzers, for every time that they remain away. It may be added, that, according to the existing laws, more care has lately been taken that young persons of this age, unless they are wanted to assist their parents in their domestic and field-work, particularly those who are educated at the public expense, and the poor girls and youths discharged from the penal establishments,do not remain at home with their families, or, out of love to a more unrestrained way of life, endeavour to gain a livelihood asEigenbrödler[9], as they are called, merely by sewing, knitting, &c., but that they try either to engage as servants or learn a trade. (p. 534.)
The Bavarian poor law enacts, that all the children of the poor shall, without favour and without regard to the usual pretexts, be kept to the practice of the public school and religious instructions, asalso of frequenting the work and industry schools, and of learning a trade. The school money is to be paid from the poor institutions. (p. 559.)
Among all the Continental communities which recognize in the poor the right to relief, the only one which does not appear to provide the means of education, and to enforce their being made use of, is that in which pauperism has become absolutely intolerable, namely, the Canton de Berne; and even there any aubain (or person not entitled to bourgeoisie in the parish in which he resides) may be summarily ejected (unless possessed of landed property in it), if it can be proved that he does not either send his children to school or provide otherwise for their education. (p. 199.)
8. Central superintendence.
8. Lastly, in most of the countries which have been considered, the local administration of the laws for the relief of the poor is controlled by a central superintending authority.
The only countries, the reports from which state that this is not the case, are Sweden, Denmark, and Berne; and we have seen both that these are the three countries in which the poor laws are the worst administered, and that in all of them the mal-administration which the reporters deplore is mainly attributed by them to the absence of a central control.
[9]“Eigenbrödler” means one who endeavours to earn a livelihood independently.
[9]“Eigenbrödler” means one who endeavours to earn a livelihood independently.
[9]“Eigenbrödler” means one who endeavours to earn a livelihood independently.
We now proceed to give a short outline of the institutions for the relief of the poor in those countries which do not appear, from the reports in this Appendix, to acknowledge a legal right in the applicant.
1.Hamburgh.—The situation of Hamburgh, a large commercial town, with a small territory and few manufactures, exposes it to a considerable influx of foreign poor; and the number of charitable establishments appears to have fostered and still to encourage pauperism to an extent exceeding the average of the north of Europe. It appears from the Consul-general’s return, that besides many endowed schools, hospitals, and almshouses, the city possesses a general institution for the poor, supported by the interest of its own capital and by some voluntary contributions, and considerable advances from the treasury of the State. A report has been furnished of the proceedings of that institution during the year 1832.
It appears by that report (pp. 397, 398) that in 1832, 141,858 current dollars, or about 25,000l.sterling, was distributed in money, by way of weekly relief among registered or regular poor, amounting at an average to 2,900 individuals, or heads of families; the smallest weekly relief being 8 schillings or 7d.sterling; the largest for an individual, 2 dollars or 7s.sterling; and for family, 3 dollars or 10s.6d.Half of the adult paupers appear to have been foreigners. Besides the amount of money relief, considerable sums were expended in the distribution of soup, clothing, beds and bed clothing, and fuel, and in the education and maintenance of poor children, and in medical relief to the sick. Both the Consul’s report and that of the institution, lament the absence of a workhouse. “Of those who are capable, but willnot work,” says the latter, “a great number to be sure will be found: the only help against this would perhaps be an institution, under a strict superintendence of the police, for compelling them to work; the want of which, from the undeniably increasing degeneration of our lowest class of people, is sensibly felt from year to year.” (p. 402.) This statement is borne out by the progressive increase of the registered paupers, from 2,332 in May 1826 to 2,969 in May 1832, and by the large amount of the regular out-door relief in money, amounting, on a population of 130,000, to very nearly 4s.a head. Further evidence of the extent of pauperism is afforded by the number of persons buried in 1832 at the expense of the institution, which was 459, or nearly one-tenth of the average number of deaths.
No means exist of forcing parents to educate their children; a defect deplored by the institution. (p. 403.)
