We examined the environs of the place with interest; the village occupies the north banks of Turtle River Valley. Turtle River, which cuts its way through this slope and plain, constitutes the direct line of intercourse for the Indian trade, through Turtle and Red Lakes, to the Red River Valley of Hudson's Bay. On inquiry, we learned that this river had constituted the ancient Indian line of communication by canoes and portages, from time immemorial, with that valley, the distance to the extreme plateau, or summit, being about sixty miles. On this summit, within a couple of miles of each other, lie Turtle and Red Lakes, the one having its discharge into the Gulf of Mexico and the other into Hudson's Bay. When Canada was settled by the French, this aboriginal route was adopted. The fur companies of Great Britain, on coming into possession of the country, after the fall of Quebec, 1759, followed the same route. The factors of these companies told Lieutenant Pike, in 1806, at Sandy Lake and Leech Lake, that the Turtle portage was the only practicable route of communication to the Red River, and that it was the true source of the Mississippi; and they furnished him manuscript maps of the country conformable to these views. The region has actually been in possession of the Americans only since 1806, adopting the era of Pike's visit.By inquiry from the Chippewa Indians at this village, sanctioned by the Canadian authorities, we are informed that the Mississippi falls into the south end of Cass Lake, at the distance of eight or ten miles; that it reaches that point from the west, by a series of sharp rapids stretching over an extent of about forty miles from a large lake;[73]and that this celebrated stream originates in Lac la Biche, about six days' journey from our present position, and has many small lakes, rapids, and falls. It is further asserted by the Indians, that the water in these remote streams, and upon theserapids, is at all times shallow, but it is particularly so this season; and that it is not practicable to reach these remote sources of the river with boats, or large canoes of the size we have.On submitting these facts to the gentlemen composing his party, Governor Cass asked each one to give his views, beginning with the youngest, and to express his opinion on the feasibility of further explorations. They concurred in opinion that, in the present low state of the water on these summits, considering the impossibility of ascending them with our present craft, and in the actual state of our provisions, such an attempt was impracticable. Thereon, he announced his decision to rejoin our party at Sandy Lake, and to pursue the exploration of the river down its channel to the Falls of St. Anthony, to the inlet of the Wisconsin and Fox Rivers, and to return into the great lake basins, and complete their circumnavigation.Having reached the ultimate geographical point visited by the expedition, I thought it due to the energy and enlightened zeal of the gentleman who had led us, to mark the event by naming this body of water in my journal Cassina, or Cass Lake. There was the more reason for this in the nomenclature of the geography of the upper Mississippi, by observing that it embraces another Red Cedar Lake. The latitude of upper Red Cedar, or Cass Lake, is placed by Pike at 47° 42´40´´.[74]Its distance above Sandy Lake, by the involutions of the river, is two hundred and seventy miles, and from Fond du Lac, at the head of Lake Superior, by the travelled route, four hundred and thirty miles. It is situated seventeen degrees north of the Gulf of Mexico, from which it is computed to be distant two thousand nine hundred and seventy-eight geographical miles. Estimating the distance to the actual origin of the river, as determined at a subsequent period, at one hundred and eighty-two miles above Cass Lake, the length of the Mississippi River is shown to be three thousand one hundred and sixty miles,[75]making a direct line over the earth's surface of more than half the distance from the arctic circle to the equator. It may also be observed of the Mississippi, that its sources lie in a region of snows and long-continuedwinter, while it enters the ocean under the latitude of perpetual verdure; and at last, as if disdaining to terminate its career at the ordinary point of embouchure of other large rivers, has protruded its banks into the Gulf of Mexico, more than a hundred miles beyond any other part of the main. To have visited both the source and the mouth of the stream has fallen to the lot of but few, and I believe there is no person living beside myself of whom the remark can be made. On the tenth of July, 1819, I passed out of the mouth of the Mississippi in a brig bound for New York, after descending it in a steamboat from St. Louis, but little thinking I should soon visit its waters, yet, on the twenty-first of July of the following year, I reached its sources in this lake.In deciding upon the physical character of the Mississippi River, it may be advantageously considered under four natural divisions, as indicated by permanent differences in its geological and physical character—its vegetable productions, and its velocity and general hydrographical character. Originating in a region of lakes upon the table-lands which throw their waters north into Hudson's Bay, south into the Gulf of Mexico, and east into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, it pursues its course south to the Falls of Pakagama, a distance of two hundred and thirty miles, through natural meadows or savannas covered with wild rice, rushes, reeds and coarse grasses, and aquatic plants. During the distance, it is extremely devious in its course and width, often expanding into lakes which connect themselves through a vast system of reticulated channels. Leech Lake, Cass Lake, and Lake Andrúsia would themselves be regarded as small interior seas, were they on any other part of the continent but that which develops Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. Its velocity through the upper plateau is but little, and it affords every facility for the breeding of water fowl and the small furred quadrupeds, the favorite reliance of a nomadic population.At the Falls of Pakagama, the first rock stratum and the first wooded island is seen. Here the river has an aggregate fall of twenty feet, and from this point to St. Anthony's Falls, a distance of six hundred miles, it exhibits its second characteristic division. The granitical and metamorphic rocks, which support the vast plateaux and beds of draft of its sources, are only apparent abovethis point, in boulders. The permanent strata are but barely concealed at several rapids below the Pakagama, but appear plainly below the influx of the De Corbeau, at Elk River, Little Falls, and near Sac River. And this system of rock is succeeded, before reaching the Falls of St. Anthony, by the horizonal white sand rock and its superior limestone series of the carboniferous formation.Vegetation is developed as the river descends towards the south. A forest of maples, elm, oak, ash, and birch, is interspersed with spruce, birch, poplar, and pine above the Pakagama, and continues, in favorable positions, throughout this division. The black walnut is first seen below Sandy Lake, and the sycamore below the River De Corbeau. The river in this division has numerous well-wooded islands; its velocity is a striking feature; it abounds with rapids, none of which, however, oppose serious obstacles to its navigation. Agreeably to memoranda kept,[76]it has fifty-six distinct rapids, including the Little and Big Falls, in all of which the river has an aggregate estimated descent of two hundred and twenty-four feet, within a distance of fourteen thousand six hundred and forty yards, or about eight miles. The mean fall of the current, exclusive of these rapids, may be computed at nearly six inches per mile.The course of the river, below the Falls of Pakagama, is still serpentine, but strikingly less so than above, and its bends are not so short and abrupt. The general course of this river, till it reaches the rock formation of Pakagama, is from the west. Thence, to Sandy Lake inlet, it flows generally southeast; from this point to the inlet of the De Corbeau or Crow Wing, it is deflected to the southwest; thence almost due south, to the mouth of the Watab River; and thence again southeast to the Falls of St. Anthony. A geographical line dropped from the inlet of Sandy Lake, where the channel is first deflected to the southwest, to St. Anthony's Falls, or the mouth of the St. Peter's,[77]forms a vast bow-shaped area of prairie and forest lands of high agricultural capabilities, whose future products must be carried to a market through the Fond du Lac of Lake Superior. Theseprairies and grove lands, which cannot square less than two by four hundred miles, constitute the ancient area of the Issati,[78]and are now the resort of great herds of the buffalo, elk, and deer; and it is a region known as the predatory border, or battle-ground of the Chippewas and Dacotas.CHAPTER XI.Physical traits of the Mississippi—The elevation of its sources—Its velocity and mean descent—Etymology of the name Mississippi—Descent of the river to Sandy Lake, and thence to the Falls of St. Anthony—Recross the great Bitobi Savanna—Pakagama formation—Description of the voyage from Sandy Lake to Pine River—Brief notices of the natural history.The third geographical division in which it is proposed to consider the Mississippi, begins at the Falls of St. Anthony. Within half a day's march, before reaching this point from its sources, the primitive and crystallized, and the altered and basaltic rocks are succeeded by the great limestone and sandstone horizontal series of the carboniferous, magnesian, and metalliferous rocks, which constitute by themselves so extraordinary a body of geological phenomena. Entering on the level of the white sandstone stratum, which is fundamental in this column, about the inlet of Rum River, the Mississippi urges its way over a gently inclining bed of this rock, to the brink of this cataract, where it drops perpendicularly about sixteen feet; but the whole descent of its level from the head to the foot of the portage path, cannot be less than double that height.The river, at this point, enters a valley which is defined by rocky cliffs, which attain various elevations from one to three hundred feet, presenting a succession of picturesque or sublime views. In some places these cliffs present a precipitous and abrupt façade, washed by the current. In far the greatest number of cases, the eminence has lost its sharp angles through the effects of frosts, rains, and elemental action, leaving a slope of debris at the foot. As the river descends, it increases in volume and in the extent of its alluvions. These form, in an especial manner, its characteristic features from St. Anthony's Falls to the junction of the Missouri, a distance of not less than eight hundred miles. The principaltributaries which it receives in this distance, are, on the right, the St. Peter's, Upper and Lower Iowa, Turkey River, Desmoines, and Salt Rivers; and, on the left, the St. Croix, Chippewa, Wisconsin, Rock River, and the Illinois. One hundred miles below St. Anthony, it expands for a distance of twenty-four miles into the sylvan sheet of Lake Pepin, at the foot of which it receives the large volume of the Chippewa River, which originates on the sandy tracts at the sources of the Wisconsin, Montreal, and Ontonagon; and it is from this point that its continually widening channel exhibits those innumerable and changing sand-bars, which so embarrass the navigation. But in all this distance, it is only at the Desmoines and Rock River rapids that any permanent serious impediment is found in its navigation, with the larger craft.The fourth change in the physical aspect of this river, is at the junction of the Missouri, and this is an almost total and complete one; for this river brings down such a vast and turbid flood of commingled earths and floating matter, that it characterizes this stream to its entrance into the Gulf of Mexico. If its length of channel, velocity, and other leading phenomena had been accurately known at an early day, it should also have carried its name from this point to the ocean. Down to this point, the Mississippi, at its summer phases, carries the character of a comparatively clear stream. But the Missouri, which, from its great length and remote latitude, has a summer freshet, flows in with a flood so turbid and opaque, that it immediately communicates its qualities and hue to the milder Mississippi. At certain seasons, the struggle between the clear and turbid waters of the two streams can be seen, at opposite sides of the river, at the distance of twenty or thirty miles. Entire trees, sometimes ninety feet long, with their giant arms, are swept down the current; and it is not unusual, at its highest flood, to observe large, spongy masses of a species of pseudo pumice carried into its channel, from some of its higher western tributaries.To such a moving, overpowering liquid mass, there are still, below the Missouri, rocky banks, and occasionally isolated cliffs, to stand up and resist its sweep; but its alluvions become wider and deeper opposite to these rocky barriers. Its bends stretch over greater distances, and its channel grows deeper at every accession of a tributary. The chief of these, after passing theMissouri, are from the Rocky Mountains and Ozark slopes, the St. Francis, White, Arkansas, and Red Rivers; and from the other bank the Kaskaskia, the Ohio, Wolf, and Yazoo. It is estimated to flow twelve hundred miles below the Missouri. Its width is about one mile opposite St. Louis. It is narrower but more than twice the depth at New Orleans, and yet narrower, because more divided, at its embouchure at the Balize, where a bar prevents ships drawing over eighteen feet of water from entering.No attempt has heretofore been made to determine the elevation of that part of the American continent which gives rise to the Mississippi River. From the observations made on the expedition, the elevation is confessedly less than would _à priori_ be supposed. If it is not, like the Nile, cradled among mountains, whose very altitude and position are unknown, there is enough of the unknown about its origin to wish for more information. Originating