"Next to the transition series, come thesecondary, or, as the German mineralogists call them, thefloetzrocks; so called, because they appear to be more floated or horizontal, though I confess the appellation does not appear to me peculiarly appropriate. These strata consist principally of sandstone, limestone—sometimes fetid from bituminous impregnations, sometimes shelly—secondary greenstone, graphite, coal, gypsum, rock salt. I have observed that the Alpine heights of the primitive mountains could at no time furnish much food. The same remark, but in a less degree, will apply to the transition range; the low andkindly climates occupied by the secondary series. The soft and decomposable nature of these depositions would furnish the true theatre of vegetable life, and, until these regions were filled with vegetables, the race of animals could not have been produced; for on what could they subsist? Graminivorous animals, therefore, must have succeeded the various forms of vegetable existence; and carnivorous, the graminivorous. The vegetable matter imbedded in the substance of the secondary strata will consist of the remains of vegetables that grow in the transition strata; and the animal remains will consist chiefly of such animals as were produced in the early stages of animal existence, particularly the smaller aquatic animals; and, of these, chiefly shell-fish, as shells are not so soon decomposed as mere animal substance."It is to the latter class of depositions—to the secondary series—that we must refer the sandstone of the River Des Plaines, in which we find a walnut, of mature growth, enveloped by, and imbedded in the rock, in the most complete state of mineralization; and, since all geological writers who subscribe to the Neptunian theory are constrained to employ the agency of oceanic depositions of different eras, in explaining the structure of the earth's surface, it is one of the most obvious and important conclusions, to be drawn from the fact that such submersions and depositions of rock matter have taken place subsequent to the existence of forests of mature growth, and that the rock strata and beds composing the exterior of the earth are the result of different geological epochs, and of successive subsidences of chaotic matter—positions which have been so severely attacked and so often denied, particularly by the disciples of the Huttonian school, that it is not without a feeling of lively interest, I communicate a discovery which appears so conclusive on the subject.Considerations arising from the frontier position of the country, and the infrequency of the communication, have also induced me to draw from incidental sources, a corroboration of the facts advanced.In a letter to Governor Cass, of Michigan, dated September 17, 1821, I made the following observations on the subject under review:—"I consider the petrified tree discovered during our recent journey up the Illinois, so extraordinary an object in the naturalhistory of the country, and calculated to lead to conclusions so important to the science of geology, that I am anxious to avail myself of your concurrent testimony as to the fact of the existence of the tree in a mineralized state, and the natural appearances of the spot where it lies imbedded. I feel the more solicitude on this subject, as I am aware that any description of this phenomenon which I may be induced to communicate to the public, will be received with a degree of caution and scrutiny which it is the province of the naturalist to exercise whenever any discovery is announced affecting the existing theories of the natural sciences, or tending to increase the volume of facts upon which their advancement and perfection depend. I am aware, also, that whatever degree of caution and vigilance it may be proper to exercise to prevent errors from mingling with the sound doctrines of the physical and other sciences, still more care and circumspection is requisite in examining facts which affect the progress of geology."I quote an extract from Governor Cass's reply on the subject:—"The appearance of the wood and bark indicates that it was a black walnut, the juglans nigra of our forests. We computed its original diameter, at the place where it is concealed in the earth, to have been three feet, and at the other end eighteen inches. The texture of the wood, and the bark and knots, are nearly as distinct as in the living subject, and the process of decay had not commenced previous to the commencement of this wonderful conversion. Every part of the mass which we could examine is solid stone, and readily yields fire by the collision with steel."When we visited the spot, the water of the river was at the lowest stage; but there was no part of the tree within some inches of the surface. The rocky bed of the stream was formed round and upon it. We raised from it pieces of the rock, which were evidentlyin situ, and which had been formed upon the tree posterior to the period of its deposit in its present situation. This rock is a species of sandstone, whose characteristic features must be well known to you."There are no mineralized substances of vegetable origin in the vicinity of this specimen, nor are there any appearances which indicate that its present condition has been caused by any peculiar property in the waters of the Des Plaines."ADDENDA.The publication of the foregoing memoir led to several letters being addressed to the author on topics connected with it. Some of these were from gentlemen eminent in science or politics, whose opinions are entitled to the highest respect. Extracts are given from such only as introduce new data, either of fact or opinion.Geological Theories.—Professor Dewey, of Williams College, observes: "A friend has just lent me your 'Memoir on a Fossil-Tree.' Though the account is very interesting, I do not perceive its exact bearing on the Neptunian and Plutonian hypotheses. The fault is doubtless in me, and you will excuse my remarks and set me right. I had supposed the Huttonians and Wernerians did not dispute about the manner in which thesecondaryrocks were formed. Macculloch, and others before him, led me into this opinion, though it may be erroneous. But Bakewell, who is referred to as authority inRees's Cyclopædia, says, p. 131: 'Geologists are agreed that secondary rocks have been formed by the agency of water.' If this be so, they would agree generally with the account of Dr. Cooper respecting the formation of petrifactions, and especially those of vegetables, and the fossil-tree would be treated of in a similar manner by both."Hutton's original hypothesis, and not the modifications of it introduced by the Neptu-Vulcanists, were adverted to in reply. Subsequently, Professor Dewey writes:—"I was greatly obliged by your letter in various respects, and I write you now to make my acknowledgments for it, as well as to maintain the correctness of your notions on the Huttonian hypothesis. As you had seen a Scotch mineralogist directly from the mint of Playfair, I had every reason to suppose you had received correct views of Playfair's notions on the subject. I have been led, therefore, to examine the matter, and, as I may have set you on the search, I wish to prevent your continuing it on my account, or from what I wrote."Playfair's Illustrations I have never seen. Occasional extracts, or allusions to its points, have fallen in my way. But I have before me a very full abstract of Hutton's paper on the subject, from theTransactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Itis from the very paper in which he announces his hypothesis. In that paper he mentions that the consolidation of all the hard crust of the globe has been effected byheatandfusion, extending it to secondary as well as primitive rocks, and mentioning particularly Spanish marble, shell limestone, oolite, and chalk."This operation of heat, he says, is exemplified bychalk, which is to be found in all gradations, from marble to loose chalk. This is his precise notion, but not his words. I had once looked at this paper before, and thought much of this theory; but this thought had been obliterated from my mind by thoughts advanced