2.Bremen.—The poor institutions of Bremen seem to resemble those of Hamburgh; but the general enforcement of education, the use of a workhouse, and perhaps other circumstances not mentioned in the report, appear to have rendered their results more beneficial. The following answers to questions 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8 of the Commissioners’ questions, give a short outline of the existing system:—
3. To what extent and under what regulations are there district houses of industry for receiving the destitute able-bodied, or any part of their families, and supplying them with food, clothes, &c., and in which they are set to work?—There exists but one poor-house in Bremen, in which the destitute able-bodied are received,to the number of 220, lodged, fed, and clothed, for which they are bound to work, for the benefit of the institution, as far as they are able.4. To what extent and under what regulations do any religious institutions give assistance to the destitute, by receiving them as inmates, or by giving them alms?—Independently of three houses for the lodging and partly providing for poor widows, free of expense, there are other buildings set apart for the reception of poor superannuated or helpless women; but chiefly a number of private institutions for the relief of poor deserving persons by testamentary bequests. Such are the Rheden, the Tiedemann, the Nonnen, the Von Bühren, &c., so called.5. To what extent and under what regulations is work provided at their own dwellings for those who have trades, but do not procure work for themselves?—This is done, but in a very limited degree, at the public expense, as those who have trades come under the care and superintendence of their respective guilds, whose duty and credit it is to prevent any of their fraternity coming upon the parish, and who can easily afford the means of providing them with work. Females, on application to the poor-house, may receive hemp and flax for spinning, and are remunerated accordingly.7. To what extent and under what regulations are fuel, clothing, or money distributed to such persons or their families; at all times of the year, or during any particular seasons?—Those who are registered in the poor-house list, and thus come under the superintendence and control of the parish officers, receive, as long as they may require assistance,—1. A small monthly allowance in money. 2. Clothing for themselves and their families. 3. If necessary, bedding. 4. In the winter, during severe frost, fuel.8. To what extent and under what regulations are they relieved by their children being taken into schools, and fed, clothed, and educated or apprenticed?—Means are not only afforded to the poor for sending their children to school and for giving them religious instruction, but they are here compelled to do so, on pain of forfeiting all claim to parochial relief, or by other modes of punishment.That every child in the State, of whatever descent, shalt be subjected to school discipline and tuition, is founded upon the principle, that no means so effectually obviates that general poverty, among the lower classes in particular, asan attention to the development of their minds, by which they acquire that self-confidence that stimulates exertion, and that proper spirit of independence that keeps them above want, whilst by religious instruction they are impressed with a sense of the duties and advantages of good moral conduct through life. It has ever been the prevailing opinion in this Republic, that the principal duty of the State towards bettering the condition of its poorer classes, rests upon a due regard to this school discipline, and that it tends in its practice to prevent the frequent recurrence of application for relief in the same family; the descendants of which, without such control, would habitually and irrecoverably become, in their turn, dependents upon public charity. When such children have arrived at the age of 14 or 15 years, after having been taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and any other acquirement consistent with their situation, books, and other materials being furnished them by the poor-house, gratis; they are, after confirmation, generally put out to service, and thus prevented from returning to the idle habits of their parents. Girls are, in like manner, often provided for. They are taught reading, writing, knitting, and needle-work. (pp. 410, 411.)
3. To what extent and under what regulations are there district houses of industry for receiving the destitute able-bodied, or any part of their families, and supplying them with food, clothes, &c., and in which they are set to work?—There exists but one poor-house in Bremen, in which the destitute able-bodied are received,to the number of 220, lodged, fed, and clothed, for which they are bound to work, for the benefit of the institution, as far as they are able.
4. To what extent and under what regulations do any religious institutions give assistance to the destitute, by receiving them as inmates, or by giving them alms?—Independently of three houses for the lodging and partly providing for poor widows, free of expense, there are other buildings set apart for the reception of poor superannuated or helpless women; but chiefly a number of private institutions for the relief of poor deserving persons by testamentary bequests. Such are the Rheden, the Tiedemann, the Nonnen, the Von Bühren, &c., so called.
5. To what extent and under what regulations is work provided at their own dwellings for those who have trades, but do not procure work for themselves?—This is done, but in a very limited degree, at the public expense, as those who have trades come under the care and superintendence of their respective guilds, whose duty and credit it is to prevent any of their fraternity coming upon the parish, and who can easily afford the means of providing them with work. Females, on application to the poor-house, may receive hemp and flax for spinning, and are remunerated accordingly.