on a vast continental plateau, or watershed, the superabundance of its waters are drained off by the three greatest rivers of North America, namely, the St. Lawrence, the Nelson's rivers of Hudson's Bay, and the Mississippi. Yet the apex of this height of land is moderate, although its distance from the sea at either point is immense. From the best data at command, I have endeavored to come at the probable altitude of this plateau, availing myself at the same time of the judgment of the several members of the expedition. Taking the elevation of Lake Erie above tide-water, as instrumentally determined, in the New York surveys, as a basis, we find Lake Superior lying at an altitude of six hundred and forty-one feet above the Atlantic. From thence, through the valley of the St. Louis, and across the Savanna summit, to the Mississippi, at the confluence of the Sandy Lake River, estimates noted on the route, indicate an aggregate rise of four hundred and ninety feet. The ascent of the river, from this point to Cass Lake, is estimated to be one hundred and sixty-two feet; giving this lake an aggregate elevation of thirteen hundred and ninety-three feet above the Atlantic. Barometrical admeasurements made in 1836, by Mr. Nicollet, in the service of the United States Topographical Bureau, place the elevation of this lake at fourteen hundred and two feet above the Gulf of Mexico,[79]being just twelve feet above these early estimates. Thesame authority estimates its length from the Balize, at twenty-seven hundred and fifty miles. Its velocity below Cass Lake may be estimated to result from a mean descent of a fraction over five inches per mile.The name of the Mississippi River is derived from the Algonquin language, through the medium of the French. The term appears first in the early missionary letters from the west end of Lake Superior about 1660. Sippi, agreeably to the early French annotation of the word, signifies a river. The prefixed word Missi is an adjective denoting all, and, when applied to various waters, means the collected or assembled mass of them. The compound term is then, properly speaking, an adverb. Thus, Missi-gago, means all things; Missi-gago-gidjetod, He who has made all things—the Creator. It is a superlative expression, of which great river simply would be a most lean, impracticable, and inadequate expression. It is only symbolically that it can be called the father of American rivers, unless such sense occurs in the other Indian tongues.Finding it impracticable to proceed higher in the search of the remote sources of the river at this time, a return from this point was determined on. The vicinity had been carefully scanned for its drift specimens, and fresh-water conchology. Wishing to carry along some further memorial of the visit, members of the party cut walking-canes in the adjoining thickets, and tied them carefully together; and at five o'clock in the afternoon (21st July) we embarked on our descent. An hour's voyage over the surface of this wide lake, with its refreshing views of northern scenery, brought us to the point where the Mississippi issues from it. Never did men ply their paddles with greater animation; and having the descent now in their favor, they proceeded eighteen miles before they sought for a spot to encamp. Twilight still served, with almost the clearness of daylight, while we spread our tents on a handsome eminence on the right-hand shore. Daylight had not yet dawned the next morning, when we resumed the descent. It was eight o'clock A. M. when we reached the border of Lake Winnipek. This name, by the way, is derived from a term heretofore given, which, having the Chippewa inflection of nouns inish, graphically describes that peculiarity of its waters created by the disturbance of a clay bottom.The winds were high and adverse, which caused the canoemen to toil two hours in crossing. After reaching the river again, we passed its sedgy borders, to, and through Rush Lake, or the Little Winnipek; then by the inlet of Leech Lake River, and through the contortions of its channel, to within a few miles of the spot of our encampment at Deer River, on the 20th.The great savannas, through which the Mississippi winds itself above the Pakagama, are called collectively, the Gatchi Betobeeg, Great Morasses, or bog meadows.While descending the river, we encountered nine canoes filled with Chippewa Indians and their families. They were freighted with heavy rolls of birch-bark, such as their canoes are made from; together with bundles of rushes designed for mats. The annoyance suffered from mosquitos on this great plateau, was almost past endurance. We embarked again at a quarter past four, and reached the Falls of Pakagama at five o'clock. Just forty minutes were spent in making the portage. The rock at this spot is quartzite. The day was cloudy, with some rain. As night approached an animal, judged to be the wolverine, was seen swimming across the stream. The efforts of the men to overtake it were unavailing; it nimbly eluded pursuit, and dashed away into the thickets. In some queries sent to me by the New York Lyceum, this animal is alluded to as a species of the glutton. The Indians said there was no animal in their country deserving this name; the only animal they knew deserving of it, was the horse; which was eating all the time. We encamped on an abrupt sandy bank, where, however, sleep was impossible. Between the humidity of the atmosphere and the denseness of the foliage around us, the insect world seemed to have been wakened into unusual activity. Besides, we encamped so late, and were so jaded by a long day's travel, that the mosquito-nets were neglected. To get up and stand before a camp-fire at midnight and switch off the mosquitos, requires as much philosophy as to write a book; and at any rate, ours completely failed. We were again in our canoes (24th), at an early hour. Daylight apprised us of the clearing up of the atmosphere, and brought us one of the most delightful days. Animated by these circumstances, we descended the stream with rapidity. Soon after midday, we entered and ascended theshort channel of the Sandy Lake River, and, by two o'clock in the afternoon, we rejoined our camp at the Fur Company's Fort, having been three days in descending a distance which had consumed four and a half in the ascent.We were received with joy and acclamation by the Sandy Lake party, and felicitated ourselves on the accomplishment of what had all along appeared as the most arduous part of our route. Nor had we indeed, overrated its difficulties; the incessant motion of travelling depriving us of mature opportunities of observation, and also rest at night, the stings of the mosquitos whenever we attempted to land, and the cravings of an often unsatisfied appetite, had made this visit one of peculiar privation and fatigue. Without such an effort, however, it is doubtful whether the principal objects of the expedition could have been accomplished. Nothing untoward had happened at the camp, no difficulty had occurred with the Indians, and all the party were in good health. Having left my thermometer with Mr. Doty, during my absence, the observations made by him are denoted in the appendix.The following day was fixed on for our departure for the Falls of St. Anthony. The distance to these falls is generally put by the traders at from five to six hundred miles. These estimates denote, however, rather the difficulties and time employed by days' journeys in the trade than any other measurements.[80]Pike states the latitude some thirteen minutes too far north. It is found to be 46° 47´ 10´´. It appears from Lieut. Pike (Expt.p. 60), that the stockade at this place was erected in 1794. Its elevation above the Gulf of Mexico is 1,253 feet. The soil of the environs yields excellent potatoes, and such culinary vegetables as have been tried. The mean temperature of July is denoted to be 73°. The post is one of importance in the fur trade. It yields the deer, moose, bear, beaver, otter, martin, muskrat, and some other species, whose skins or pelts are valuable.It was twelve o'clock on the morning of the 25th, before we were ready to embark. Our flotilla now consisted of three canoes, of the kind calledCanoe-allegein the trade, and a barge occupiedby the military. To this array, the chief Babesakundiba, or the Curly Head, added a canoe filled with Chippewa delegates, who accompanied him on a mission of peace to the Sioux. This chief is the same individual who met Lieut. Pike in this quarter, in 1806, and he appears to be a man of much energy and decision of character. His reputation also gives him the character of great skill, policy, and bravery in conducting the war against the Sioux. Indian wars are not conducted as with us, by opposing armies. It is altogether a guerilla affair. War parties are raised, marched, fight, and disperse in a few days. The war is carried on altogether by stealth and stratagem. Each one furnishes himself with food and weapons. In such a warfare, there is great scope for individual exploits and daring. In these wars the Curly Head had greatly distinguished himself, and he was, therefore, an ambassador of no mean power. In every view, the mission assumed an interesting character; and we kept an eye on the chief's movements, on our journey down the river, chiefly that we might notice the caution which is observed by the Indians in entering an enemy's country.After entering the Mississippi, below Sandy Lake, the stream presents very much the character it has above. It was below this point that we first observed the juglans nigra in the forest. Its banks are diluvial or alluvial formations, elevated from six to ten feet. The elm, maple, and pine are common. There are some small grassy islands, with tufts of willows, and driftwood lodged. No rock strata appear. The river winds its way through vast diluvial beds, exhibiting at its rapids granitical, quartz, and trappose boulders. It appears to glide wholly over the primitive or crystalline rocks, which rise in some places through the soil, or show themselves at rapids. The expedition descended the stream twenty-eight miles, and encamped on a sandy elevation on the west shore, near Alder River, which seemed to promise an exemption from the annoyance of insects; but in this we were mistaken. In the hurry of a late encampment, it had been omitted to pitch the tents. The first ill effect of this was felt on being awakened at night by rain. A humid atmosphere is ever the signal for awakening hordes of insects, and the mosquitos became so troublesome that it was impossible to sleep at all afterthe shower. We got up and whiled away the time as best we could around the camp-fire.We embarked a few minutes before 5 A. M., the morning being lowering and overcast, which eventuated in rain within an hour. The atmosphere resumed its serenity, and the sun shone out at noon. The river, as on the preceding day, has its course between alluvial and diluvial banks, sweeping its way over the smooth orbicular beds of the granitical age. The influx of rivers, the occurrence of islands, which bear witness of their entire submersion during the freshets, and the succession of bends, points, and rapids—these changes, with notices of the wild fowl, forest birds, and sometimes a quadruped, or a mass of boulders, absorbed my notices, which it seems unimportant, at this time, to refer to. No fixed stratification of rocks was encountered this day.We encamped at about eight o'clock, on the east bank, on an open eminence, just below the rapids which mark the confluence of Pine River, having been in our canoes, with very brief and infrequent landings, fifteen hours. At the points of landing, I observed the rosa parviflora, and ipomea nil. As night approached, we heard the monotonous notes of the caprimulgus virginianus. We had also observed during the day, the bald eagle, king-fisher, turdus polyglottis, teal, plover, robin, and pigeon. The nimble sciuris vulgaris was also observed on shore. Boulders of sienite, hornblende rock, silicious slate, sandstone, and quartz, served as so many monuments to testify that heavy oceanic currents had heretofore disrupted the northern stratification, and poured down over these long and gradual geological slopes.High and open as our position was on this eminence, our old friends the mosquitos did not forget us. Even the Indians could not endure their continued attacks. A fine fellow of our original auxiliaries, called Iaba Waddik, or the Buck, took this occasion to give us a specimen of his English, exclaiming, as he came to the camp-fire, "Tia![81]no sneep!" putting the usual interchangeablenof the tribe for thelin the noun.CHAPTER XII.Description of the descent from Pine River—Pine tracts—Confluence of the Crow-wing River—Enter a sylvan region—prairies and groves, occupied by deer, elk, and buffalo—Sport of buffalo hunting—Reach elevations of sienitic and metamorphic rocks—Discover a pictographic inscription of the Sioux, by which they denote a desire for peace—Pass the Osaukes, St. Francis's, Corneille, and Rum Rivers—St. Anthony's Falls—Etymology of the name—Geographical considerations.The night dew was heavy on this elevation, and a dense fog prevailed at the hour of our embarkation (5 o'clock A. M., on the 27th). The pine lands come in with the valley of Pine River, a large and important stream tributary from the west, which has a connection with Leech Lake. These lands characterize both banks of the Mississippi to the entrance of the River De Corbeau. We were seven hours, with a strong current, in passing through this tract. It is to be observed that ancient fires have been permitted to run through these forests, destroying immense quantities of the timber. It was twelve o'clock, A. M., when we came opposite to the entrance of the great Crow-wing River.[82]This stream, which has a large island in its mouth, is a prime tributary with a large, full-flowing current, and must bring in one-third of the entire volume of water to this point.