by others, as I thought in consistency with the sentence I quoted from Bakewell. At least, one objection to Hutton's views would be removed by modifying his theory in the manner it seems to be by Bakewell. Though Hutton does not think this to be necessary; for he appears to feel no difficulty in accounting for petrifactions of wood on his hypothesis, for he mentions thatwe have many proofs of the penetration of flinty matter, in a state of fusion, in other bodies, such as insulated pieces of flint in chalk or sand, and fossil wood penetrated with silicious matter."Still, the grand reasons of Hutton for employing heat as the agent of consolidation are opposed to the above modification of his theory. These reasons, as you know, are the insolubility of most mineral substances in water, and the disappearance of the water from the cavities of minerals which have been consolidated. The first is, indeed, the great one for Hutton; for the crystallization of salts in water, and the existence of liquids, in some cases, in the cavities of the most solid minerals, show well enough that the water might or might not disappear, as the circumstances were different."If the Huttonians maintain, as he did, the formation of petrifactions by heat, which consistency requires, I concede, indeed, to you that that fossil-tree stands as a grand monument of some different process; and yet, we can hardly suppose that they do not see great difficulty in the common notion on the subject. The rapidity with which the petrifactions must have taken place—a point well illustrated in Hayden'sGeological Essays—seems to require some new notions on the subject. What these may be, I cannot tell; but I believe that neither of these two hypotheses will be adopted exclusively, half a century hence, on this point,or on geology generally. I think, with you, that our countrymen need illumination on the subject of Hutton's hypothesis, and I wish some one would attempt it."Trap-Rocks of Europe and America.—"I suspect the greenstone of our country, when examined as it ought to be, will be found, in its geological relations, much to resemble the basalt of Europe; and that the same difficulties will attend it, on Werner's hypothesis, as now attend the basalt. Indeed, I know not how we can account for what Bakewell and Macculloch state on this hypothesis."Sandstone of Virginia.—"I have seen a piece of a petrified tree, about eight inches through, found in the sandstone of Virginia, but could get none of it. The petrifaction was far finer than the stone in which it lay, and was, like it, silex."Sandstone of Ohio.—C. Atwater, Esq., in a letter to the author, observes:—"I can assure you that the finding of whole trees in sandstone is nothing strange in this State. Some of these trees are imbedded in sandstone one hundred feet below the surface. Zanesville and Gallipolis are the best spots to find these fossils."There is no part of the tree but what I have in my cabinet, not excepting their leaves, fruit, and even fungi attached to them."Mosaical History of the Creation.—B. Irvine, Esq., in adverting to remarks on the Illinois fossil, observes:—"They may yet awaken some ideas in the minds of the people on the wonders of physics—and I had almost said, theslow miracles of creation; for, if ever there was a time when matter existed not, it is pretty evident thatmillions of years, instead of six days, were necessary to establish order in chaos, let Cuvier, &c. temporize as they may. However, it is the humble allotment of the herd to believe or stare; it is the glory of intelligent men to inquire and admire."The doctrine of materialism, adverted to by Mr. Irvine, it is the province of divines to controvert. One remark may be predicted on the biblical era of the six days. It is now believed to be generally conceded by eminent geologists and ecclesiastics, that the term "day," employed by the translators of the English version of the Scriptures, is used in Gen. ch. i. in a sense synonymous with "era" or "time," as it is emphatically used in Gen.ch. ii. ver. 4. For an able exposition of the present views on this subject, see theAmerican Journal of Science, vol.XXV.No. 1.4. BOTANY.XI.A descriptive list of the plants collected on the expedition, drawn up by Dr. John Torrey, has been published in the fourth volume of theAmerican Journal of Science. References to this standard work may be conveniently made by botanists.5. ZOOLOGY.No professed zoologist was attached to the expedition, the topic being left to such casual attention as members of it might find it convenient to bestow. Of the fauna of the region, it was not believed that there were any of the prominent species which were improperly classed in theSystema Naturæof Linnæus. It was doubtless desirable to know something more particularly of the character and habitat of the American species of the reindeer (C. sylvestris) and hyena, or glutton. Perhaps something new was to be gleaned respecting the extent of the genera arctomys and sciurus, among the smaller quadrupeds, and in the departments of birds and reptilia. The mode of travel gave but little opportunity of meeting the larger species in their native haunts, but it afforded opportunities of examining the skins of the quadrupeds at the several trading stations, and of listening to the narrations of persons who had engaged in their capture.In effect, the crustacea of the streams furnished the most constant and affluent subject for enlarging the boundaries of species and varieties. The collections in this department were referred to members of the Lyceum of Natural History at New York, and of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia. The resultsof their examinations have been published in two of the principal scientific journals of the country. It had been originally proposed to republish these papers in this Appendix, together with that on the botanical collections, and some other topics; but the long time that has elapsed, renders it, on second thought, inexpedient. Distinct references to the several papers are given.XII.A Letter embracing Notices of the Zoology of the Northwest.ByHenry R. Schoolcraft.Vernon, N.Y., October 27, 1820.Dear Sir:I reached this place, on my return from the sources of the Mississippi River, on the 21st instant, having left the canal at Oneida Creek at four o'clock in the morning, whence I footed it three miles through the forest, by a very muddy road, to the ancient location of Oneida Castle, while my baggage was carried by a man on horseback.The plan of the expedition embraced the circumnavigation of the coasts of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior. From the head of the latter, we ascended the rapid River of St. Louis to a summit which descends west to the Upper Mississippi, the waters of which we entered about five hundred miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, and some three hundred miles above the ulterior point reached with boats by Lieutenant Pike in December, 1805.From this point we ascended the Mississippi, by its involutions, to its upper falls at Pakagama, where it dashes over a rock formation. A vast plateau of grass and aquatic plants succeeds, through which it winds as in a labyrinth. On this plateau we encountered and passed across the southern Lake Winnipek. Beyond this, the stream appears to be but little diminished, unless it be in its depth. It is eventually traced to a very large lake called Upper Lac Ceder Rouge, but to which we applied the name of Cass Lake. This is the apparent navigable source of the river, and was our terminal point. It lies in latitude 47° 25´ 23´´.The whole of this summit of the continent is a vast formation of drift and boulders, deposited in steps. In descending it, we found the river crossed by the primitive rocks in latitude about 46°, and it enters the great limestone formation by the cataract ofSt. Anthony's Falls, in latitude 44° 58´ 40´´. We descended the river below this point, by its windings among high and picturesque cliffs, to the influx of the Wisconsin, estimated to be three hundred miles. Thence we came through the Wisconsin and Fox valleys to Green Bay, on an arm of