7. To what extent and under what regulations are fuel, clothing, or money distributed to such persons or their families; at all times of the year, or during any particular seasons?—Those who are registered in the poor-house list, and thus come under the superintendence and control of the parish officers, receive, as long as they may require assistance,—1. A small monthly allowance in money. 2. Clothing for themselves and their families. 3. If necessary, bedding. 4. In the winter, during severe frost, fuel.
8. To what extent and under what regulations are they relieved by their children being taken into schools, and fed, clothed, and educated or apprenticed?—Means are not only afforded to the poor for sending their children to school and for giving them religious instruction, but they are here compelled to do so, on pain of forfeiting all claim to parochial relief, or by other modes of punishment.That every child in the State, of whatever descent, shalt be subjected to school discipline and tuition, is founded upon the principle, that no means so effectually obviates that general poverty, among the lower classes in particular, asan attention to the development of their minds, by which they acquire that self-confidence that stimulates exertion, and that proper spirit of independence that keeps them above want, whilst by religious instruction they are impressed with a sense of the duties and advantages of good moral conduct through life. It has ever been the prevailing opinion in this Republic, that the principal duty of the State towards bettering the condition of its poorer classes, rests upon a due regard to this school discipline, and that it tends in its practice to prevent the frequent recurrence of application for relief in the same family; the descendants of which, without such control, would habitually and irrecoverably become, in their turn, dependents upon public charity. When such children have arrived at the age of 14 or 15 years, after having been taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and any other acquirement consistent with their situation, books, and other materials being furnished them by the poor-house, gratis; they are, after confirmation, generally put out to service, and thus prevented from returning to the idle habits of their parents. Girls are, in like manner, often provided for. They are taught reading, writing, knitting, and needle-work. (pp. 410, 411.)
3.Lubeck.—If the statistical returns respecting Lubeck, which however do not appear to rest on enumeration, can be depended on, the proportion of deaths, births, and marriages to the whole population is less than in any other part of Europe. The deaths being stated to be 1 in 56; the births 1 in 53½; and the marriages 1 in 177. And, what is perhaps the strongest indication of the general welfare of a community, the deaths under the age of one year are stated to be only 1 in 7. The following answers to questions 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8, may be compared with the corresponding answers from Bremen:
3. To what extent and under what regulations are there district houses of industry for receiving the destitute able-bodied, or any part of their families, and supplying them with food, clothes, &c.,and in which they are set to work?—No other institution of this kind exists here but the work and poor-house, called the Cloister, into which, however, none are admitted but persons totally incapable of contributing to their own support, whether from drunkenness or other incapacitating causes.4. To what extent and under what regulations do any religious institutions give assistance to the destitute, by receiving them as inmates, or by giving them alms?—We have none such, but a collection is made in all our churches every Sunday for the poor; this, however, being a regular matter-of-course thing, yields comparatively small sums, which are privately distributed to poor persons by the churchwardens and deacons.5. To what extent and under what regulations is work provided at their own dwellings for those who have trades, but do procure work for themselves?—or for such persons in agriculture or on public works? Every able-bodied man is supposed capable of providing for himself, and no such work or relief is afforded him. In winter, many poor women are supplied with a little work by the overseers of the workhouse, who give them flax to spin. The average annual quantity thus spun is about 6000 to 6500 pounds, the pay for which, amounting to about 130l.annually, relieves about 300 poor women. The linen yarn thus spun is disposed of by lottery among the wealthier classes. No work is supplied at the public expense or by public institutions to able-bodied men, merely because they are destitute; they must seek and find it themselves, and are of course accepted and employed on public works, as far as there is a demand for them. Having no relief to expect elsewhere, they are of course spurred on to exertion, and if sober and of good character, it may be generally assumed that they find work, at least sufficient for their bare existence, since, if a man can earn but a few pence daily, it will suffice to support him in this country.7. To what extent and under what regulations are fuel, clothing, or money, distributed to such persons or their families; at all times of the year, or during any particular seasons?