[83]Such is the effect of this current on the opposite shore, that, at the distance of a coupleof leagues below, at a spot calledPrairie Perciêby the French, it appears to have forced its way headlong, till, meeting obstructions from the primary rocks, it was again deflected south. At this point, the whole face of the country has an exceedingly sylvan aspect. It is made up of far-stretching plains, covered with grass and wild flowers, interspersed with groves of oak, maple, and other species. The elevation of these beautiful plains, above the river, is not less than twenty to thirty feet, placing them above the reach of high waters. We were now passing below the latitude of 46°. Everything indicated a climate favorable to the vegetable kingdom. While passing in the valley, through the fine bends which the river makes, through these plains, we came to a hunting-camp of probably one hundred and fifty Indians. They were Chippewas, who, on landing at their camp, saluted us in the Indian fashion, and were happy to exchange some dried buffalo meat and pemmican, for corn and flour. Some miles below we observed several buffalo, on the eastern shore, on the sub-plains below the open bluffs. Alarmed by our approach, these animals set out, with a clumsy, shambling trot, for the upper plains. Clumsy as their gait seemed, they got over the ground with speed. Our whole force was immediately landed, a little below, and we eagerly climbed the banks, to engage in the sport of hunting them. Quite a large drove of this animal was seen on the prairie. Our best marksmen, and the Indians, immediately divided themselves, to approach on different sides the herd. Cautiously approaching, they fired; the effect was to alarm and divide them. Most of the herd pushed directly to the spot on the banks of the river, where the non-combatants of the party stood; and there arose a general firing, andmêléeof men and buffaloes, which made it quite doubtful, for awhile, who stood in greatest danger of being hit by the bullets, the men or animals. I am certain the bullets whizzed about the position I occupied on the top of the alluvial cliffs. None of the herd were, however, slain at that time; but at our encampment, a short distance below, the flesh of both the buffalo and elk was profusely brought in by the Indians. It is stated that this animal lifts both the feet on one side, at the same time; but this remark, I presume, arises from a mode of throwing its feet forward, which is decidedly different from other quadrupeds.On descending the river two miles, the next morning, we found ourselves opposite the mouth of Elk River, a stream coming in from the west. This point has been determined to be but four minutes north of latitude 46° [Sen. Doc.237]. A short distance below the river, we passed, on the west shore, the Painted Rock, an isolated or boulder mass, having Indian devices, which we had no opportunity of examining. We were now passing down a channel of manifestly increased velocity, and at the distance of a couple of miles more, found ourselves hurried through the west channel of the Little Falls. At this point the primitive or basis stratification over which we had been so long gliding, crosses the river, rising up and dividing it, by an abrupt rocky island, into two channels. The breadth of the stream is much compressed, and the velocity of its current increased. By what propriety of language it is called "falls" did not, however, appear; perhaps there are seasons when the descent assumes a greater degree of disturbance and velocity. To us, it appeared to be about ten feet in a hundred and fifty yards. Here, then, in N. lat. 46°, the Mississippi is first visibly crossed by the primary series of rocks.Being now in the region of buffalo, it was decided to land in the course of the day, for the purpose of entering into the chase. An occasion for this was presented soon after passing the Little Falls, by observing one of these animals on shore. On landing, and reaching the elevation of the prairies, two herds of them were discovered at a distance. An attack on them was immediately planned, for which the tall grass and gentle inequalities of surface, appeared favorable. The fire proved unsuccessful, but served to distract the herds, giving scope for individual marksmanship and hunter activity, during which, innumerable shots were fired, and three animals killed. While this scene was passing, I had a good stand for witnessing the sport, some of the herd passing by very near, as with the blindness of fury. The bison is certainly an animal as clumsy as the ox, or domestic cow; but, unlike these, it is of a uniform dun color, and ever without being spotted, or mottled. Its horns are nearly straight, short, very black, and set wide apart. The male is formidable in look, and ferocious when wounded. Its ordinary weight is eight hundred to a thousand pounds.It may be said, in reference to this animal being found in thisregion, that it is a kind of neutral ground, between the Chippewas and Sioux, neither of which tribes permanently occupy the country between the mouth of the Raven's-wing and Rum Rivers.[84]Having spent several hours in the chase, we again embarked, and proceeded down the river until three o'clock in the afternoon. On the left bank of the river two prominent elevations of the granitical series, rising through the prairie soil, attracted my attention. Immediately below this locality, a high and level prairie stretches on the west shore, which had a striking appearance from its being crowned with the poles and fixtures of a large, recently abandoned Sioux encampment. At this spot the expedition landed and encamped. The quick glances of Babasikundiba and his party of delegates immediately discovered a pole, at the site of the chief's lodge, bearing a birch bark scroll, or letter, inscribed with Indian hieroglyphics, or devices. It turned out that this spot was the northern terminus of a Sioux peace embassage, dispatched from St. Peter's shortly previous, under the direction of Col. H. Leavenworth, U. S. A., the newly-arrived commanding officer at that post. The message was eagerly received and read by the Chippewa delegates. By it they were informed that the Sioux also desired a termination of hostilities. The scroll was executed by tracing lines, with the point of a knife, or some sharp instrument. The pictographic devices thus drawn denoted the exact number of the party, their chiefs, and the authority under which these crude negotiations were commenced.Of this mode of communicating ideas among the Algonquin tribes, we have before given details in crossing the boggy plateau of Akik Sepi, between the St. Louis River and Sandy Lake. The present instance of it is commented on in an interesting communication of the era, in the appendix, from the pen of Gov. Cass. It was now no longer doubtful that the Chippewa mission would be successful, and the satisfaction it produced was evident in the countenances and expressions of Babasikundiba and his colleagues.I took a canoe and crossed the Mississippi, to inspect the geology of the opposite shore. On reaching the summit of therock formations rising through the prairies, which had attracted my notice from the river, I found them to consist of sienite, which was almost exclusively made up of a trinary compound of white quartz, hornblende, and feldspar—the two former species predominating. The feldspar exhibited its splendent black crystals in fine relief in the massy quartz. This formation extended a mile or more. What excited marked attention, in surveying these rocks, was their smoothly rubbed surfaces, which seemed as if they must have been produced by equally hard and heavy masses of rock, driven over them from the north. I registered this locality, in my Geological Journal, as the Peace Rock, in allusion to the purport of the Indian mission, evidences of which were found at the opposite encampment.[85]During our night's encampment at this spot we heard the howling of a pack of wolves, on the opposite bank—a sure indication, hunters say, that there are deer, or objects of prey in the vicinity. There are two species of wolves on the plains of the Mississippi—the canis lupus, and the animal called coyote by the Spanish. The latter is smaller, of a dingy yellow color, and bears the generic name of prairie wolf. I have also seen a black wolf on the prairies of Missouri and Arkansas, three feet nine inches long, with coarse, bristly, bear-like hair. As daylight approached, our ears were saluted with the hollow cry of the strix nictea, a species which is asserted to be found, sometimes, as far south as the Falls of St. Anthony.On embarking, at an early hour, we found the humidity of the night atmosphere to be such, that articles left exposed to it were completely saturated. Yet, the temperature stood at 50° at half-past four o'clock, the moment of our embarkation. On descending six miles we passed the mouth of the Osakis, or Sac River, aconsiderable tributary from the west, which opens a line of communication with the Red River valley.About ten o'clock we encountered a series of rapids extending some eight hundred or a thousand yards, in the course of which the river has a probable aggregate fall of sixteen feet. These rapids bear the malappropriate title of the Big Falls. Following these, were a series called Prairie Rapids. At half-past four we passed the entrance of the River St. Francis, a considerable stream on the left bank. At this spot, Hennepin terminated his voyage in 1681, and Carver in 1766. There is an island at the point of confluence. At six o'clock we passed the entrance on the west shore of the stream calledCorneille, by the French, which is the true interpretation of the Sioux nameKarishon, and the Chippewa termAndaig, which mean the crow, and not the raven. We encamped five miles below, on the east bank, having been thirteen hours in our canoes, with a generally strong current. My mineralogical gleanings, during the day, had given some specimens of the interesting varieties of the quartz family, for which the geological drift is noted, and a single piece of agatized wood. The geological floor on which the river runs, has been indicated.At five o'clock the following morning (30th) we resumed the descent, and at the distance of two leagues reached the entrance of the Missisagiegon, or Rum River. It is Carver, I believe, who first gives us this name, for a stream which the Indians describe as a river flowing from a lake of lakes—a term, by the way, which the French, with their usual adherence to Indian etymology, have calledMille Lacs. The termmissi, in this word, does not signify great, but a collected mass, or all kinds, and sometimes everywhere—the allusion being to water.Sa-gi-e-gonis a lake, and when the prefixed termmissi, is put to it, nothing could more graphically describe the large body of water, interspersed with islands, which give a confused aspect, from which the river issues. The Dacotas call this lakeMini Wakan, meaning Spirit-water, which is probably the origin of the name of Rum River.About thirteen miles below Rum River, and when within half a mile of the Falls,[86]I observed calcareous rocks in horizontalbeds, on the left bank of the river. It was now evident we had passed out of the primitive range of deposits, and had entered that of the great sedimentary horizontal and semi-crystalline or silurian system of the Mississippi Valley; and descending with a strong current, we came, rather suddenly, it appeared, to the Falls of St. Anthony, where the river drops, by a cascade, into a rock-bordered valley. Surprise and admiration were the first emotions on getting out of our canoes and gazing on this superlative scene; and we were not a little struck with the idea that the Sioux had named the Falls from manifestly similar impressions, calling it Rara, from the Dacota verbirara, to laugh. By another authority, the word is writtenHa Ha, orDhaha, the lettershin the word representing a strong guttural sound resembling the old Arabic r.[87](S. R. Riggs'sDakota Dict. and Gram.) Nothing can exceed the sylvan beauty of the country which is here thrown before the eye; and we should not feel surprised that the Aboriginal mind has fallen on very nearly identical sounds with the English, to express its impressions. A not very dissimilar principle has been observed by the Chippewas, who have a uniform termination of their names inish, which signifies the very same quality which we express by ish in whitish, blackish, saltish—meaning a lesser, or defective quality of the noun.The popular name of these Falls, it is known, is due to Father Louis Hennepin, a missionary who accompanied La Salle to the Illinois, in 1679, and was carried captive into the country of the Issati, a Dacota tribe, in 1680. Lt. Pike states the portage to be two hundred and sixty poles. By the time we had taken a good view of the position, and made a few sketches, the men had completed carrying over our baggage and canoes. It was now one o'clock, when we embarked to proceed to the newly-established military encampment, a few miles below. It was a noticeable feature, in our descent of the river above the Falls, that Babasikundiba had always kept behind the flotilla of canoes; but the moment we advanced below the Falls, he shot ahead with his delegates, each one being dressed out in his best manner. His canoe had its little flag displayed—the Indian drum was soon heard sending its measured thumps and murmurs of vocal accompaniment over the water, and ever and anon guns were fired. All this was done that the enemy might be apprised of the approach of the delegation in the boldest and most open manner. It was eight or nine miles to the post, near the influx of the St. Peter's, and long before we reached Col. Leavenworth's camp, which occupied a high bluff, the attention of the Sioux was arrested by their advance, and it was inferable from the friendly answering shouts which they gave, that the mission was received with joy. Although we had known nothing of the movement which produced the pictographic letter found on a pole at the Petite Roche, above Sac River, it was, in fact, regarded by the Dacotas as an answer to that letter. And the Chippewa chief, and his followers, were received with a salute by the Sioux, by whom they were taken by the hand, individually, as they landed.Col. Leavenworth, the commanding officer, received the expedition in the most cordial manner, and assigned quarters for the members. Gov. Cass was received with a salute due to his rank. We learn that the post was established last fall. Orders for this purpose were issued, as will be seen by reference to thePreliminary Documents, p. 35, early in the spring. The troops destined for this purpose, were placed under the orders of Col. Leavenworth, who had distinguished himself as the commander of the ninth and twenty-second regiments, in the war of 1812. They left Detroit in the spring (1819), and proceeding by the way of Green Bay and Prairie du Chien, where garrisons were left, they ascended to the mouth of the St. Peter's, in season to erect cantonments before winter. The site chosen, being on the alluvial grounds, proved unhealthy, in consequence of which the cantonment was removed, in the spring of 1820, to an eminence and spring on the west bank of the Mississippi, about a mile from the former position.CHAPTER XIII.Position of the military post established at the mouth of the St. Peter's—Beauty, salubrity, and fertility of the country—Pictographic letter—Indian treaty—The appearance of the offer of frankincense in the burning of tobacco—Opwagonite—native pigments—Salt; native copper—The pouched or prairie rat—Minnesota squirrel—Etymology of the Indian name of St. Peter's River—Antiquities—Sketch of the Dacota—Descent of the Mississippi to Little Crow's village—Feast of green corn.In favor of the soil and climate, and of the salubrity of the position, the officers speak in terms of the highest admiration. The garrison has directed its attention to both horticulture and agriculture. About ninety acres of the choicest bottom land along the St. Peter's Valley, and the adjacent prairies, have been planted with Indian corn and potatoes, cereal grains, and esculents, inclusive of a hospital, a regimental, and private gardens. At the mess-table of Col. Leavenworth, and in our camp, we were presented with green corn in the ear, peas, beans, cucumbers, beets, radishes, and lettuce. The earliest garden peas were eaten here on the 15th of June, and the first green corn on the 20th July. Much of the corn is already too hard for the table, and some of the ears can be selected which are ripe enough for seed corn. Wheat, on the prairie lands, is found to be entirely ripe, and melons in the military gardens nearly so. These are the best practical commentaries on the soil and climate.