Lake Michigan, and, having circumnavigated the latter, returned through Lakes Huron and St. Clair to Detroit. The line of travel is about four thousand two hundred miles. Such a country—for its scenery, its magnificence, and resources, and the strong influence it is destined ultimately to have on the commerce, civilization, and progress of the country—the sun does not shine on! Its topography, latitudes and longitudes, heights and distances, have been accurately obtained by Captain Douglass, of West Point, who will prepare an elaborate map and description of the country.Personally, I have not been idle. If I have sat sometimes, in mute wonder, gazing on such scenes as the Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior, or the sylvan beauty and mixed abruptness of the Falls of St. Anthony, it has been but the idleness of admiration. I have kept my note book, my sketch-book, and my pencil in my hands, early and late; nor have once, during the whole journey, transferred myself, at an early hour, from the camp-fire or pallet to the canoe, merely to recompose myself again to sleep. If the mineralogy or geology of the country often presented little to note, the scenery, or the atmosphere, or that lone human boulder, the American Indian, did. The evidences of the existence of copper in the basin of Lake Superior are ample. There is every indication of its abundance that the geologist could wish. Nature here has operated on a grand scale. By means of volcanic fires, she has infused into the trap-rocks veins of melted metal, which not inaptly represent the arteries of the human system; for wherever the broken-down shores of this lake are examined, they disclose, not the sulphurets and carbonates of this ore, but fragments and lumps of virgin veins. These, the winds and waves have scattered far and wide.But what, you will ask, can be reported of its quadrupeds, birds, reptilia, and general zoology? Have you measured the height and length of the mastodon—"the great bull"—who the Indians told Mr. Jefferson resisted the thunderbolts, and leapedover the great lakes?[252]Truly, I beg you to spare me on this head. You are aware that we had no professed zoologist.I herewith inclose you a list of such animals as came particularly under our notice. Imperfect as it is, it will give you the general facts. The dried and stuffed skins of such species as were deemed to be undescribed, or were otherwise worthy attention, will be transmitted for description. Among these is a species of squirrel, of peculiar character, from the vicinity of St. Peter's, together with a species of mus, a burrowing animal, which is very destructive to vegetation. This appears to be the hamster of Georgia. Of the larger class of quadrupeds, we met, in the forest traversed, the black bear, deer, elk, and buffalo. The latter we encountered in large numbers, about one hundred and fifty miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, about latitude 45°, on the east bank of the river. We landed for the chase, and had a full opportunity of observing its size, color, gait, and general appearance.Great interest was imparted to portions of the tour by the ornithology of the country, and it only required the interest and skill in this line of a Wilson or an Audubon, to have not only identified, but also added to the list of species.[253]The geological character of the country has been found highly interesting. The primitive rocks rise up in high orbicular groups on the banks of Lake Superior. The interstices between groups are filled up with coarse red, gray, or mottled sandstone, which lies, generally, in a horizontal position, but is sometimes waved or raised up vertically. Volcanic fires have played an important part here. I have been impressed with the fact that the granitical series are generally deficient in mica, its place being supplied by hornblende. Indeed, the rock is more truly sienite, very little true granite being found, and, in these cases, it is in the form of veins or beds in the sienite.There have also been great volcanic fires and upliftings under the sources of the Mississippi. Greenstone and trap are piled upin huge boulders. The most elevated rock, in place, on the sources of the Mississippi, is found to be quartzite. This is at the Falls of Pakagama. In coming down the Mississippi, soon after passing the latitude of 46°, the river is found to have its bed on greenstones and sienites, till reaching near to the Falls of St. Anthony, where the great western horizontal limestone series begins. To facilitate the study of the latter, opportunities were sought of detecting its imbedded forms of organic life, but their infrequency, and the rapid mode of our journeying, was averse to much success in this line without the boundaries of the great lake basins.In the department of mineralogy, I have not as brilliant a collection as I brought from Potosi in 1819—but, nevertheless, one of value—the country explored being a wilderness, and very little labor having been applied in excavations. Among the objects secured, I have fine specimens of the various forms of native copper and its ores, together with crystallized sulphurets of lead, zinc, and iron; native muriate of soda, graphite, sulphate of lime, and strontian, and the attractive forms which the species of the quartz family assume, in the shore debris of the lakes, under the names of agate, carnelian, &c. The whole will be prepared and elaborately reported to the Department.I found the freshwater shells of this region to be a very attractive theme of observation in places"Where the tiger steals along,And the dread Indian chants his dismal song;"where, indeed, there was scarcely anything else to attract attention; and I have collected a body of bivalves, which will be forwarded to our mutual friend, Dr. Mitchell, for description. Indeed, the present communication is designed, after you have perused it, to pass under his eye. No one in our scientific ranks is more alive to the progress of discovery in all its physical branches. Governor Clinton, in one of his casual letters, has very happily denominated him the Delphic oracle, for all who have a question to ask come to him, and his scientific memory and research, in books, old and new, are such, that it must be a hard question indeed which he cannot solve.Next to him, as an expounder of knowledge, you, my dear sir,as the representative of thecorps editorial, take your place. For, if it is the writer of books who truly increases information, every decade's experience more and more convinces me that it is the editor of a diurnal journal who diffuses it, by his brief critical notices, or by giving a favorable or unfavorable impetus to public opinion.I am expected, I find, to publish my private narrative of the expedition, to serve at least—if I may say so—as a stay to popular expectation, until the more matured results can be duly elaborated. I am taking breath here, among my friends, for a few days, and shall be greatly governed by your judgment in the matter, after my arrival at Albany.I am, sir,With sincere respect,Your obedient servant,HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.ToNathaniel H. Carter, Esq., Albany.List of Quadrupeds, Birds, &c. observed.The identification of species in this list, by giving the Indian name, is herein fixed.ENGLISH NAME.INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) NAME.SCIENTIFIC NAME.Buffalo,Pe-zhík-i,[254]Bos Americanus.Gm.Elk,Mush-kos,Cervus Canadensis.L.Deer (common),Wa-wash-ká-shi,Cervus Virginianus.Gm.Moose,Möz,Cervus alces.L.Black Bear,Muk-wah,Ursus Americanus.Gm.Wolf (gray),My-een-gan,Canis vulpes.L.Wolverine,Gwin-gwe-au-ga,[255]Ursus luscus.L.Fox (red),Waú-gooshCanis vulpes.L.Badger,Ak-kuk-o-jeesh,Meles labradoria.C.Fox (black),Muk-wau-goosh,Canis argenteus.C.Muskrat,Wau-zhusk,Fiber vulgaris.C.Martin,Wau-be-zha-si,Mustela mortes.L. & B.Fisher,O-jeeg,Mustela Pennanti.C. Am. ed., app. v.Beaver,Am-ik,Castor fiber.B.Otter,Ne-gik,Lutra vulgaris.L.Porcupine,Kaug,Hystrix cristata.C.Raccoon,Ais-e-bun (fromais,a shell, andbun,past tense),Procyon lotor.C.Hare,Wau-bose,Lepus Americanus.Gm.Polecat,She-kaug,Mephites