—As above stated, no relief of this kind is afforded to able-bodied men; their families, if considered destitute, may perhaps obtain the relief afforded by the poor-board to the poor generally, by means of portions of cheap food daily during the five winter months, and four times a week during the other part of the year. About 230,000 such portions are distributed annually, and bread to thevalue of about 60l.Fuel is distributed during the severer part of the winter, but money is rarely given, and only in extreme cases, never exceeding one mark, or about 14d.sterling a week, to the same party. Clothing forms no part of the relief afforded. In Lubeck these various kinds of relief are partaken of by about 850 persons annually.8. To what extent, and under what regulations, are they relieved by their children being taken into schools, and fed, clothed, and educated, or apprenticed?—Not only are all the children of the poor admitted into the poor-schools for instruction gratis, but when relief is afforded by the poor-board, it is on the positive condition that they shall send their children to such schools. Neither food, clothing, nor any further provision is afforded them, in these schools, excepting in a very few extreme cases, in which the maintenance of very young children is undertaken by the poor-board. The number of children in our poor-schools averages about 300. (p. 415, 416.)The allowance in our poor and workhouse for every individual, is—Daily:—1½lb.of coarse rye bread.2½—vegetables or porridge, such as potatoes, yellow peas, green peas, dried white beans, carrots, peeled barley, cabbage, &c., according to the season, and sometimes rice.1bottleof weak beer.Monthly:—1½lb.of meat, and½lb.of butter, lard, or fat, to cook the food with. (p. 420.)Marriages among the poor are delayed by the necessity a man is under,first, of previously proving that he is in a regular employ, work, or profession, that will enable him to maintain a wife; andsecondly, of becoming a burgher, and equipping himself in the uniform of the burgher guard, which, together, may cost him nearly 4l.(p. 419.)The condition of the labouring classes living on their own earnings is considered by themselves to be far superior to that of the paupers maintained in our poor-house. The partial assistance afforded by the poor-board is chiefly directed towards aiding those who are not devoid of honest pride, and have some feelings of independence left, who consequently earn their own maintenanceas far as they can, and are thus assisted in their endeavours to support themselves, and keep out of the workhouse. The aid they receive is proportioned to their age and families, and is mostly granted to females; it is gratefully received, and no idea exists of ever thinking it a right. As a rule, no persons fully able to work can receive assistance; they are therefore forced to seek out employment, and may be generally presumed to succeed. If they get but a moderate portion of work, very trifling earnings place them in a situation much more eligible than that of the pauper maintained in the poor-house. (p. 418.)
3. To what extent and under what regulations are there district houses of industry for receiving the destitute able-bodied, or any part of their families, and supplying them with food, clothes, &c.,and in which they are set to work?—No other institution of this kind exists here but the work and poor-house, called the Cloister, into which, however, none are admitted but persons totally incapable of contributing to their own support, whether from drunkenness or other incapacitating causes.
4. To what extent and under what regulations do any religious institutions give assistance to the destitute, by receiving them as inmates, or by giving them alms?—We have none such, but a collection is made in all our churches every Sunday for the poor; this, however, being a regular matter-of-course thing, yields comparatively small sums, which are privately distributed to poor persons by the churchwardens and deacons.
5. To what extent and under what regulations is work provided at their own dwellings for those who have trades, but do procure work for themselves?—or for such persons in agriculture or on public works? Every able-bodied man is supposed capable of providing for himself, and no such work or relief is afforded him. In winter, many poor women are supplied with a little work by the overseers of the workhouse, who give them flax to spin. The average annual quantity thus spun is about 6000 to 6500 pounds, the pay for which, amounting to about 130l.annually, relieves about 300 poor women. The linen yarn thus spun is disposed of by lottery among the wealthier classes. No work is supplied at the public expense or by public institutions to able-bodied men, merely because they are destitute; they must seek and find it themselves, and are of course accepted and employed on public works, as far as there is a demand for them. Having no relief to expect elsewhere, they are of course spurred on to exertion, and if sober and of good character, it may be generally assumed that they find work, at least sufficient for their bare existence, since, if a man can earn but a few pence daily, it will suffice to support him in this country.