[88]The distance of the St. Peter's from the Gulf of Mexico is estimated to be about two thousand two hundred miles. Its position above St. Louis is estimated at nine hundred miles. Its elevation above the Gulf is but 744 feet. The precise latitude of this pointis 44° 52´ 46´´.[89]The atmosphere is represented as serene and transparent during the summer and spring seasons, and free from the humidity which is so objectionable a trait of our eastern latitudes. The mean temperature is 45°.[90]Its geology and mineralogy will be noticed in my official reports. It will be sufficient here to say that the stratification, at and below St. Anthony's Falls, consists wholly of formations of sandstones and limestones, horizontally deposited, whose relative positions and ages are chiefly inferable from the evidences of organic life, in the shape of petrifactions, which they embrace. The lowest of this series of rocks is a white sandstone, consisting of transparent, loosely cohering grains, special allusion to which is made by Carver, in his travels in 1766, and which may be received as testimony, were there no other, that this too much discredited author had actually visited this region.I have mentioned the interest excited by our Chippewas finding the bark letter, or pictographic memorial at the deserted Sioux encampment above Sac River. It turned out, as we were informed, that this Aboriginal missive was a reply to a similar proposition transmitted from Sandy Lake, by the Chippewas. The very person, indeed, who inscribed the Chippewa bark message, was one of the ten persons who had accompanied us from that lake. Gov. Cass, on learning this fact, requested him to draw a duplicate of it on a roll of bark. He executed this task immediately. We thus had before us the proposition in this symbolic character, which is calledke ke winby the Chippewas, and its answer. By this mode of communication two nations of the most diverse language found no difficulty in understanding each other.[91]On the second day after our arrival, the Indians consummated their intentions, as signified by the bark letter, and the Sandy-Lake delegation assembled with the Sioux at the old quarters of the military, now occupied as an Indian agency, and smoked the pipe of peace. There were present at this pacification, besides the chiefs Shacopee and Babasikundiba, and minor chieftains, His Excellency Gov. Cass, Col. Leavenworth, and sundry officersof the garrison and the expedition. The ceremonies were conducted under the auspices of the U. S. Indian Agent, Mr. Taliaferro. Every attention was given to make these ceremonies impressive, by a compliance with the Aboriginal customs on these occasions, and it is hoped not without leaving permanent effects on their minds.The pipe employed by the native diplomatists, in these negotiations, is invested with a symbolic and sacred character, as if the fumes of the weed were offered, in the nature of frankincense, to the Deity. The genuflections with which it is presented, more than the words expressed, countenance this idea. The bowl of the pipe used on this occasion consisted of the well-known red pipe-stone, called opwagonite,[92]so long known in Indian history as being brought from theCoteau des Prairies. It is furnished with a wooden stem two or three feet long, and two and a half inches broad, shaved down thin so as to resemble a spatula. It is then painted with certain blue or green clays, and ornamented with braids of richly dyed porcupine quills, or the holcus fragrans, and the tuft feathers of the male duck or red-headed woodpecker. These state pipes are usually presented by the speakers as memorials of the speeches, and laid aside by the officials having charge of Indian affairs. Col. Leavenworth presented us with some of these carefully ornamented diplomatic testimonials.I obtained from the Sioux some very carefully moulded pyramidal-shaped pieces of the blue and green clays from the valley of the St. Peter's, which they employ in painting their pipe-stems and persons. The coloring matter of these appears to be carbonate of copper. It is brought from the Blue Earth River. I also obtained from the Indians very small and carefully tied leathern bags of the red oxide of iron, which they obtain in the state of a dry, powdery mass, on the prairies near the Big Stone. The Indians brought me, from the same region, crystals of salt, scraped up from the margin of certain waters on the prairies, of a dark cast, mixed with impurities. The tendency of these crystals to assume a cubic form was quite distinct. The most interesting development, in the mineralogical way, consisted of small lumps of native copper, which I obtained on an eminence on the banksof the Mississippi, directly opposite the influx of the St. Peter's. They occupy, geologically, a diluvial position, being at the bottom of the prairie-drift stratum, and immediately above the superior limestone.In the luxurious kitchen gardens of Camp Leavenworth, great depredations have been made by a small quadruped of a burrowing character, called gopher. By patient watching, gun in hand, one of these was killed, and its skin preserved and prepared. The animal is ten inches long to the termination of the tail, with a body very much the size and color of a large wharf-rat. It has five prominent claws, and two broad cutting teeth, but its most striking peculiarity is a duplicature of the cheek, which permits it to carry earth to the mouth of its burrow. It has been called the pouched rat. Sir Francis Drake found a similar animal in his visit to the Gulf of California, in 1587. The distribution of this species, of which this seems to be the northern limit, is very wide through Atlantic America, and it is known to be destructive to vegetation throughout Alabama, Georgia, and the Carolinas. I had, two years ago, been led to notice its ravages in Missouri and Arkansas. But the animal called gopher, in the southern country, is a burrowing tortoise, and the name is improperly applied to this species, which is thePseudostoma pinetorum.A peculiar species of squirrel was observed in this vicinity, which is also found to be a destructive visitor to the military gardens. In appearance, this species resembles the common striped squirrel, but it has a more elongated body, and shorter legs. The body has six black stripes, with the same number of intervening lines of spots, on a reddish-brown skin. This Minnesota squirrel has, since the return of the Expedition, been named, by the late Dr. Samuel L. Mitchell,sciurus tredeceum.The River St. Peter's is called, by the Dacotas,Watepa Minnesota. The prefixed termwatepa, is their word for river;minniis the name for water. The termsotahas been variously explained. The Canadian French, who have proved themselves most apt translators of Indian phrases, render it by the wordbrouille, orblear; or, if we regard this as derivative from the verbbrouiller,mixed, ormottled—a condition of the waters of this river, whenever the Mississippi is in flood, and consequently at a higherelevation when it rushes into the mouth of the St. Peter's, producing that addled aspect of the water, to which the Dacotas, it is believed, apply the termsota.The scenery around St. Peter's is of the most sylvan and delightful character. About six miles west of the cantonment there are several beautiful lakes, in the prairies. The largest of these is about four miles in circumference, and is called Calhoun Lake, in compliment to the Secretary of War. Its waters are stored with bass and other varieties of fish. There are several pure springs of sparkling water, issuing from the picturesque cliffs which face the Mississippi at this place. I visited one about a mile from the cantonment, which deposits a yellow sulphurous flocculent mass along its course. On the prairies is found theholcus fragrans, which is braided by the Indian females, and employed in some instances to decorate their deer-skin clothing. This aromatic grass retains its scent in the dried state. Along the waters of the St. Peter's is found theacer negundo, the inner bark of which, mixed with the common nettle, is employed by the natives in the state of a strong decoction, as a cure for thelues venerea.Mr. Carver having described certain antiquities near the foot of Lake Pepin, in 1766, inquiries were made after objects of this kind in the vicinity. I was informed that traces of such remains existed in the valley of the St. Peter's, but can say nothing concerning them from actual inspection.[93]Of the Dacotas, or Sioux, for which St. Peter's forms the central point, some anecdotes have been related which denote that they are, on certain occasions, actuated by exalted motives. It is related that the chief Little Crow, going out to the confines of the Chippewa Territory, to examine his beaver-traps, discovered an individual of that tribe in the act of taking a beaver from the trap. As he was himself unperceived, the tribes being at war, and the offence an extreme one, a summary punishment would have been justified by Indian law. But the Sioux chief decided differently: "Take no alarm," said he, approaching the offender: "I come to present you the trap, of which I see you stand in need. Take mygun, also, as I see you have none of your own, and return to the land of your countrymen; and linger not here, lest some of my young men should discover your footsteps."A still more striking and characteristic incident is related of a chief called the Red Thunder. Col. Wm. Dixon, a Scotchman of family, who made his influence felt in the late war of 1812 as a leader of the Sioux and a merchant among them, married the sister of this notable chief. So daring were the acts of Red Thunder, that he had put the Chippewa nation in awe of him. At length, however, after a long series of the bravest acts, he was taken prisoner, with a favorite dog, and condemned to expiate his offences at the stake. It was a time of want by his captors. One day he said to them: "Why do you not feed my dog?" They replied, "feed him yourself." " Then," he said, "give me a knife." This being thrown to him, he cut a piece of flesh from one of his large and fleshy thighs, and threw it to the dog. Admiration of this act ran through the Indian camp. They immediately released him, and bestowed on him the highest attentions and honors.The Dacota or Sioux nation constitute one of the families of America who speak a peculiar language. Lieut. Pike, who visited them in 1806, estimated their numerical strength at twenty-one thousand six hundred and seventy-five; of which number he computed three thousand eight hundred to be warriors. They consist of six or seven independent tribes, or sub-tribes, bearing different names, who occupy most of the country between the Mississippi and Missouri, between N. latitude 43° and 46°. The Mendawekantoñs are located on the Mississippi, below the Falls of St. Anthony and the mouth of the St. Peter's. The Sessitoñs and Yanktoñs occupy the upper waters of the St. Peter's. The Titoñs only extend west of the Missouri. The several tribes regard themselves as a confederacy, which is the signification of the term Dacota. They do not acknowledge the name of Sioux as an Indian word. We first hear of them from the early French missionaries, who visited the head of Lake Superior about the middle of the 17th century, under the name ofNadowasie.