putorius.Cu.Squirrel (red),Ad-je-dah-mo,Sciurus vulgaris.C.Squirrel (ground or striped),Ah-gwing-woos,Sciurus striatus.C.Squirrel (an apparently new species).Pouched Rat or Hamster,No-naw-pau-je-ne-ka-si,Mus busarius.Shaw.Weasel,Shin-gwoos,Mustela vulgaris.L.Mink,Shong-waish-ke,Mustela lutreola.C.Jerboa,called the Jumping Mouse,[256]Dipus.C.Eagle (bald),Mik-a-zi,[257]F. lucocephulus.L.Fork-tailed Hawk,Ca-niew,F. furcatus.L.Chicken Hawk,Cha-mees,F. communis.C.Pigeon Hawk,Pe-pe-ge-wa-zains,F. columbarius.Wilson.Raven,Kaw-gaw-ge,Corvus corax.L.Crow,On-daig,C. corone.L.Magpie,Wau-bish-kau-gau-gi (White Raven),[258]C. pica.L.Cormorant,Kau-kau-ge-sheeb (Raven-duck),P. carbe.Brin.Pelican,Shay-ta,P. onocrotalus.Illig.Goose,Wa-wa,An. anser.L.Brant,Ne-kuh,An. bernicla.Wilson.Duck (d. and m.),Shee-sheeb (a generic term),Anas.Duck (saw-bill),On-zig,A. tadorna.C.Duck (Red-head or Fall)Misquon-dib,A. rufus.Gm.Duck (alewives),Ah-ah-wa.Swan,Wau-bis-si,A. cygnus.C.Heron,Moosh-kow-e-si,Ardea.C.Plover,Tchwi-tchwish-ke-wa,Charadriûs.C.Turkey,Mis-is-sa,Meleagris.C.Blackbird,Os-sig-in-ok,The red-winged species.Rail,Muk-ud-a-pe-nais,Jay (blue),Dain-da-si,[259]Garrulus.C.Whippoorwill,Paish-kwa,Caprimulgas.L.Robin,O-pee-chi,T. migratorius.L.Kingfisher,Me-je-ge-gwun-a,Alcedo.C.Pigeon,O-mee-mi,Columba emigratoria.Partridge,Pe-na,[260]Tetrao.C.Crane,Ad-je-jawk,Crane family.Gull,Ky-aushk,Gull family.Woodpecker,Ma-ma,Picus.C.Snipe,Pah-dus-kau-unzh-i,Scolipax.C.Owl,Ko-ko-ko-o,[261]Generic terms for thespecies.Loon,Mong,Mocking-bird (seen as farnorth as Michilimackinac),T. polyglotis.Wilson.Sturgeon,Na-ma,Acipenser.L.Sturgeon (paddle-nose),Ab-we-on-na-ma,Acipenser spatularia.C.White-fish,Ad-ik-um-aig[262](means deer of the water).Salmon trout,Na-ma-gwoos,Salmo.L.Trout (speckled),Na-zhe-ma-gwoos,Carp,Nam-a-bin,Denotes the red fin.Catfish,Miz-zi,Silurus.C.Bass,O-gau.The striped species.Tulibee,O-dön-a-bee (wet-mouth).Eel,Pe-miz-zi (a specific term).A specific term.Snake,Ke-ná-bik (a generic),Ophidia.C.Snake,A species supposed peculiar,Turtle (lake),Mik-e-nok,Chelonia.C.Turtle (small land),Mis-qua-dais,Philological Note.—Three of these fifty-seven terms of Indian nomenclature are monosyllables, and twenty-four dissyllables. The latter are compounds, as inmuk-wah(black animal), andwau-bose(white little animal); and it is inferable that all the names over a single syllable are compounds. Thus, aisebun (raccoon), is fromais, a shell, and the term past tense of verbs inbun.XIII.Species of Bivalves collected in the Northwest, by Mr. Schoolcraft and Captain Douglass, on the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi, in 1820.ByD. H. Barnes.This paper, by which a new impulse was given to the study of our freshwater conchology, and many species were added to the list of discoveries, was published in two papers, to be found inthe pages ofSilliman's American Journal of Science, vol. vi. pp. 120, 259.XIV.Freshwater Shells collected in the Valleys of the Fox and Wisconsin, in 1820, by Mr. Schoolcraft.ByIsaac Lea, Member American Philosophical Society.A description of these shells, in which several new species are established, was published by the ingenious conchologist, Mr. I. Lea, of Philadelphia, in theTransactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. v. p. 37, Plate III., &c.XV.Summary Remarks respecting the Zoology of the Northwest noticed by the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi in 1820.By Dr.Samuel L. Mitchell.The squirrel [from the vicinity of the Falls of St. Anthony], is a species not heretofore described, and has been namedsciurus tredecem striatus, or the federation squirrel. (A.)The pouched rat, ormus busarius, has been seen but once in Europe. This was a specimen sent to the British Museum from Canada, and described by Dr. Shaw. But its existence is rather questioned by Chev. Cuvier. Both animals have been described, and the descriptions published in the 21st vol. of theMedical Repository, of New York, pp. 248, 249. The specimens [from the West] are both preserved in my museum. Drawings have been executed by the distinguished artist Milbert, and forwarded by him, at my request, to the administrators of the King's Museum, at Paris, of which he is a corresponding member. My descriptions accompany them. The animals are retained as too valuable to be sent out of the country. [B.]The paddle-fish is thespatulariaof Shaw, andpolydonof Lacepede. It lives in the Mississippi only, and the skeleton, though incomplete, is better than any other person here possesses. It is carefully preserved in my collection.The serpent is a species of the ophalian genus anguis, the oveto of the French, and the blind worm of the English. The loss of the tail of this fragile creature renders an opinion a little dubious;but it is supposed to beopthiosaureusof Dandrige, corresponding to theanguis ventralisof Linnæus, figured by Catesby.The shells afford a rich amount of an undescribed species. The whole of the univalves and bivalves received from Messrs. Schoolcraft and Douglass have been assembled and examined, with all I possessed before, and with Mr. Stacy Collins's molluscas brought from the Ohio. Mr. Barnes is charged with describing and delineating all the species not contained in Mr. Say'sMemoir of the Productions of the Land and Fresh Waters of North America. The finished work will be laid before the Lyceum, and finally be printed in Mr. Silliman'sNew Haven Journal. The species by which geology will be enriched will amount, probably, to nine or ten. (C.) We shall endeavor to be just to our friends and benefactors.S. L. MITCHELL.ForGov. CASS.Notes.(A.)An animal similar, in some respects, has been subsequently found on the Straits of St. Mary's, Michigan, a specimen of the dried skin of which I presented to the National Institute at Washington; but, from the absence of the head bones and teeth, it is not easy to determine whether it is a sciurus, or arctomys.(B.)The duplicature of the cheeks of this animal having been extendedoutwardlyin drying the skin, was left in its rigid state, giving it an unnatural appearance, which doubtless led to the incredulity of Cuvier when he saw the figure and description of Dr. Shaw. Dr. Mitchell was led to a similar error of opinion, at first, as to the natural position of these bags; but afterwards, when the matter was explained to him, corrected this mistaken notion.(C.)By reference to the descriptions of Mr. Barnes and Mr. Lea, recited above, the number will be seen to have exceeded this estimate.XVI.Mus Busarius. VideMedical Repository, vol. xxi. p. 248.XVII.Sciurus Tredecem Striatus.Medical Repository, vol. xxi.XVIII.Proteus.American Journal of Science, vol. iv.6. METEOROLOGY.XIX.Memoranda of Climatic Phenomena and the Distribution of Solar Heat in 1820.ByHenry R. Schoolcraft.The influence of solar heat on the quantity of water which is discharged from the great table lands which give origin to the sources of the Mississippi was such, during the summer months of 1820, that, on reaching those altitudes in latitude but a few minutes north of 47°, on the 21st of July, it was found impracticable to proceed higher in tracing out its sources. Attention had been directed to the phenomena of temperatures, clouds, evaporations, and solar influences, from the opening of the year, but they were not prosecuted with all the advantages essential to generalization. Still, some of the details noticed merit attention as meteorological memoranda which may be interesting in future researches of this kind, and it is with no higher view that these selections are made.Observations made at Geneva, N. Y.1820.7 A.M.1 P.M.7 P.M.REMARKS.April 2064°73°60°Clear." 21627461Clear." 22657866Clear." 23606959Clear." 24597061Clear." 25546455Clear." 26556754Cloudy, with rain." 27506051Rainy." 2864......Clear.Observations made at Buffalo, N. Y.1820.8 A.M.2 P.M.REMARKS.April 3043°60°Clear.May 14964Clear." 24563Clear." 34465Clear." 44679Cloudy." 