7. To what extent and under what regulations are fuel, clothing, or money, distributed to such persons or their families; at all times of the year, or during any particular seasons?—As above stated, no relief of this kind is afforded to able-bodied men; their families, if considered destitute, may perhaps obtain the relief afforded by the poor-board to the poor generally, by means of portions of cheap food daily during the five winter months, and four times a week during the other part of the year. About 230,000 such portions are distributed annually, and bread to thevalue of about 60l.Fuel is distributed during the severer part of the winter, but money is rarely given, and only in extreme cases, never exceeding one mark, or about 14d.sterling a week, to the same party. Clothing forms no part of the relief afforded. In Lubeck these various kinds of relief are partaken of by about 850 persons annually.
8. To what extent, and under what regulations, are they relieved by their children being taken into schools, and fed, clothed, and educated, or apprenticed?—Not only are all the children of the poor admitted into the poor-schools for instruction gratis, but when relief is afforded by the poor-board, it is on the positive condition that they shall send their children to such schools. Neither food, clothing, nor any further provision is afforded them, in these schools, excepting in a very few extreme cases, in which the maintenance of very young children is undertaken by the poor-board. The number of children in our poor-schools averages about 300. (p. 415, 416.)
The allowance in our poor and workhouse for every individual, is—
Marriages among the poor are delayed by the necessity a man is under,first, of previously proving that he is in a regular employ, work, or profession, that will enable him to maintain a wife; andsecondly, of becoming a burgher, and equipping himself in the uniform of the burgher guard, which, together, may cost him nearly 4l.(p. 419.)
The condition of the labouring classes living on their own earnings is considered by themselves to be far superior to that of the paupers maintained in our poor-house. The partial assistance afforded by the poor-board is chiefly directed towards aiding those who are not devoid of honest pride, and have some feelings of independence left, who consequently earn their own maintenanceas far as they can, and are thus assisted in their endeavours to support themselves, and keep out of the workhouse. The aid they receive is proportioned to their age and families, and is mostly granted to females; it is gratefully received, and no idea exists of ever thinking it a right. As a rule, no persons fully able to work can receive assistance; they are therefore forced to seek out employment, and may be generally presumed to succeed. If they get but a moderate portion of work, very trifling earnings place them in a situation much more eligible than that of the pauper maintained in the poor-house. (p. 418.)
The institutions for the relief of the poor in Frankfort do not appear to require much notice.
The most striking circumstance mentioned in the report is, that the orphans and deserted children brought up in the public establishments are so carefully and successfully educated, that on an average they turn out better than those merely kept to school and living at home. (p. 567.) Permission to marry is not granted to a person who cannot prove his ability to support a family.
As the Canton de Berne appears to be the portion of continental Europe in which the burthen of legal relief is most oppressive, Holland appears to be that in which pauperism, unaided by a legal claim, is the most rapidly advancing. The Appendix contains an official communication from the Dutch government, and answers from His Majesty’s Consul in Amsterdam, to the Commissioners’ questions.
The clearest general view of the mode in which relief is administered, is contained in the followingextract from the Consul’s report: (p. 581.)
General view of the Dutch system.The main support of the poor is derived from religious communities and charitable institutions. Every denomination of Christians, as well as the Jews, relieve their own members; and for this purpose have, for the most part, orphan and poor-houses, and schools connected with them, which are supported by property belonging to them, and by voluntary contributions at the church-doors, and collections at the houses of the members: the Jews being permitted occasionally to make a general collection throughout the city for their own purposes. These establishments, among the Protestants (the most numerous community), are called Deaconries; and they provide not only for the support of their indigent members, but also for their relief in sickness. The deacons, who have the immediate superintendence of the poor, limit the assistance given according to the exigency of the case, which they investigate very narrowly; and by becoming particularly acquainted with the situation of the applicants, are enabled to detect any imposition. The pecuniary relief afforded is very small, and can only be considered as in aid of the exertions of the poor to earn their own support, being limited to a few pence in the week; a weekly donation of 2 florins (or 40d.) being looked upon as one of the largest. In winter, provisions, fuel, and clothing, are given in preference to money. The aged and infirm are admitted into the poor-houses, where, and at the schools, the children are educated, and afterwards put out to different trades, till they are able to provide for themselves. The deacons act gratuitously; and being of the most respectable class of citizens, elected by the churches to that office, the conscientious discharge