[94]They speaka language which prevails over an immense area, which is now occupied by the prairie tribes towards the west and southwest, from whence, it is inferred, they came. They appear, at a former time, to have reached and dwelt at the sources of the Mississippi, and to have approached, if not reached, the west end of Lake Superior; for it is from these positions that the oldest traditions represent them to have been driven by the Chippewas. Lieut. Pike thinks they are, undeniably, descendants of Tartars. If so, I feel inclined to think that they must have made the circuit of the Mexican provinces before reaching the Mississippi Valley, for the track of their migration is traced towards the south certainly as far as the country of the Kansas and Osages; while they preserve some striking traits and characteristics which appear to be referable to those intertropical regions.Having passed the better part of three days in the vicinity of St. Peter's, adding to our collections and portfolios, we left it on the second of August, and proceeded down the river to the village of La Petite Corbeau, or the Little Raven, situated on the east bank not far above the mouth of the St. Croix. The river, in this distance flows between lofty cliffs of the white sandstone and neutral-colored limestones, which are first conspicuously displayed at the Falls of St. Anthony. Springs of water, not infrequently, issue from these cliffs. We landed at one of these, flowing in through a gorge at the distance of four miles below St. Peter's, on the east bank, for the purpose of visiting a remarkable cave, from the mouth of which a small stream issues. The cave is seated wholly within the beautiful white crumbling sandstone rock. It is, in fact, the loose character of the rock which permits the superincumbent waters of the plains above to permeate through it, that has originated the cave. The stream consisted of the purest filtrated water, which is daily carrying away the loosened grains of sand into the Mississippi, and thus enlarging the boundaries of the cavern.[95]We had been erroneously informed that this was Carver's Cave, and looked in vain for this traveller's name on its walls.[96]The atmosphere in thiscave was found to be seven degrees higher than the water. We noticed nothing in the form of bones or antiquities.The village of Petite Corbeau consists of twelve large lodges, which are said to give shelter to two hundred souls. They plant corn, and cultivate vines and pumpkins. They sallied from their lodges on seeing us approach, and, gathering along the margin of the river, fired afeu de joieon our landing. The chief was among the first to greet us. He is a man below the common size, but brawny and well proportioned, and, although above fifty years of age, retains the look and vigor of forty. He invited us to his lodge—a spacious building about sixty feet by thirty, substantially constructed of logs and bark. Being seated, he addressed himself to His Excellency Gov. Cass. He said that he was glad to see him in his village. That, in his extensive journey, he must have suffered many hardships. He must also have noticed much of the Indian mode of life, and of the face of the country, which would enable him to see things in their proper light. He was glad that he had not, like others who had lately visited the country, passed by his village without calling. He referred, particularly, to the military force sent to establish a garrison at St. Peter's, the year before, who had passed up on the other side of the river. He acquiesced in the treaty that had been recently concluded with the Chippewas. He referred to a recent attack of a party of Fox Indians on their people, on the head waters of the St. Peter's. He said it was dastardly, and that, if thatlittletribe should continue their attacks, they would at length drive him into anger, and compel him to do a thing he did not wish.While this speech was being interpreted, the Indian women were employed in bringing basketsful of ears of Indian corn from the fields, which they emptied in a pile. This pile, when it had reached a formidable height, was offered as a present to the Expedition. It was, indeed, the beginning of the season of green corn, with them, and we were soon apprised, by the sound of music from another lodge, that the festival of the green-corn dance was going forward. Being admitted to see the ceremonies, the first thing which attracted notice was two large iron kettles suspended over a fire, filled with green-corn cut from the cob. The Indians, both men and women, were seated in a large circlearound them; they were engaged in singing a measured chant in the Indian manner, accompanied by the Sioux cancega or drum and rattles; the utmost solemnity was depicted on every countenance. When the music paused, there were certain gesticulations made, as if a mysterious power were invoked. In the course of these ceremonies, a young man and his sister, joining hands, came forward to be received into the green corn society, of whom questions were asked by the presiding official. At the conclusion of these, the voice of each member was taken as to their admission, which was unanimous. At the termination of the ceremonies, an elderly man came forward and ladled out the contents of the kettles into separate wooden dishes for each head of a family present. As these dishes were received, the persons retired from the lodge by a backward movement, still keeping their faces directed to the kettles, till they had passed out.CHAPTER XIV.Descent of the river from the site of Little Crow's Village to Prairie du Chien—Incidents of the voyage, and notices of the scenery and natural history.The next morning we embarked at 5 o'clock. On descending the river six miles, we passed the mouth of the St. Croix.[97]This stream heads on high lands, which form a rim of hills around the southern and western shores of Lake Superior, where it is connected with the River Misacoda, or Broulè of Fond du Lac. The Namakagon, its southern branch of it, is connected with the Maskigo,[98]or Mauvais River of La Pointe, Lake Superior. Immediately above its point of entrance into the Mississippi the St. Croix expands into a beautiful lake, which is some twelve miles long, and about two in width. The borders of the Mississippi about this point assume an increased height, and more imposing aspect. In many places, as the voyager descends from this spot to Lake Pepin, he observes the calcareous cliffs to terminate in pyramids; the crest of the hills frequently resemble the crumbling ruins of antique towers. At 12 o'clock we came to the vicinity of an isolated calcareous cliff, called La Grange, which may be regarded as one of those monuments resulting from geological denudation, which constitute a striking feature in the St. Peter's region. The top of this cliff affords a fine view of the scenery of the Mississippi for a long distance above and below it. It has been found to be three hundred and twenty-two feet above the river.[99]This spot is noted as being near the site of Tarangamani, or the Red Wing's Village. This chief is one of the notable men of his tribe. He has been long celebrated as a man skilled as a native magician. The village consists of four large, elongated, and of several small lodges. Tarangamani is now considered the first chief of his nation. He is noted for his wisdom and sagacity. He bears the marks of being sixty years of age. His grand-daughter married Col. Crawford, a man of commercial activity about Prairie du Chien and Michilimackinac, during the late war of 1812, who has left descendants in the lake country. We observed, at this village, several buffalo skins undergoing the Indian process of dressing. The hair having been removed, they were stretched on the ground, where they were subjected to a process analogous to tanning by being covered with a decoction of oak bark.In ascending the hill of La Grange, we first encountered the rattlesnake, two of which we killed. This is the highest northern point at which we have observed this species on the Mississippi. I observed on this elevation small detached masses of radiated quartz, cinnamon-colored and white, together with an ore of iron crystallized in cubes. Having cursorily examined the environs, the expedition again embarked. It was 1 o'clock when we entered Lake Pepin. This admired lake is a mere expansion of the Mississippi, having a length of twenty-four miles by a varying width of from two to four miles. During this distance there is not the least current during calm weather. The prospects, in passing through this expanse of water, are of the most picturesque kind. Its immediate shores are circumscribed with a broad beach of gravel, in which may be found rolled pieces of the chalcedonies, agates, and other species of the quartz family, which are characteristic of the drift-stratum of the upper borders of the Mississippi. On the eastern shore, at a short distance from the margin, there is a lofty range of limestone cliffs. On the west, the eye rests on an elevated formation of prairie, nearly destitute of trees. From this plain several conical hills ascend, which have the appearance, but only the appearance, of artificial construction. The lake is quite transparent, and yields several species of fish. The most remarkable of these is theacipenser spatularia, of which we obtained a specimen. It is also remarkable for its numerousvarieties, and the large size of its fresh-water shells. I procured several species ofunio, which, from their size and character, attracted my attention, particularly to the subject of this branch of American conchology. Several of these, from the duplicates of my cabinet, have attracted the attention of conchologists.[100]Lake Pepin receives a river from the west called the Ocano, or more properlyAu Canot; its mouth having been, in former times, a noted place for concealing canoes during the winter season.[101]At a point, on the east shore, about half way down the lake, where a small stream enters, we were informed there existed the remains of an old French fort, or factory; but we did not land to examine them.In passing through this lake the interpreters pointed to a high precipice in the cliffs on the east shore, which Indian tradition assigns as the locality of a tragical love tale, of which a Dacota girl was the heroine. To avoid the dilemma of being compelled to accept a husband of repulsive character, and to sacrifice her affections for another person, she precipitated herself down this precipice. The tale has been so differently told to travellers visiting the region, that nothing but the simple tradition appears worth recording. Olaita and Winona, have been mentioned as the name of the Dacota Sappho.At 6 o'clock in the evening we encamped on a gravelly beach on the east shore of the lake, the weather threatening a storm. Rain commenced at 8 o'clock, and continued at intervals, with severe thunder and most vivid flashes of lightning during the night. At 5 o'clock the next morning (4th), the expedition was again in motion. The rain had ceased, but the morning remained cloudy. The scenery on the borders of the lake continued to be impressive. The precipices on the east shore shot up into spiral points; yet the orbicular elevations are covered with grass and shrubbery. These high grass-crowned elevations, without forest, terminate near the influx of the Chippewa River in a remarkable isolated elevation, calledMont La Garde, from the fact that it is,and long has been, a noted look-out station for Chippewa war parties, who descend this stream, against the Sioux. It commands an extensive view of Lake Pepin. This lake was thought to be two miles wide opposite our last night's encampment; it narrows to probably less than half a mile at its mouth. The west shore along this portion of the lake consists of singularly striking, picturesque, level, and elevated prairie lands.Carver, in 1768, places his remains of ancient circumvallations in this vicinity, but "some miles below Lake Pepin."[102]This was a period when no attention had been directed to the subject of antiquities in the United States, and his mind appears to have been impressed strongly by what he saw. As opportunities did not allow me to land, nor was the precise spot, indeed, known to any of our guides or men, reference can only be made to the observations of a man who is known to have been the first American traveller that has called attention to our western antiquities. Mr. H. V. Hart, long a resident of this region, verbally assures me that he has visited these works.[103]
We examined the environs of the place with interest; the village occupies the north banks of Turtle River Valley. Turtle River, which cuts its way through this slope and plain, constitutes the direct line of intercourse for the Indian trade, through Turtle and Red Lakes, to the Red River Valley of Hudson's Bay. On inquiry, we learned that this river had constituted the ancient Indian line of communication by canoes and portages, from time immemorial, with that valley, the distance to the extreme plateau, or summit, being about sixty miles. On this summit, within a couple of miles of each other, lie Turtle and Red Lakes, the one having its discharge into the Gulf of Mexico and the other into Hudson's Bay. When Canada was settled by the French, this aboriginal route was adopted. The fur companies of Great Britain, on coming into possession of the country, after the fall of Quebec, 1759, followed the same route. The factors of these companies told Lieutenant Pike, in 1806, at Sandy Lake and Leech Lake, that the Turtle portage was the only practicable route of communication to the Red River, and that it was the true source of the Mississippi; and they furnished him manuscript maps of the country conformable to these views. The region has actually been in possession of the Americans only since 1806, adopting the era of Pike's visit.
By inquiry from the Chippewa Indians at this village, sanctioned by the Canadian authorities, we are informed that the Mississippi falls into the south end of Cass Lake, at the distance of eight or ten miles; that it reaches that point from the west, by a series of sharp rapids stretching over an extent of about forty miles from a large lake;[73]and that this celebrated stream originates in Lac la Biche, about six days' journey from our present position, and has many small lakes, rapids, and falls. It is further asserted by the Indians, that the water in these remote streams, and upon theserapids, is at all times shallow, but it is particularly so this season; and that it is not practicable to reach these remote sources of the river with boats, or large canoes of the size we have.
On submitting these facts to the gentlemen composing his party, Governor Cass asked each one to give his views, beginning with the youngest, and to express his opinion on the feasibility of further explorations. They concurred in opinion that, in the present low state of the water on these summits, considering the impossibility of ascending them with our present craft, and in the actual state of our provisions, such an attempt was impracticable. Thereon, he announced his decision to rejoin our party at Sandy Lake, and to pursue the exploration of the river down its channel to the Falls of St. Anthony, to the inlet of the Wisconsin and Fox Rivers, and to return into the great lake basins, and complete their circumnavigation.