54068Cloudy, with rain." 644...Cloudy.These places are but ninety miles apart, yet such is the influence of the lake winds on the temperature of the latter position, that it denotes an atmospheric depression of temperature of 5°. At the same time, the range between the maximum and minimum was exactly the same.Observations made at Detroit.1820.8 A.M.12 M.6 P.M.REMARKS.WIND.May 15,50°61°51°Fair.N. E." 16,496250Fair.N. E." 17,506451Fair.N. E." 18,526460Fair.N. E." 19,606860Fair.N. E." 20,646863Fair.N. E." 21,678266Fair.S. W." 22,648882Fair.S. W." 23,728476Cloudy, some rainW. N. W." 24,5364...Cloudy.N. W.The average temperature of this place for May is denoted to be some five or six degrees higher while the wind remained at N.E., but on its changing to S.W. (on the 21st), the temperature ran up four degrees at once. As soon as it changed to N.W. (on the 24th), the thermometer fell from its range on the 21st fourteen degrees.The uncommon beauty and serenity of the Michigan autumns, and the mildness of its winters, have often been the subject of remark. By a diary of the weather kept by a gentleman in Detroit, in the summer and fall of 1816, from the 24th of July to the 22d of October, making eighty-nine days, it appears that57 were fair,12 cloudy, and20 showery and rainy.By a diary kept at the garrison of Detroit (Fort Shelby), agreeable to orders from the War Department, from the 15th of Nov. 1818, to the 28th of Feb. 1819, making 105 days,40 of them are marked "clear,"40 "cloudy,"13 "clear and cloudy," and12 "cloudy, with rain or snow."By Fahrenheit's thermometer, kept at the same place, and under the same direction, it appears that the medium temperature of the atmosphere was agreeable to the following statement:—7 A.M.2 P.M.9 P.M.Average.Lowest deg.Highest deg.Nov. 13 to 30,41°47°41°43°31°58°December,22292525250January,303130301058February,29393133858Prevailing winds, S. W. and N. W.Observations on Lake and River St. Clair, Michigan.1820.6 A.M.8 A.M.12 M.2 P.M.6 P.M.8 P.M.REMARKS.May 24,...............51°" 25,47°56°56°...46°...Clear. Wind N. W." 27,...525356°45...Clear. Wind N. W." 27,...5455......44Clear. Wind N. W.Temperature of the Water of Lake and River St. Clair.May 25,at 6 A. M., 49°at 12 M., 54°" 26,at 8 A. M., 55at 2 P. M., 55" 27,at 8 A. M., 54at 12 M., 55at 8 P. M., 50°Observations on Lake Huron.5A.M.°6A.M.°8A.M.°9A.M.°11A.M.°12M.°1P.M.°2P.M.°3P.M.°5P.M.°6P.M.°7P.M.°8P.M.°Avertaegmep.REMARKS.May 28....54....53............4151Clear. Wind N. W." 29....44........70....53....55Clear in the morning; in the afternoon high wind from N. W. with thunder and lightning." 30....46....53..........48..49Clear. Wind high; N. W." 31......54....55..54....48..53June 146....5761............54..54" 2..........55..........50..5½" 3..50..........61......47..52½" 4..52..51..........49..45..49Cloudy, with rain. Wind strong; N. W." 5..48......57........44....49½Flying clouds. Wind strong; N. W." 6....49....57........46....50½Clear. Wind Strong; N. W.516/10Average temperature of the air.Water at Lake Huron.Average.May 28,at 5A.M., 55°at 12A.M., 58°at 7P.M., 56°56°" 29,at 7A.M., 54at 12A.M., 60at 7P.M., 6359June 1,at 5A.M., 42at 11A.M., 52at 7P.M., 4440" 3,at 6A.M., 46at 2P.M., 56at 8P.M., 4647" 6,at 8A.M., 50at 12A.M., 52at 6P.M., 4950½Observations at Michilimackinac and on the Straits of St. Mary's.1820.6A.M.8A.M.9A.M.1P.M.3P.M.7P.M.9P.M.Average.WEATHER.WIND.June 7......59°61°......59°59½Clear.W. N. W." 8......59...64°...5960Clear.W. N. W." 9......53......53°...52½Cloudy with rain." 10...55°......60...5456Cloudy with rain.W." 11...52......54...5152Clear.S. E." 12...54...55......5253Clear.S. E." 1353°......63......5858Fair.S. W." 1455......73......5761Cloudy.S. W." 15...66......6862...65Clear.S. W.St. Mary's" 16...527082...66...69Clear.S. W." 17...58......82...7874Clear.S. W." 1856......76......6866Cloudy; rain.N. W.The chief conclusion to be drawn, is the extreme fluctuations of winds and temperatures, in these exposed positions on the open lakes.Observations on Lake Superior.1820.4A.M.5A.M.6A.M.7A.M.8A.M.9A.M.10A.M.11A.M.12P.M.1P.M.2P.M.3P.M.4P.M.5P.M.6P.M.7P.M.8P.M.9P.M.10P.M.Average.REMARKS.June 19....64............78........72........70½Stormy and rain. Wind N. W." 20..72............75........6871........71½Stormy and rain. Wind N. W. Hurricane at night." 21............65..............70....50..62Calm." 22....55................63......49......55½Clear. Wind light from N. W." 23..65............68..................7067½Clear. Wind S. E." 24........58......74..........6063......63Clear. High wind, N. W." 25......60......62....76............53..62½Clear. Wind N. W." 26..........69........83..........68....73Rainy. Wind W. N. W." 27........68..........71......69........69Clear. Wind E. N. E. (Fair!)" 28........74........91........74........79½Sky clear. Wind N. W." 29........79........94..........86......88Clear. Wind N. W." 30..........76....84..............60....73Clear. Wind N. W.July 154......61..........75..80..68........67½Misty. Wind light at N. N. W." 270..........75......76......65..65....70Clear. Wind W. S. W." 3....70................66....52..61....65Cloudy, mist, and rain. Wind S. S. W." 4......57..61..........................Wind S. S. W.Temperature of Lake Superior.Lakeaverage.June 20, at 6 P.M., 55°" 21, at 10 A.M., 60at 6 P.M., 56°at 9 P.M., 56°57" 22, at 6 A.M., 56at 3 P.M., 5455" 23, at 5 A.M., 52at 12 A.M., 56at 10 P.M., 6457" 24, at 6 P.M. 54at 7 P.M., 5153" 25, at 7 A.M., 67at 11 A.M. 66,at 9 P.M., 6860" 26, at 9 A.M.,56 at 8 P.M., 5756" 27, at 8 A.M., 57at 6 P.M., 6260" 28, at 8 A.M.,Superior 62°at 6 P.M.,Lake 72Ontonagon 54River 71}67" 29, at 8 A.M.,61Lake64River68at 1 P.M., River 76at 7 P.M., 75°" 30, at 8 P.M.,River 74July 1, at 8 A.M., 61at 2 P.M., 65at 6 P.M., 6664" 2, at 4 A.M., 63at 11 A.M., 64at 2 P.M., 68at 9 P.M., 6264" 3, at 6 A.M., 62at 3 P.M., 60at 9 P.M., 5860" 4, at 7 A.M., 58
"Next to the transition series, come thesecondary, or, as the German mineralogists call them, thefloetzrocks; so called, because they appear to be more floated or horizontal, though I confess the appellation does not appear to me peculiarly appropriate. These strata consist principally of sandstone, limestone—sometimes fetid from bituminous impregnations, sometimes shelly—secondary greenstone, graphite, coal, gypsum, rock salt. I have observed that the Alpine heights of the primitive mountains could at no time furnish much food. The same remark, but in a less degree, will apply to the transition range; the low andkindly climates occupied by the secondary series. The soft and decomposable nature of these depositions would furnish the true theatre of vegetable life, and, until these regions were filled with vegetables, the race of animals could not have been produced; for on what could they subsist? Graminivorous animals, therefore, must have succeeded the various forms of vegetable existence; and carnivorous, the graminivorous. The vegetable matter imbedded in the substance of the secondary strata will consist of the remains of vegetables that grow in the transition strata; and the animal remains will consist chiefly of such animals as were produced in the early stages of animal existence, particularly the smaller aquatic animals; and, of these, chiefly shell-fish, as shells are not so soon decomposed as mere animal substance."
It is to the latter class of depositions—to the secondary series—that we must refer the sandstone of the River Des Plaines, in which we find a walnut, of mature growth, enveloped by, and imbedded in the rock, in the most complete state of mineralization; and, since all geological writers who subscribe to the Neptunian theory are constrained to employ the agency of oceanic depositions of different eras, in explaining the structure of the earth's surface, it is one of the most obvious and important conclusions, to be drawn from the fact that such submersions and depositions of rock matter have taken place subsequent to the existence of forests of mature growth, and that the rock strata and beds composing the exterior of the earth are the result of different geological epochs, and of successive subsidences of chaotic matter—positions which have been so severely attacked and so often denied, particularly by the disciples of the Huttonian school, that it is not without a feeling of lively interest, I communicate a discovery which appears so conclusive on the subject.