of it is ensured, and in consequence, malversations seldom take place. The general poor (being inhabitants), including persons who are and are not members of religious communities (Jews excepted), are relieved at their own houses from the revenue of property, long since appropriated to that use, administered by commissioners appointed by the magistrates, and acting without emolument (as is the case with most similar offices in this country), and in aid of which public charitable collections at private houses are permitted, while any eventful deficiency is supplied from the funds of the city; but the relief afforded by these means is very small, and is confined chiefly to bread, with the addition of fuel in winter. Without other resources,therefore, or the assistance of private charity, the claimants could hardly subsist upon what they obtain in this way. By a decree passed in the year 1818, it was enacted, that the domicile of a male pauper is the place of his birth, superseded by the place where he has resided four years and paid taxes; and that of a child, the residence of his father, or of his mother, if a widow. That the domicile of a stranger is the place where he has resided six years; of married women and widows, the place of their husband’s residence; of legitimate minors, that of their fathers’, and of illegitimate, that of their mothers’. This decree, fixing the domicile of paupers for the purpose of obtaining relief, and a subsequent one, by which gratuitous legal advice is allowed them, if they apply for it, implies that they have a claim to support, which can be enforced at law; but as the funds from which this support must be obtained are uncertain, the amount of the relief that can be given depends upon their extent, and it is in fact left at the discretion of the overseers, who have the faculty of withholding it on the proof of bad conduct of the recipients, or when their children do not properly attend the school, or have been neglected to be vaccinated. Those not members of churches are, moreover, admonished to join some religious community, and must promise to do so the first opportunity. The decree above alluded to also regulates the proceedings of one town against another, and of religious and charitable institutions at the same place, in respect to paupers. There are at Amsterdam, besides, a variety of private establishments for the poor of different religious denominations, endowed by charitable persons, in which the poor are relieved in different ways, according to prescribed regulations.In general, the funds of all the public charitable institutions have greatly diminished, while the number of claimants has much increased, which causes frequent and urgent appeals to the public benevolence.In the country, the same system prevails, and the deacons or office-bearers of the churches are often called upon during the winter to assist in the support of indigent labourers with families, till the return of spring enables them to find work; but there are few permanent poor there, except the old and infirm, who are generally boarded in poor-houses in the adjoining town. (p. 582.)
General view of the Dutch system.
The main support of the poor is derived from religious communities and charitable institutions. Every denomination of Christians, as well as the Jews, relieve their own members; and for this purpose have, for the most part, orphan and poor-houses, and schools connected with them, which are supported by property belonging to them, and by voluntary contributions at the church-doors, and collections at the houses of the members: the Jews being permitted occasionally to make a general collection throughout the city for their own purposes. These establishments, among the Protestants (the most numerous community), are called Deaconries; and they provide not only for the support of their indigent members, but also for their relief in sickness. The deacons, who have the immediate superintendence of the poor, limit the assistance given according to the exigency of the case, which they investigate very narrowly; and by becoming particularly acquainted with the situation of the applicants, are enabled to detect any imposition. The pecuniary relief afforded is very small, and can only be considered as in aid of the exertions of the poor to earn their own support, being limited to a few pence in the week; a weekly donation of 2 florins (or 40d.) being looked upon as one of the largest. In winter, provisions, fuel, and clothing, are given in preference to money. The aged and infirm are admitted into the poor-houses, where, and at the schools, the children are educated, and afterwards put out to different trades, till they are able to provide for themselves. The deacons act gratuitously; and being of the most respectable class of citizens, elected by the churches to that office, the conscientious discharge of it is ensured, and in consequence, malversations seldom take place. The general poor (being inhabitants), including persons who are and are not members of religious communities (Jews excepted), are relieved at their own houses from the revenue of property, long since appropriated to that use, administered by commissioners appointed by the magistrates, and acting without emolument (as is the case with most similar offices in this country), and in aid of which public charitable collections at private houses are permitted, while any eventful deficiency is supplied from the funds of the city; but the relief afforded by these means is very small, and is confined chiefly to bread, with the addition of fuel in winter. Without other resources,therefore, or the assistance of private charity, the claimants could hardly subsist upon what they obtain