Having reached the ultimate geographical point visited by the expedition, I thought it due to the energy and enlightened zeal of the gentleman who had led us, to mark the event by naming this body of water in my journal Cassina, or Cass Lake. There was the more reason for this in the nomenclature of the geography of the upper Mississippi, by observing that it embraces another Red Cedar Lake. The latitude of upper Red Cedar, or Cass Lake, is placed by Pike at 47° 42´40´´.[74]Its distance above Sandy Lake, by the involutions of the river, is two hundred and seventy miles, and from Fond du Lac, at the head of Lake Superior, by the travelled route, four hundred and thirty miles. It is situated seventeen degrees north of the Gulf of Mexico, from which it is computed to be distant two thousand nine hundred and seventy-eight geographical miles. Estimating the distance to the actual origin of the river, as determined at a subsequent period, at one hundred and eighty-two miles above Cass Lake, the length of the Mississippi River is shown to be three thousand one hundred and sixty miles,[75]making a direct line over the earth's surface of more than half the distance from the arctic circle to the equator. It may also be observed of the Mississippi, that its sources lie in a region of snows and long-continuedwinter, while it enters the ocean under the latitude of perpetual verdure; and at last, as if disdaining to terminate its career at the ordinary point of embouchure of other large rivers, has protruded its banks into the Gulf of Mexico, more than a hundred miles beyond any other part of the main. To have visited both the source and the mouth of the stream has fallen to the lot of but few, and I believe there is no person living beside myself of whom the remark can be made. On the tenth of July, 1819, I passed out of the mouth of the Mississippi in a brig bound for New York, after descending it in a steamboat from St. Louis, but little thinking I should soon visit its waters, yet, on the twenty-first of July of the following year, I reached its sources in this lake.
In deciding upon the physical character of the Mississippi River, it may be advantageously considered under four natural divisions, as indicated by permanent differences in its geological and physical character—its vegetable productions, and its velocity and general hydrographical character. Originating in a region of lakes upon the table-lands which throw their waters north into Hudson's Bay, south into the Gulf of Mexico, and east into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, it pursues its course south to the Falls of Pakagama, a distance of two hundred and thirty miles, through natural meadows or savannas covered with wild rice, rushes, reeds and coarse grasses, and aquatic plants. During the distance, it is extremely devious in its course and width, often expanding into lakes which connect themselves through a vast system of reticulated channels. Leech Lake, Cass Lake, and Lake Andrúsia would themselves be regarded as small interior seas, were they on any other part of the continent but that which develops Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. Its velocity through the upper plateau is but little, and it affords every facility for the breeding of water fowl and the small furred quadrupeds, the favorite reliance of a nomadic population.
At the Falls of Pakagama, the first rock stratum and the first wooded island is seen. Here the river has an aggregate fall of twenty feet, and from this point to St. Anthony's Falls, a distance of six hundred miles, it exhibits its second characteristic division. The granitical and metamorphic rocks, which support the vast plateaux and beds of draft of its sources, are only apparent abovethis point, in boulders. The permanent strata are but barely concealed at several rapids below the Pakagama, but appear plainly below the influx of the De Corbeau, at Elk River, Little Falls, and near Sac River. And this system of rock is succeeded, before reaching the Falls of St. Anthony, by the horizonal white sand rock and its superior limestone series of the carboniferous formation.
Vegetation is developed as the river descends towards the south. A forest of maples, elm, oak, ash, and birch, is interspersed with spruce, birch, poplar, and pine above the Pakagama, and continues, in favorable positions, throughout this division. The black walnut is first seen below Sandy Lake, and the sycamore below the River De Corbeau. The river in this division has numerous well-wooded islands; its velocity is a striking feature; it abounds with rapids, none of which, however, oppose serious obstacles to its navigation. Agreeably to memoranda kept,[76]it has fifty-six distinct rapids, including the Little and Big Falls, in all of which the river has an aggregate estimated descent of two hundred and twenty-four feet, within a distance of fourteen thousand six hundred and forty yards, or about eight miles. The mean fall of the current, exclusive of these rapids, may be computed at nearly six inches per mile.
The course of the river, below the Falls of Pakagama, is still serpentine, but strikingly less so than above, and its bends are not so short and abrupt. The general course of this river, till it reaches the rock formation of Pakagama, is from the west. Thence, to Sandy Lake inlet, it flows generally southeast; from this point to the inlet of the De Corbeau or Crow Wing, it is deflected to the southwest; thence almost due south, to the mouth of the Watab River; and thence again southeast to the Falls of St. Anthony. A geographical line dropped from the inlet of Sandy Lake, where the channel is first deflected to the southwest, to St. Anthony's Falls, or the mouth of the St. Peter's,[77]forms a vast bow-shaped area of prairie and forest lands of high agricultural capabilities, whose future products must be carried to a market through the Fond du Lac of Lake Superior. Theseprairies and grove lands, which cannot square less than two by four hundred miles, constitute the ancient area of the Issati,[78]and are now the resort of great herds of the buffalo, elk, and deer; and it is a region known as the predatory border, or battle-ground of the Chippewas and Dacotas.
Physical traits of the Mississippi—The elevation of its sources—Its velocity and mean descent—Etymology of the name Mississippi—Descent of the river to Sandy Lake, and thence to the Falls of St. Anthony—Recross the great Bitobi Savanna—Pakagama formation—Description of the voyage from Sandy Lake to Pine River—Brief notices of the natural history.
The third geographical division in which it is proposed to consider the Mississippi, begins at the Falls of St. Anthony. Within half a day's march, before reaching this point from its sources, the primitive and crystallized, and the altered and basaltic rocks are succeeded by the great limestone and sandstone horizontal series of the carboniferous, magnesian, and metalliferous rocks, which constitute by themselves so extraordinary a body of geological phenomena. Entering on the level of the white sandstone stratum, which is fundamental in this column, about the inlet of Rum River, the Mississippi urges its way over a gently inclining bed of this rock, to the brink of this cataract, where it drops perpendicularly about sixteen feet; but the whole descent of its level from the head to the foot of the portage path, cannot be less than double that height.
The river, at this point, enters a valley which is defined by rocky cliffs, which attain various elevations from one to three hundred feet, presenting a succession of picturesque or sublime views. In some places these cliffs present a precipitous and abrupt façade, washed by the current. In far the greatest number of cases, the eminence has lost its sharp angles through the effects of frosts, rains, and elemental action, leaving a slope of debris at the foot. As the river descends, it increases in volume and in the extent of its alluvions. These form, in an especial manner, its characteristic features from St. Anthony's Falls to the junction of the Missouri, a distance of not less than eight hundred miles. The principaltributaries which it receives in this distance, are, on the right, the St. Peter's, Upper and Lower Iowa, Turkey River, Desmoines, and Salt Rivers; and, on the left, the St. Croix, Chippewa, Wisconsin, Rock River, and the Illinois. One hundred miles below St. Anthony, it expands for a distance of twenty-four miles into the sylvan sheet of Lake Pepin, at the foot of which it receives the large volume of the Chippewa River, which originates on the sandy tracts at the sources of the Wisconsin, Montreal, and Ontonagon; and it is from this point that its continually widening channel exhibits those innumerable and changing sand-bars, which so embarrass the navigation. But in all this distance, it is only at the Desmoines and Rock River rapids that any permanent serious impediment is found in its navigation, with the larger craft.
The fourth change in the physical aspect of this river, is at the junction of the Missouri, and this is an almost total and complete one; for this river brings down such a vast and turbid flood of commingled earths and floating matter, that it characterizes this stream to its entrance into the Gulf of Mexico. If its length of channel, velocity, and other leading phenomena had been accurately known at an early day, it should also have carried its name from this point to the ocean. Down to this point, the Mississippi, at its summer phases, carries the character of a comparatively clear stream. But the Missouri, which, from its great length and remote latitude, has a summer freshet, flows in with a flood so turbid and opaque, that it immediately communicates its qualities and hue to the milder Mississippi. At certain seasons, the struggle between the clear and turbid waters of the two streams can be seen, at opposite sides of the river, at the distance of twenty or thirty miles. Entire trees, sometimes ninety feet long, with their giant arms, are swept down the current; and it is not unusual, at its highest flood, to observe large, spongy masses of a species of pseudo pumice carried into its channel, from some of its higher western tributaries.
To such a moving, overpowering liquid mass, there are still, below the Missouri, rocky banks, and occasionally isolated cliffs, to stand up and resist its sweep; but its alluvions become wider and deeper opposite to these rocky barriers. Its bends stretch over greater distances, and its channel grows deeper at every accession of a tributary. The chief of these, after passing theMissouri, are from the Rocky Mountains and Ozark slopes, the St. Francis, White, Arkansas, and Red Rivers; and from the other bank the Kaskaskia, the Ohio, Wolf, and Yazoo. It is estimated to flow twelve hundred miles below the Missouri. Its width is about one mile opposite St. Louis. It is narrower but more than twice the depth at New Orleans, and yet narrower, because more divided, at its embouchure at the Balize, where a bar prevents ships drawing over eighteen feet of water from entering.
No attempt has heretofore been made to determine the elevation of that part of the American continent which gives rise to the Mississippi River. From the observations made on the expedition, the elevation is confessedly less than would _à priori_ be supposed. If it is not, like the Nile, cradled among mountains, whose very altitude and position are unknown, there is enough of the unknown about its origin to wish for more information. Originating on a vast continental plateau, or watershed, the superabundance of its waters are drained off by the three greatest rivers of North America, namely, the St. Lawrence, the Nelson's rivers of Hudson's Bay, and the Mississippi. Yet the apex of this height of land is moderate, although its distance from the sea at either point is immense. From the best data at command, I have endeavored to come at the probable altitude of this plateau, availing myself at the same time of the judgment of the several members of the expedition. Taking the elevation of Lake Erie above tide-water, as instrumentally determined, in the New York surveys, as a basis, we find Lake Superior lying at an altitude of six hundred and forty-one feet above the Atlantic. From thence, through the valley of the St. Louis, and across the Savanna summit, to the Mississippi, at the confluence of the Sandy Lake River, estimates noted on the route, indicate an aggregate rise of four hundred and ninety feet. The ascent of the river, from this point to Cass Lake, is estimated to be one hundred and sixty-two feet; giving this lake an aggregate elevation of thirteen hundred and ninety-three feet above the Atlantic. Barometrical admeasurements made in 1836, by Mr. Nicollet, in the service of the United States Topographical Bureau, place the elevation of this lake at fourteen hundred and two feet above the Gulf of Mexico,[79]being just twelve feet above these early estimates. Thesame authority estimates its length from the Balize, at twenty-seven hundred and fifty miles. Its velocity below Cass Lake may be estimated to result from a mean descent of a fraction over five inches per mile.
The name of the Mississippi River is derived from the Algonquin language, through the medium of the French. The term appears first in the early missionary letters from the west end of Lake Superior about 1660. Sippi, agreeably to the early French annotation of the word, signifies a river. The prefixed word Missi is an adjective denoting all, and, when applied to various waters, means the collected or assembled mass of them. The compound term is then, properly speaking, an adverb. Thus, Missi-gago, means all things; Missi-gago-gidjetod, He who has made all things—the Creator. It is a superlative expression, of which great river simply would be a most lean, impracticable, and inadequate expression. It is only symbolically that it can be called the father of American rivers, unless such sense occurs in the other Indian tongues.