Considerations arising from the frontier position of the country, and the infrequency of the communication, have also induced me to draw from incidental sources, a corroboration of the facts advanced.
In a letter to Governor Cass, of Michigan, dated September 17, 1821, I made the following observations on the subject under review:—
"I consider the petrified tree discovered during our recent journey up the Illinois, so extraordinary an object in the naturalhistory of the country, and calculated to lead to conclusions so important to the science of geology, that I am anxious to avail myself of your concurrent testimony as to the fact of the existence of the tree in a mineralized state, and the natural appearances of the spot where it lies imbedded. I feel the more solicitude on this subject, as I am aware that any description of this phenomenon which I may be induced to communicate to the public, will be received with a degree of caution and scrutiny which it is the province of the naturalist to exercise whenever any discovery is announced affecting the existing theories of the natural sciences, or tending to increase the volume of facts upon which their advancement and perfection depend. I am aware, also, that whatever degree of caution and vigilance it may be proper to exercise to prevent errors from mingling with the sound doctrines of the physical and other sciences, still more care and circumspection is requisite in examining facts which affect the progress of geology."
I quote an extract from Governor Cass's reply on the subject:—
"The appearance of the wood and bark indicates that it was a black walnut, the juglans nigra of our forests. We computed its original diameter, at the place where it is concealed in the earth, to have been three feet, and at the other end eighteen inches. The texture of the wood, and the bark and knots, are nearly as distinct as in the living subject, and the process of decay had not commenced previous to the commencement of this wonderful conversion. Every part of the mass which we could examine is solid stone, and readily yields fire by the collision with steel.
"When we visited the spot, the water of the river was at the lowest stage; but there was no part of the tree within some inches of the surface. The rocky bed of the stream was formed round and upon it. We raised from it pieces of the rock, which were evidentlyin situ, and which had been formed upon the tree posterior to the period of its deposit in its present situation. This rock is a species of sandstone, whose characteristic features must be well known to you.
"There are no mineralized substances of vegetable origin in the vicinity of this specimen, nor are there any appearances which indicate that its present condition has been caused by any peculiar property in the waters of the Des Plaines."
ADDENDA.
The publication of the foregoing memoir led to several letters being addressed to the author on topics connected with it. Some of these were from gentlemen eminent in science or politics, whose opinions are entitled to the highest respect. Extracts are given from such only as introduce new data, either of fact or opinion.
Geological Theories.—Professor Dewey, of Williams College, observes: "A friend has just lent me your 'Memoir on a Fossil-Tree.' Though the account is very interesting, I do not perceive its exact bearing on the Neptunian and Plutonian hypotheses. The fault is doubtless in me, and you will excuse my remarks and set me right. I had supposed the Huttonians and Wernerians did not dispute about the manner in which thesecondaryrocks were formed. Macculloch, and others before him, led me into this opinion, though it may be erroneous. But Bakewell, who is referred to as authority inRees's Cyclopædia, says, p. 131: 'Geologists are agreed that secondary rocks have been formed by the agency of water.' If this be so, they would agree generally with the account of Dr. Cooper respecting the formation of petrifactions, and especially those of vegetables, and the fossil-tree would be treated of in a similar manner by both."
Hutton's original hypothesis, and not the modifications of it introduced by the Neptu-Vulcanists, were adverted to in reply. Subsequently, Professor Dewey writes:—
"I was greatly obliged by your letter in various respects, and I write you now to make my acknowledgments for it, as well as to maintain the correctness of your notions on the Huttonian hypothesis. As you had seen a Scotch mineralogist directly from the mint of Playfair, I had every reason to suppose you had received correct views of Playfair's notions on the subject. I have been led, therefore, to examine the matter, and, as I may have set you on the search, I wish to prevent your continuing it on my account, or from what I wrote.
"Playfair's Illustrations I have never seen. Occasional extracts, or allusions to its points, have fallen in my way. But I have before me a very full abstract of Hutton's paper on the subject, from theTransactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Itis from the very paper in which he announces his hypothesis. In that paper he mentions that the consolidation of all the hard crust of the globe has been effected byheatandfusion, extending it to secondary as well as primitive rocks, and mentioning particularly Spanish marble, shell limestone, oolite, and chalk.
"This operation of heat, he says, is exemplified bychalk, which is to be found in all gradations, from marble to loose chalk. This is his precise notion, but not his words. I had once looked at this paper before, and thought much of this theory; but this thought had been obliterated from my mind by thoughts advanced by others, as I thought in consistency with the sentence I quoted from Bakewell. At least, one objection to Hutton's views would be removed by modifying his theory in the manner it seems to be by Bakewell. Though Hutton does not think this to be necessary; for he appears to feel no difficulty in accounting for petrifactions of wood on his hypothesis, for he mentions thatwe have many proofs of the penetration of flinty matter, in a state of fusion, in other bodies, such as insulated pieces of flint in chalk or sand, and fossil wood penetrated with silicious matter.
"Still, the grand reasons of Hutton for employing heat as the agent of consolidation are opposed to the above modification of his theory. These reasons, as you know, are the insolubility of most mineral substances in water, and the disappearance of the water from the cavities of minerals which have been consolidated. The first is, indeed, the great one for Hutton; for the crystallization of salts in water, and the existence of liquids, in some cases, in the cavities of the most solid minerals, show well enough that the water might or might not disappear, as the circumstances were different.
"If the Huttonians maintain, as he did, the formation of petrifactions by heat, which consistency requires, I concede, indeed, to you that that fossil-tree stands as a grand monument of some different process; and yet, we can hardly suppose that they do not see great difficulty in the common notion on the subject. The rapidity with which the petrifactions must have taken place—a point well illustrated in Hayden'sGeological Essays—seems to require some new notions on the subject. What these may be, I cannot tell; but I believe that neither of these two hypotheses will be adopted exclusively, half a century hence, on this point,or on geology generally. I think, with you, that our countrymen need illumination on the subject of Hutton's hypothesis, and I wish some one would attempt it."
Trap-Rocks of Europe and America.—"I suspect the greenstone of our country, when examined as it ought to be, will be found, in its geological relations, much to resemble the basalt of Europe; and that the same difficulties will attend it, on Werner's hypothesis, as now attend the basalt. Indeed, I know not how we can account for what Bakewell and Macculloch state on this hypothesis."
Sandstone of Virginia.—"I have seen a piece of a petrified tree, about eight inches through, found in the sandstone of Virginia, but could get none of it. The petrifaction was far finer than the stone in which it lay, and was, like it, silex."
Sandstone of Ohio.—C. Atwater, Esq., in a letter to the author, observes:—
"I can assure you that the finding of whole trees in sandstone is nothing strange in this State. Some of these trees are imbedded in sandstone one hundred feet below the surface. Zanesville and Gallipolis are the best spots to find these fossils.
"There is no part of the tree but what I have in my cabinet, not excepting their leaves, fruit, and even fungi attached to them."
Mosaical History of the Creation.—B. Irvine, Esq., in adverting to remarks on the Illinois fossil, observes:—
"They may yet awaken some ideas in the minds of the people on the wonders of physics—and I had almost said, theslow miracles of creation; for, if ever there was a time when matter existed not, it is pretty evident thatmillions of years, instead of six days, were necessary to establish order in chaos, let Cuvier, &c. temporize as they may. However, it is the humble allotment of the herd to believe or stare; it is the glory of intelligent men to inquire and admire."