in this way. By a decree passed in the year 1818, it was enacted, that the domicile of a male pauper is the place of his birth, superseded by the place where he has resided four years and paid taxes; and that of a child, the residence of his father, or of his mother, if a widow. That the domicile of a stranger is the place where he has resided six years; of married women and widows, the place of their husband’s residence; of legitimate minors, that of their fathers’, and of illegitimate, that of their mothers’. This decree, fixing the domicile of paupers for the purpose of obtaining relief, and a subsequent one, by which gratuitous legal advice is allowed them, if they apply for it, implies that they have a claim to support, which can be enforced at law; but as the funds from which this support must be obtained are uncertain, the amount of the relief that can be given depends upon their extent, and it is in fact left at the discretion of the overseers, who have the faculty of withholding it on the proof of bad conduct of the recipients, or when their children do not properly attend the school, or have been neglected to be vaccinated. Those not members of churches are, moreover, admonished to join some religious community, and must promise to do so the first opportunity. The decree above alluded to also regulates the proceedings of one town against another, and of religious and charitable institutions at the same place, in respect to paupers. There are at Amsterdam, besides, a variety of private establishments for the poor of different religious denominations, endowed by charitable persons, in which the poor are relieved in different ways, according to prescribed regulations.In general, the funds of all the public charitable institutions have greatly diminished, while the number of claimants has much increased, which causes frequent and urgent appeals to the public benevolence.In the country, the same system prevails, and the deacons or office-bearers of the churches are often called upon during the winter to assist in the support of indigent labourers with families, till the return of spring enables them to find work; but there are few permanent poor there, except the old and infirm, who are generally boarded in poor-houses in the adjoining town. (p. 582.)
It will be observed that the Consul considers the law which fixes the domicile of a pauper, and entitles him to legal advice, as implying in him a legal right to relief. We understand, however, that no such right is in practice acknowledged. And as a large proportion of the fund for the relief of the poor arises from endowments, the law may fix the legal settlement of every person, that is, his right to participate in the endowments of a particular parish, and allow him legal assistance in establishing it, without giving to him that indefinite claim which exists in those countries in which every person has a right to receive from the public subsistence for himself and his family.
The official report contains the following details respecting the funds from which public relief is afforded: (pp. 573, 574, 575.)
The principle which invariably has been acted on is, that the charge of relieving the poor should in the first place rest on the overseers of the poor of the religious sects in each parish; but when the means of the administration of the poor are not sufficient, they can indiscriminately (without reference to the sect to which such poor belong) apply to the local administration for relief, which, after due investigation, generally grants it, according to the means of the municipal administration, which is regulated by its direction.Paupers, however, who are not members of any congregation, or any religious sect, in the place where they live and receive relief, or where no ecclesiastical charity for the poor exists, are supported by the municipal administration of the place where they live and obtain their support; for which purpose, in several cities and parishes, a separate administration for the poor is established responsible to the municipal administration; whereas in the remaining cities and parishes such relief is granted either by the burgomaster, or by an overseer of the poor nominated by him.The hospitals, which in many cities exist, are for the greater part government establishments, which are administered on account of the local magistracy, by a number of directors appointed thereto, in which hospitals all inmates, without any distinction as to religion, are taken in; some of these hospitals are however separate foundations, which exist wholly, or in part, on their own revenues.Amongst the orphan houses and charities for children and old people, there are several establishments which exist wholly or in part on their own revenues; whereas the remainder are generally the property of particular church administrations of the poor, which in great cities is almost generally the case in orphan houses, or charities for children.Foundlings and abandoned children, at the charge of the place in which they are abandoned, are provided for in the establishment for children of the society for charitable purposes; by which institution the beggars are also provided for in the establishments appropriated for that purpose, and acknowledged by the government, at the charge of the place where they have a claim for relief.There exist three local workhouses, one at Amsterdam, one at Middleburgh, and one in the commonalty Nieuwe Pekel A., in the province of Groningen, in which paupers, generally those who apply of their own accord, are taken in, upon condition that they contribute to their support as much as possible by labour: further, there are in several places twenty-one charitable houses of industry, which