Finding it impracticable to proceed higher in the search of the remote sources of the river at this time, a return from this point was determined on. The vicinity had been carefully scanned for its drift specimens, and fresh-water conchology. Wishing to carry along some further memorial of the visit, members of the party cut walking-canes in the adjoining thickets, and tied them carefully together; and at five o'clock in the afternoon (21st July) we embarked on our descent. An hour's voyage over the surface of this wide lake, with its refreshing views of northern scenery, brought us to the point where the Mississippi issues from it. Never did men ply their paddles with greater animation; and having the descent now in their favor, they proceeded eighteen miles before they sought for a spot to encamp. Twilight still served, with almost the clearness of daylight, while we spread our tents on a handsome eminence on the right-hand shore. Daylight had not yet dawned the next morning, when we resumed the descent. It was eight o'clock A. M. when we reached the border of Lake Winnipek. This name, by the way, is derived from a term heretofore given, which, having the Chippewa inflection of nouns inish, graphically describes that peculiarity of its waters created by the disturbance of a clay bottom.The winds were high and adverse, which caused the canoemen to toil two hours in crossing. After reaching the river again, we passed its sedgy borders, to, and through Rush Lake, or the Little Winnipek; then by the inlet of Leech Lake River, and through the contortions of its channel, to within a few miles of the spot of our encampment at Deer River, on the 20th.
The great savannas, through which the Mississippi winds itself above the Pakagama, are called collectively, the Gatchi Betobeeg, Great Morasses, or bog meadows.
While descending the river, we encountered nine canoes filled with Chippewa Indians and their families. They were freighted with heavy rolls of birch-bark, such as their canoes are made from; together with bundles of rushes designed for mats. The annoyance suffered from mosquitos on this great plateau, was almost past endurance. We embarked again at a quarter past four, and reached the Falls of Pakagama at five o'clock. Just forty minutes were spent in making the portage. The rock at this spot is quartzite. The day was cloudy, with some rain. As night approached an animal, judged to be the wolverine, was seen swimming across the stream. The efforts of the men to overtake it were unavailing; it nimbly eluded pursuit, and dashed away into the thickets. In some queries sent to me by the New York Lyceum, this animal is alluded to as a species of the glutton. The Indians said there was no animal in their country deserving this name; the only animal they knew deserving of it, was the horse; which was eating all the time. We encamped on an abrupt sandy bank, where, however, sleep was impossible. Between the humidity of the atmosphere and the denseness of the foliage around us, the insect world seemed to have been wakened into unusual activity. Besides, we encamped so late, and were so jaded by a long day's travel, that the mosquito-nets were neglected. To get up and stand before a camp-fire at midnight and switch off the mosquitos, requires as much philosophy as to write a book; and at any rate, ours completely failed. We were again in our canoes (24th), at an early hour. Daylight apprised us of the clearing up of the atmosphere, and brought us one of the most delightful days. Animated by these circumstances, we descended the stream with rapidity. Soon after midday, we entered and ascended theshort channel of the Sandy Lake River, and, by two o'clock in the afternoon, we rejoined our camp at the Fur Company's Fort, having been three days in descending a distance which had consumed four and a half in the ascent.
We were received with joy and acclamation by the Sandy Lake party, and felicitated ourselves on the accomplishment of what had all along appeared as the most arduous part of our route. Nor had we indeed, overrated its difficulties; the incessant motion of travelling depriving us of mature opportunities of observation, and also rest at night, the stings of the mosquitos whenever we attempted to land, and the cravings of an often unsatisfied appetite, had made this visit one of peculiar privation and fatigue. Without such an effort, however, it is doubtful whether the principal objects of the expedition could have been accomplished. Nothing untoward had happened at the camp, no difficulty had occurred with the Indians, and all the party were in good health. Having left my thermometer with Mr. Doty, during my absence, the observations made by him are denoted in the appendix.
The following day was fixed on for our departure for the Falls of St. Anthony. The distance to these falls is generally put by the traders at from five to six hundred miles. These estimates denote, however, rather the difficulties and time employed by days' journeys in the trade than any other measurements.[80]Pike states the latitude some thirteen minutes too far north. It is found to be 46° 47´ 10´´. It appears from Lieut. Pike (Expt.p. 60), that the stockade at this place was erected in 1794. Its elevation above the Gulf of Mexico is 1,253 feet. The soil of the environs yields excellent potatoes, and such culinary vegetables as have been tried. The mean temperature of July is denoted to be 73°. The post is one of importance in the fur trade. It yields the deer, moose, bear, beaver, otter, martin, muskrat, and some other species, whose skins or pelts are valuable.
It was twelve o'clock on the morning of the 25th, before we were ready to embark. Our flotilla now consisted of three canoes, of the kind calledCanoe-allegein the trade, and a barge occupiedby the military. To this array, the chief Babesakundiba, or the Curly Head, added a canoe filled with Chippewa delegates, who accompanied him on a mission of peace to the Sioux. This chief is the same individual who met Lieut. Pike in this quarter, in 1806, and he appears to be a man of much energy and decision of character. His reputation also gives him the character of great skill, policy, and bravery in conducting the war against the Sioux. Indian wars are not conducted as with us, by opposing armies. It is altogether a guerilla affair. War parties are raised, marched, fight, and disperse in a few days. The war is carried on altogether by stealth and stratagem. Each one furnishes himself with food and weapons. In such a warfare, there is great scope for individual exploits and daring. In these wars the Curly Head had greatly distinguished himself, and he was, therefore, an ambassador of no mean power. In every view, the mission assumed an interesting character; and we kept an eye on the chief's movements, on our journey down the river, chiefly that we might notice the caution which is observed by the Indians in entering an enemy's country.
After entering the Mississippi, below Sandy Lake, the stream presents very much the character it has above. It was below this point that we first observed the juglans nigra in the forest. Its banks are diluvial or alluvial formations, elevated from six to ten feet. The elm, maple, and pine are common. There are some small grassy islands, with tufts of willows, and driftwood lodged. No rock strata appear. The river winds its way through vast diluvial beds, exhibiting at its rapids granitical, quartz, and trappose boulders. It appears to glide wholly over the primitive or crystalline rocks, which rise in some places through the soil, or show themselves at rapids. The expedition descended the stream twenty-eight miles, and encamped on a sandy elevation on the west shore, near Alder River, which seemed to promise an exemption from the annoyance of insects; but in this we were mistaken. In the hurry of a late encampment, it had been omitted to pitch the tents. The first ill effect of this was felt on being awakened at night by rain. A humid atmosphere is ever the signal for awakening hordes of insects, and the mosquitos became so troublesome that it was impossible to sleep at all afterthe shower. We got up and whiled away the time as best we could around the camp-fire.
We embarked a few minutes before 5 A. M., the morning being lowering and overcast, which eventuated in rain within an hour. The atmosphere resumed its serenity, and the sun shone out at noon. The river, as on the preceding day, has its course between alluvial and diluvial banks, sweeping its way over the smooth orbicular beds of the granitical age. The influx of rivers, the occurrence of islands, which bear witness of their entire submersion during the freshets, and the succession of bends, points, and rapids—these changes, with notices of the wild fowl, forest birds, and sometimes a quadruped, or a mass of boulders, absorbed my notices, which it seems unimportant, at this time, to refer to. No fixed stratification of rocks was encountered this day.
We encamped at about eight o'clock, on the east bank, on an open eminence, just below the rapids which mark the confluence of Pine River, having been in our canoes, with very brief and infrequent landings, fifteen hours. At the points of landing, I observed the rosa parviflora, and ipomea nil. As night approached, we heard the monotonous notes of the caprimulgus virginianus. We had also observed during the day, the bald eagle, king-fisher, turdus polyglottis, teal, plover, robin, and pigeon. The nimble sciuris vulgaris was also observed on shore. Boulders of sienite, hornblende rock, silicious slate, sandstone, and quartz, served as so many monuments to testify that heavy oceanic currents had heretofore disrupted the northern stratification, and poured down over these long and gradual geological slopes.
High and open as our position was on this eminence, our old friends the mosquitos did not forget us. Even the Indians could not endure their continued attacks. A fine fellow of our original auxiliaries, called Iaba Waddik, or the Buck, took this occasion to give us a specimen of his English, exclaiming, as he came to the camp-fire, "Tia![81]no sneep!" putting the usual interchangeablenof the tribe for thelin the noun.
Description of the descent from Pine River—Pine tracts—Confluence of the Crow-wing River—Enter a sylvan region—prairies and groves, occupied by deer, elk, and buffalo—Sport of buffalo hunting—Reach elevations of sienitic and metamorphic rocks—Discover a pictographic inscription of the Sioux, by which they denote a desire for peace—Pass the Osaukes, St. Francis's, Corneille, and Rum Rivers—St. Anthony's Falls—Etymology of the name—Geographical considerations.
The night dew was heavy on this elevation, and a dense fog prevailed at the hour of our embarkation (5 o'clock A. M., on the 27th). The pine lands come in with the valley of Pine River, a large and important stream tributary from the west, which has a connection with Leech Lake. These lands characterize both banks of the Mississippi to the entrance of the River De Corbeau. We were seven hours, with a strong current, in passing through this tract. It is to be observed that ancient fires have been permitted to run through these forests, destroying immense quantities of the timber. It was twelve o'clock, A. M., when we came opposite to the entrance of the great Crow-wing River.[82]This stream, which has a large island in its mouth, is a prime tributary with a large, full-flowing current, and must bring in one-third of the entire volume of water to this point.[83]Such is the effect of this current on the opposite shore, that, at the distance of a coupleof leagues below, at a spot calledPrairie Perciêby the French, it appears to have forced its way headlong, till, meeting obstructions from the primary rocks, it was again deflected south. At this point, the whole face of the country has an exceedingly sylvan aspect. It is made up of far-stretching plains, covered with grass and wild flowers, interspersed with groves of oak, maple, and other species. The elevation of these beautiful plains, above the river, is not less than twenty to thirty feet, placing them above the reach of high waters. We were now passing below the latitude of 46°. Everything indicated a climate favorable to the vegetable kingdom. While passing in the valley, through the fine bends which the river makes, through these plains, we came to a hunting-camp of probably one hundred and fifty Indians. They were Chippewas, who, on landing at their camp, saluted us in the Indian fashion, and were happy to exchange some dried buffalo meat and pemmican, for corn and flour. Some miles below we observed several buffalo, on the eastern shore, on the sub-plains below the open bluffs. Alarmed by our approach, these animals set out, with a clumsy, shambling trot, for the upper plains. Clumsy as their gait seemed, they got over the ground with speed. Our whole force was immediately landed, a little below, and we eagerly climbed the banks, to engage in the sport of hunting them. Quite a large drove of this animal was seen on the prairie. Our best marksmen, and the Indians, immediately divided themselves, to approach on different sides the herd. Cautiously approaching, they fired; the effect was to alarm and divide them. Most of the herd pushed directly to the spot on the banks of the river, where the non-combatants of the party stood; and there arose a general firing, andmêléeof men and buffaloes, which made it quite doubtful, for awhile, who stood in greatest danger of being hit by the bullets, the men or animals. I am certain the bullets whizzed about the position I occupied on the top of the alluvial cliffs. None of the herd were, however, slain at that time; but at our encampment, a short distance below, the flesh of both the buffalo and elk was profusely brought in by the Indians. It is stated that this animal lifts both the feet on one side, at the same time; but this remark, I presume, arises from a mode of throwing its feet forward, which is decidedly different from other quadrupeds.
On descending the river two miles, the next morning, we found ourselves opposite the mouth of Elk River, a stream coming in from the west. This point has been determined to be but four minutes north of latitude 46° [Sen. Doc.237]. A short distance below the river, we passed, on the west shore, the Painted Rock, an isolated or boulder mass, having Indian devices, which we had no opportunity of examining. We were now passing down a channel of manifestly increased velocity, and at the distance of a couple of miles more, found ourselves hurried through the west channel of the Little Falls. At this point the primitive or basis stratification over which we had been so long gliding, crosses the river, rising up and dividing it, by an abrupt rocky island, into two channels. The breadth of the stream is much compressed, and the velocity of its current increased. By what propriety of language it is called "falls" did not, however, appear; perhaps there are seasons when the descent assumes a greater degree of disturbance and velocity. To us, it appeared to be about ten feet in a hundred and fifty yards. Here, then, in N. lat. 46°, the Mississippi is first visibly crossed by the primary series of rocks.