The doctrine of materialism, adverted to by Mr. Irvine, it is the province of divines to controvert. One remark may be predicted on the biblical era of the six days. It is now believed to be generally conceded by eminent geologists and ecclesiastics, that the term "day," employed by the translators of the English version of the Scriptures, is used in Gen. ch. i. in a sense synonymous with "era" or "time," as it is emphatically used in Gen.ch. ii. ver. 4. For an able exposition of the present views on this subject, see theAmerican Journal of Science, vol.XXV.No. 1.
A descriptive list of the plants collected on the expedition, drawn up by Dr. John Torrey, has been published in the fourth volume of theAmerican Journal of Science. References to this standard work may be conveniently made by botanists.
No professed zoologist was attached to the expedition, the topic being left to such casual attention as members of it might find it convenient to bestow. Of the fauna of the region, it was not believed that there were any of the prominent species which were improperly classed in theSystema Naturæof Linnæus. It was doubtless desirable to know something more particularly of the character and habitat of the American species of the reindeer (C. sylvestris) and hyena, or glutton. Perhaps something new was to be gleaned respecting the extent of the genera arctomys and sciurus, among the smaller quadrupeds, and in the departments of birds and reptilia. The mode of travel gave but little opportunity of meeting the larger species in their native haunts, but it afforded opportunities of examining the skins of the quadrupeds at the several trading stations, and of listening to the narrations of persons who had engaged in their capture.
In effect, the crustacea of the streams furnished the most constant and affluent subject for enlarging the boundaries of species and varieties. The collections in this department were referred to members of the Lyceum of Natural History at New York, and of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia. The resultsof their examinations have been published in two of the principal scientific journals of the country. It had been originally proposed to republish these papers in this Appendix, together with that on the botanical collections, and some other topics; but the long time that has elapsed, renders it, on second thought, inexpedient. Distinct references to the several papers are given.
ByHenry R. Schoolcraft.
Vernon, N.Y., October 27, 1820.
Dear Sir:I reached this place, on my return from the sources of the Mississippi River, on the 21st instant, having left the canal at Oneida Creek at four o'clock in the morning, whence I footed it three miles through the forest, by a very muddy road, to the ancient location of Oneida Castle, while my baggage was carried by a man on horseback.
The plan of the expedition embraced the circumnavigation of the coasts of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior. From the head of the latter, we ascended the rapid River of St. Louis to a summit which descends west to the Upper Mississippi, the waters of which we entered about five hundred miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, and some three hundred miles above the ulterior point reached with boats by Lieutenant Pike in December, 1805.
From this point we ascended the Mississippi, by its involutions, to its upper falls at Pakagama, where it dashes over a rock formation. A vast plateau of grass and aquatic plants succeeds, through which it winds as in a labyrinth. On this plateau we encountered and passed across the southern Lake Winnipek. Beyond this, the stream appears to be but little diminished, unless it be in its depth. It is eventually traced to a very large lake called Upper Lac Ceder Rouge, but to which we applied the name of Cass Lake. This is the apparent navigable source of the river, and was our terminal point. It lies in latitude 47° 25´ 23´´.
The whole of this summit of the continent is a vast formation of drift and boulders, deposited in steps. In descending it, we found the river crossed by the primitive rocks in latitude about 46°, and it enters the great limestone formation by the cataract ofSt. Anthony's Falls, in latitude 44° 58´ 40´´. We descended the river below this point, by its windings among high and picturesque cliffs, to the influx of the Wisconsin, estimated to be three hundred miles. Thence we came through the Wisconsin and Fox valleys to Green Bay, on an arm of Lake Michigan, and, having circumnavigated the latter, returned through Lakes Huron and St. Clair to Detroit. The line of travel is about four thousand two hundred miles. Such a country—for its scenery, its magnificence, and resources, and the strong influence it is destined ultimately to have on the commerce, civilization, and progress of the country—the sun does not shine on! Its topography, latitudes and longitudes, heights and distances, have been accurately obtained by Captain Douglass, of West Point, who will prepare an elaborate map and description of the country.
Personally, I have not been idle. If I have sat sometimes, in mute wonder, gazing on such scenes as the Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior, or the sylvan beauty and mixed abruptness of the Falls of St. Anthony, it has been but the idleness of admiration. I have kept my note book, my sketch-book, and my pencil in my hands, early and late; nor have once, during the whole journey, transferred myself, at an early hour, from the camp-fire or pallet to the canoe, merely to recompose myself again to sleep. If the mineralogy or geology of the country often presented little to note, the scenery, or the atmosphere, or that lone human boulder, the American Indian, did. The evidences of the existence of copper in the basin of Lake Superior are ample. There is every indication of its abundance that the geologist could wish. Nature here has operated on a grand scale. By means of volcanic fires, she has infused into the trap-rocks veins of melted metal, which not inaptly represent the arteries of the human system; for wherever the broken-down shores of this lake are examined, they disclose, not the sulphurets and carbonates of this ore, but fragments and lumps of virgin veins. These, the winds and waves have scattered far and wide.
But what, you will ask, can be reported of its quadrupeds, birds, reptilia, and general zoology? Have you measured the height and length of the mastodon—"the great bull"—who the Indians told Mr. Jefferson resisted the thunderbolts, and leapedover the great lakes?[252]Truly, I beg you to spare me on this head. You are aware that we had no professed zoologist.
I herewith inclose you a list of such animals as came particularly under our notice. Imperfect as it is, it will give you the general facts. The dried and stuffed skins of such species as were deemed to be undescribed, or were otherwise worthy attention, will be transmitted for description. Among these is a species of squirrel, of peculiar character, from the vicinity of St. Peter's, together with a species of mus, a burrowing animal, which is very destructive to vegetation. This appears to be the hamster of Georgia. Of the larger class of quadrupeds, we met, in the forest traversed, the black bear, deer, elk, and buffalo. The latter we encountered in large numbers, about one hundred and fifty miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, about latitude 45°, on the east bank of the river. We landed for the chase, and had a full opportunity of observing its size, color, gait, and general appearance.
Great interest was imparted to portions of the tour by the ornithology of the country, and it only required the interest and skill in this line of a Wilson or an Audubon, to have not only identified, but also added to the list of species.[253]
The geological character of the country has been found highly interesting. The primitive rocks rise up in high orbicular groups on the banks of Lake Superior. The interstices between groups are filled up with coarse red, gray, or mottled sandstone, which lies, generally, in a horizontal position, but is sometimes waved or raised up vertically. Volcanic fires have played an important part here. I have been impressed with the fact that the granitical series are generally deficient in mica, its place being supplied by hornblende. Indeed, the rock is more truly sienite, very little true granite being found, and, in these cases, it is in the form of veins or beds in the sienite.
There have also been great volcanic fires and upliftings under the sources of the Mississippi. Greenstone and trap are piled upin huge boulders. The most elevated rock, in place, on the sources of the Mississippi, is found to be quartzite. This is at the Falls of Pakagama. In coming down the Mississippi, soon after passing the latitude of 46°, the river is found to have its bed on greenstones and sienites, till reaching near to the Falls of St. Anthony, where the great western horizontal limestone series begins. To facilitate the study of the latter, opportunities were sought of detecting its imbedded forms of organic life, but their infrequency, and the rapid mode of our journeying, was averse to much success in this line without the boundaries of the great lake basins.