procure work for paupers who are in immediate want of work, either in the houses of industry, or at their own dwellings.Besides the before-mentioned institutions, there are also various places, unions, and societies, the intentions of which are to grant relief in some way or other; namely, some for the relief of very indigent poor; others for granting relief to poor lying-in-women; and the commissions or societies which during the winter distribute provisions and fuel.For the twelve years from 1820 to 1831, the receipts of the administration for the established charity houses, and those of the hospitals, taken on an average for each year, amount together;Guilders.1. The revenues of properties and acknowledged rights2,461,883262. Proceeds of collections1,320,551483. Subsidies granted bya.The parishes1,779,71967b.The provinces of the State38,642781,818,36245MakingGuilders5,600,79719By which all the disbursements of these institutions are covered.And if to the above-mentioned sum are added, for the same period of twelve years, the following, viz.:1. For the local workhouses and charitable houses of industry:a.Revenues of properties7,45850b.Collections7,97163c.Subsidies of the parishes99,083872. For the new erected beggars’ workhouses:a.Daily wages paid by the parish for the beggars placed therein41,09040b.Provincial subsidies871493. For the society for charitable purposes:a.Contributions and voluntary donations by individuals48,89355b.Monies for stipulated contracts208,65169Consequently, the whole sum isGuilders6,014,81832
The principle which invariably has been acted on is, that the charge of relieving the poor should in the first place rest on the overseers of the poor of the religious sects in each parish; but when the means of the administration of the poor are not sufficient, they can indiscriminately (without reference to the sect to which such poor belong) apply to the local administration for relief, which, after due investigation, generally grants it, according to the means of the municipal administration, which is regulated by its direction.
Paupers, however, who are not members of any congregation, or any religious sect, in the place where they live and receive relief, or where no ecclesiastical charity for the poor exists, are supported by the municipal administration of the place where they live and obtain their support; for which purpose, in several cities and parishes, a separate administration for the poor is established responsible to the municipal administration; whereas in the remaining cities and parishes such relief is granted either by the burgomaster, or by an overseer of the poor nominated by him.
The hospitals, which in many cities exist, are for the greater part government establishments, which are administered on account of the local magistracy, by a number of directors appointed thereto, in which hospitals all inmates, without any distinction as to religion, are taken in; some of these hospitals are however separate foundations, which exist wholly, or in part, on their own revenues.
Amongst the orphan houses and charities for children and old people, there are several establishments which exist wholly or in part on their own revenues; whereas the remainder are generally the property of particular church administrations of the poor, which in great cities is almost generally the case in orphan houses, or charities for children.
Foundlings and abandoned children, at the charge of the place in which they are abandoned, are provided for in the establishment for children of the society for charitable purposes; by which institution the beggars are also provided for in the establishments appropriated for that purpose, and acknowledged by the government, at the charge of the place where they have a claim for relief.
There exist three local workhouses, one at Amsterdam, one at Middleburgh, and one in the commonalty Nieuwe Pekel A., in the province of Groningen, in which paupers, generally those who apply of their own accord, are taken in, upon condition that they contribute to their support as much as possible by labour: further, there are in several places twenty-one charitable houses of industry, which procure work for paupers who are in immediate want of work, either in the houses of industry, or at their own dwellings.
Besides the before-mentioned institutions, there are also various places, unions, and societies, the intentions of which are to grant relief in some way or other; namely, some for the relief of very indigent poor; others for granting relief to poor lying-in-women; and the commissions or societies which during the winter distribute provisions and fuel.
For the twelve years from 1820 to 1831, the receipts of the administration for the established charity houses, and those of the hospitals, taken on an average for each year, amount together;
It appears from this statement that rather more than 6,000,000 guilders (equal, at 20d.the guilder, to 500,000l.sterling) has, on an average of the last 12 years, been annually expended on the relief of the poor, being an expense per head, on an average population of 2,292,350, of about 4s.4¼d.—an expenditure small compared with our own, but very large when compared with the average expenditure of Europe.
The official report does not state the progressive increase of the annual expenditure; but it contains a table of the progressive increase of the number of persons receiving relief, from which we extract the particulars of the 10 years ending with 1831. (p. 580.)
HOLLAND.—Statement of the Number of Persons who have received Relief, or to whom Work has been given, by the Civil or Ecclesiastical Charitable Institutions in North Netherland, during 10 years, from 1822 to 1831 inclusive.