In the department of mineralogy, I have not as brilliant a collection as I brought from Potosi in 1819—but, nevertheless, one of value—the country explored being a wilderness, and very little labor having been applied in excavations. Among the objects secured, I have fine specimens of the various forms of native copper and its ores, together with crystallized sulphurets of lead, zinc, and iron; native muriate of soda, graphite, sulphate of lime, and strontian, and the attractive forms which the species of the quartz family assume, in the shore debris of the lakes, under the names of agate, carnelian, &c. The whole will be prepared and elaborately reported to the Department.
I found the freshwater shells of this region to be a very attractive theme of observation in places
"Where the tiger steals along,And the dread Indian chants his dismal song;"
"Where the tiger steals along,And the dread Indian chants his dismal song;"
"Where the tiger steals along,
And the dread Indian chants his dismal song;"
where, indeed, there was scarcely anything else to attract attention; and I have collected a body of bivalves, which will be forwarded to our mutual friend, Dr. Mitchell, for description. Indeed, the present communication is designed, after you have perused it, to pass under his eye. No one in our scientific ranks is more alive to the progress of discovery in all its physical branches. Governor Clinton, in one of his casual letters, has very happily denominated him the Delphic oracle, for all who have a question to ask come to him, and his scientific memory and research, in books, old and new, are such, that it must be a hard question indeed which he cannot solve.
Next to him, as an expounder of knowledge, you, my dear sir,as the representative of thecorps editorial, take your place. For, if it is the writer of books who truly increases information, every decade's experience more and more convinces me that it is the editor of a diurnal journal who diffuses it, by his brief critical notices, or by giving a favorable or unfavorable impetus to public opinion.
I am expected, I find, to publish my private narrative of the expedition, to serve at least—if I may say so—as a stay to popular expectation, until the more matured results can be duly elaborated. I am taking breath here, among my friends, for a few days, and shall be greatly governed by your judgment in the matter, after my arrival at Albany.
I am, sir,With sincere respect,Your obedient servant,HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
ToNathaniel H. Carter, Esq., Albany.
List of Quadrupeds, Birds, &c. observed.The identification of species in this list, by giving the Indian name, is herein fixed.
Philological Note.—Three of these fifty-seven terms of Indian nomenclature are monosyllables, and twenty-four dissyllables. The latter are compounds, as inmuk-wah(black animal), andwau-bose(white little animal); and it is inferable that all the names over a single syllable are compounds. Thus, aisebun (raccoon), is fromais, a shell, and the term past tense of verbs inbun.
Species of Bivalves collected in the Northwest, by Mr. Schoolcraft and Captain Douglass, on the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi, in 1820.ByD. H. Barnes.
This paper, by which a new impulse was given to the study of our freshwater conchology, and many species were added to the list of discoveries, was published in two papers, to be found inthe pages ofSilliman's American Journal of Science, vol. vi. pp. 120, 259.
Freshwater Shells collected in the Valleys of the Fox and Wisconsin, in 1820, by Mr. Schoolcraft.ByIsaac Lea, Member American Philosophical Society.
A description of these shells, in which several new species are established, was published by the ingenious conchologist, Mr. I. Lea, of Philadelphia, in theTransactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. v. p. 37, Plate III., &c.
Summary Remarks respecting the Zoology of the Northwest noticed by the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi in 1820.By Dr.Samuel L. Mitchell.
The squirrel [from the vicinity of the Falls of St. Anthony], is a species not heretofore described, and has been namedsciurus tredecem striatus, or the federation squirrel. (A.)
The pouched rat, ormus busarius, has been seen but once in Europe. This was a specimen sent to the British Museum from Canada, and described by Dr. Shaw. But its existence is rather questioned by Chev. Cuvier. Both animals have been described, and the descriptions published in the 21st vol. of theMedical Repository, of New York, pp. 248, 249. The specimens [from the West] are both preserved in my museum. Drawings have been executed by the distinguished artist Milbert, and forwarded by him, at my request, to the administrators of the King's Museum, at Paris, of which he is a corresponding member. My descriptions accompany them. The animals are retained as too valuable to be sent out of the country. [B.]
The paddle-fish is thespatulariaof Shaw, andpolydonof Lacepede. It lives in the Mississippi only, and the skeleton, though incomplete, is better than any other person here possesses. It is carefully preserved in my collection.
The serpent is a species of the ophalian genus anguis, the oveto of the French, and the blind worm of the English. The loss of the tail of this fragile creature renders an opinion a little dubious;but it is supposed to beopthiosaureusof Dandrige, corresponding to theanguis ventralisof Linnæus, figured by Catesby.
The shells afford a rich amount of an undescribed species. The whole of the univalves and bivalves received from Messrs. Schoolcraft and Douglass have been assembled and examined, with all I possessed before, and with Mr. Stacy Collins's molluscas brought from the Ohio. Mr. Barnes is charged with describing and delineating all the species not contained in Mr. Say'sMemoir of the Productions of the Land and Fresh Waters of North America. The finished work will be laid before the Lyceum, and finally be printed in Mr. Silliman'sNew Haven Journal. The species by which geology will be enriched will amount, probably, to nine or ten. (C.) We shall endeavor to be just to our friends and benefactors.
S. L. MITCHELL.
ForGov. CASS.
Notes.
(A.)
An animal similar, in some respects, has been subsequently found on the Straits of St. Mary's, Michigan, a specimen of the dried skin of which I presented to the National Institute at Washington; but, from the absence of the head bones and teeth, it is not easy to determine whether it is a sciurus, or arctomys.
(B.)
The duplicature of the cheeks of this animal having been extendedoutwardlyin drying the skin, was left in its rigid state, giving it an unnatural appearance, which doubtless led to the incredulity of Cuvier when he saw the figure and description of Dr. Shaw. Dr. Mitchell was led to a similar error of opinion, at first, as to the natural position of these bags; but afterwards, when the matter was explained to him, corrected this mistaken notion.
(C.)
By reference to the descriptions of Mr. Barnes and Mr. Lea, recited above, the number will be seen to have exceeded this estimate.
The influence of solar heat on the quantity of water which is discharged from the great table lands which give origin to the sources of the Mississippi was such, during the summer months of 1820, that, on reaching those altitudes in latitude but a few minutes north of 47°, on the 21st of July, it was found impracticable to proceed higher in tracing out its sources. Attention had been directed to the phenomena of temperatures, clouds, evaporations, and solar influences, from the opening of the year, but they were not prosecuted with all the advantages essential to generalization. Still, some of the details noticed merit attention as meteorological memoranda which may be interesting in future researches of this kind, and it is with no higher view that these selections are made.
These places are but ninety miles apart, yet such is the influence of the lake winds on the temperature of the latter position, that it denotes an atmospheric depression of temperature of 5°. At the same time, the range between the maximum and minimum was exactly the same.
The average temperature of this place for May is denoted to be some five or six degrees higher while the wind remained at N.E., but on its changing to S.W. (on the 21st), the temperature ran up four degrees at once. As soon as it changed to N.W. (on the 24th), the thermometer fell from its range on the 21st fourteen degrees.
The uncommon beauty and serenity of the Michigan autumns, and the mildness of its winters, have often been the subject of remark. By a diary of the weather kept by a gentleman in Detroit, in the summer and fall of 1816, from the 24th of July to the 22d of October, making eighty-nine days, it appears that
By a diary kept at the garrison of Detroit (Fort Shelby), agreeable to orders from the War Department, from the 15th of Nov. 1818, to the 28th of Feb. 1819, making 105 days,
By Fahrenheit's thermometer, kept at the same place, and under the same direction, it appears that the medium temperature of the atmosphere was agreeable to the following statement:—
The chief conclusion to be drawn, is the extreme fluctuations of winds and temperatures, in these exposed positions on the open lakes.