Being now in the region of buffalo, it was decided to land in the course of the day, for the purpose of entering into the chase. An occasion for this was presented soon after passing the Little Falls, by observing one of these animals on shore. On landing, and reaching the elevation of the prairies, two herds of them were discovered at a distance. An attack on them was immediately planned, for which the tall grass and gentle inequalities of surface, appeared favorable. The fire proved unsuccessful, but served to distract the herds, giving scope for individual marksmanship and hunter activity, during which, innumerable shots were fired, and three animals killed. While this scene was passing, I had a good stand for witnessing the sport, some of the herd passing by very near, as with the blindness of fury. The bison is certainly an animal as clumsy as the ox, or domestic cow; but, unlike these, it is of a uniform dun color, and ever without being spotted, or mottled. Its horns are nearly straight, short, very black, and set wide apart. The male is formidable in look, and ferocious when wounded. Its ordinary weight is eight hundred to a thousand pounds.
It may be said, in reference to this animal being found in thisregion, that it is a kind of neutral ground, between the Chippewas and Sioux, neither of which tribes permanently occupy the country between the mouth of the Raven's-wing and Rum Rivers.[84]
Having spent several hours in the chase, we again embarked, and proceeded down the river until three o'clock in the afternoon. On the left bank of the river two prominent elevations of the granitical series, rising through the prairie soil, attracted my attention. Immediately below this locality, a high and level prairie stretches on the west shore, which had a striking appearance from its being crowned with the poles and fixtures of a large, recently abandoned Sioux encampment. At this spot the expedition landed and encamped. The quick glances of Babasikundiba and his party of delegates immediately discovered a pole, at the site of the chief's lodge, bearing a birch bark scroll, or letter, inscribed with Indian hieroglyphics, or devices. It turned out that this spot was the northern terminus of a Sioux peace embassage, dispatched from St. Peter's shortly previous, under the direction of Col. H. Leavenworth, U. S. A., the newly-arrived commanding officer at that post. The message was eagerly received and read by the Chippewa delegates. By it they were informed that the Sioux also desired a termination of hostilities. The scroll was executed by tracing lines, with the point of a knife, or some sharp instrument. The pictographic devices thus drawn denoted the exact number of the party, their chiefs, and the authority under which these crude negotiations were commenced.
Of this mode of communicating ideas among the Algonquin tribes, we have before given details in crossing the boggy plateau of Akik Sepi, between the St. Louis River and Sandy Lake. The present instance of it is commented on in an interesting communication of the era, in the appendix, from the pen of Gov. Cass. It was now no longer doubtful that the Chippewa mission would be successful, and the satisfaction it produced was evident in the countenances and expressions of Babasikundiba and his colleagues.
I took a canoe and crossed the Mississippi, to inspect the geology of the opposite shore. On reaching the summit of therock formations rising through the prairies, which had attracted my notice from the river, I found them to consist of sienite, which was almost exclusively made up of a trinary compound of white quartz, hornblende, and feldspar—the two former species predominating. The feldspar exhibited its splendent black crystals in fine relief in the massy quartz. This formation extended a mile or more. What excited marked attention, in surveying these rocks, was their smoothly rubbed surfaces, which seemed as if they must have been produced by equally hard and heavy masses of rock, driven over them from the north. I registered this locality, in my Geological Journal, as the Peace Rock, in allusion to the purport of the Indian mission, evidences of which were found at the opposite encampment.[85]
During our night's encampment at this spot we heard the howling of a pack of wolves, on the opposite bank—a sure indication, hunters say, that there are deer, or objects of prey in the vicinity. There are two species of wolves on the plains of the Mississippi—the canis lupus, and the animal called coyote by the Spanish. The latter is smaller, of a dingy yellow color, and bears the generic name of prairie wolf. I have also seen a black wolf on the prairies of Missouri and Arkansas, three feet nine inches long, with coarse, bristly, bear-like hair. As daylight approached, our ears were saluted with the hollow cry of the strix nictea, a species which is asserted to be found, sometimes, as far south as the Falls of St. Anthony.
On embarking, at an early hour, we found the humidity of the night atmosphere to be such, that articles left exposed to it were completely saturated. Yet, the temperature stood at 50° at half-past four o'clock, the moment of our embarkation. On descending six miles we passed the mouth of the Osakis, or Sac River, aconsiderable tributary from the west, which opens a line of communication with the Red River valley.
About ten o'clock we encountered a series of rapids extending some eight hundred or a thousand yards, in the course of which the river has a probable aggregate fall of sixteen feet. These rapids bear the malappropriate title of the Big Falls. Following these, were a series called Prairie Rapids. At half-past four we passed the entrance of the River St. Francis, a considerable stream on the left bank. At this spot, Hennepin terminated his voyage in 1681, and Carver in 1766. There is an island at the point of confluence. At six o'clock we passed the entrance on the west shore of the stream calledCorneille, by the French, which is the true interpretation of the Sioux nameKarishon, and the Chippewa termAndaig, which mean the crow, and not the raven. We encamped five miles below, on the east bank, having been thirteen hours in our canoes, with a generally strong current. My mineralogical gleanings, during the day, had given some specimens of the interesting varieties of the quartz family, for which the geological drift is noted, and a single piece of agatized wood. The geological floor on which the river runs, has been indicated.
At five o'clock the following morning (30th) we resumed the descent, and at the distance of two leagues reached the entrance of the Missisagiegon, or Rum River. It is Carver, I believe, who first gives us this name, for a stream which the Indians describe as a river flowing from a lake of lakes—a term, by the way, which the French, with their usual adherence to Indian etymology, have calledMille Lacs. The termmissi, in this word, does not signify great, but a collected mass, or all kinds, and sometimes everywhere—the allusion being to water.Sa-gi-e-gonis a lake, and when the prefixed termmissi, is put to it, nothing could more graphically describe the large body of water, interspersed with islands, which give a confused aspect, from which the river issues. The Dacotas call this lakeMini Wakan, meaning Spirit-water, which is probably the origin of the name of Rum River.
About thirteen miles below Rum River, and when within half a mile of the Falls,[86]I observed calcareous rocks in horizontalbeds, on the left bank of the river. It was now evident we had passed out of the primitive range of deposits, and had entered that of the great sedimentary horizontal and semi-crystalline or silurian system of the Mississippi Valley; and descending with a strong current, we came, rather suddenly, it appeared, to the Falls of St. Anthony, where the river drops, by a cascade, into a rock-bordered valley. Surprise and admiration were the first emotions on getting out of our canoes and gazing on this superlative scene; and we were not a little struck with the idea that the Sioux had named the Falls from manifestly similar impressions, calling it Rara, from the Dacota verbirara, to laugh. By another authority, the word is writtenHa Ha, orDhaha, the lettershin the word representing a strong guttural sound resembling the old Arabic r.[87](S. R. Riggs'sDakota Dict. and Gram.) Nothing can exceed the sylvan beauty of the country which is here thrown before the eye; and we should not feel surprised that the Aboriginal mind has fallen on very nearly identical sounds with the English, to express its impressions. A not very dissimilar principle has been observed by the Chippewas, who have a uniform termination of their names inish, which signifies the very same quality which we express by ish in whitish, blackish, saltish—meaning a lesser, or defective quality of the noun.
The popular name of these Falls, it is known, is due to Father Louis Hennepin, a missionary who accompanied La Salle to the Illinois, in 1679, and was carried captive into the country of the Issati, a Dacota tribe, in 1680. Lt. Pike states the portage to be two hundred and sixty poles. By the time we had taken a good view of the position, and made a few sketches, the men had completed carrying over our baggage and canoes. It was now one o'clock, when we embarked to proceed to the newly-established military encampment, a few miles below. It was a noticeable feature, in our descent of the river above the Falls, that Babasikundiba had always kept behind the flotilla of canoes; but the moment we advanced below the Falls, he shot ahead with his delegates, each one being dressed out in his best manner. His canoe had its little flag displayed—the Indian drum was soon heard sending its measured thumps and murmurs of vocal accompaniment over the water, and ever and anon guns were fired. All this was done that the enemy might be apprised of the approach of the delegation in the boldest and most open manner. It was eight or nine miles to the post, near the influx of the St. Peter's, and long before we reached Col. Leavenworth's camp, which occupied a high bluff, the attention of the Sioux was arrested by their advance, and it was inferable from the friendly answering shouts which they gave, that the mission was received with joy. Although we had known nothing of the movement which produced the pictographic letter found on a pole at the Petite Roche, above Sac River, it was, in fact, regarded by the Dacotas as an answer to that letter. And the Chippewa chief, and his followers, were received with a salute by the Sioux, by whom they were taken by the hand, individually, as they landed.
Col. Leavenworth, the commanding officer, received the expedition in the most cordial manner, and assigned quarters for the members. Gov. Cass was received with a salute due to his rank. We learn that the post was established last fall. Orders for this purpose were issued, as will be seen by reference to thePreliminary Documents, p. 35, early in the spring. The troops destined for this purpose, were placed under the orders of Col. Leavenworth, who had distinguished himself as the commander of the ninth and twenty-second regiments, in the war of 1812. They left Detroit in the spring (1819), and proceeding by the way of Green Bay and Prairie du Chien, where garrisons were left, they ascended to the mouth of the St. Peter's, in season to erect cantonments before winter. The site chosen, being on the alluvial grounds, proved unhealthy, in consequence of which the cantonment was removed, in the spring of 1820, to an eminence and spring on the west bank of the Mississippi, about a mile from the former position.
Position of the military post established at the mouth of the St. Peter's—Beauty, salubrity, and fertility of the country—Pictographic letter—Indian treaty—The appearance of the offer of frankincense in the burning of tobacco—Opwagonite—native pigments—Salt; native copper—The pouched or prairie rat—Minnesota squirrel—Etymology of the Indian name of St. Peter's River—Antiquities—Sketch of the Dacota—Descent of the Mississippi to Little Crow's village—Feast of green corn.
In favor of the soil and climate, and of the salubrity of the position, the officers speak in terms of the highest admiration. The garrison has directed its attention to both horticulture and agriculture. About ninety acres of the choicest bottom land along the St. Peter's Valley, and the adjacent prairies, have been planted with Indian corn and potatoes, cereal grains, and esculents, inclusive of a hospital, a regimental, and private gardens. At the mess-table of Col. Leavenworth, and in our camp, we were presented with green corn in the ear, peas, beans, cucumbers, beets, radishes, and lettuce. The earliest garden peas were eaten here on the 15th of June, and the first green corn on the 20th July. Much of the corn is already too hard for the table, and some of the ears can be selected which are ripe enough for seed corn. Wheat, on the prairie lands, is found to be entirely ripe, and melons in the military gardens nearly so. These are the best practical commentaries on the soil and climate.[88]
The distance of the St. Peter's from the Gulf of Mexico is estimated to be about two thousand two hundred miles. Its position above St. Louis is estimated at nine hundred miles. Its elevation above the Gulf is but 744 feet. The precise latitude of this pointis 44° 52´ 46´´.[89]The atmosphere is represented as serene and transparent during the summer and spring seasons, and free from the humidity which is so objectionable a trait of our eastern latitudes. The mean temperature is 45°.[90]Its geology and mineralogy will be noticed in my official reports. It will be sufficient here to say that the stratification, at and below St. Anthony's Falls, consists wholly of formations of sandstones and limestones, horizontally deposited, whose relative positions and ages are chiefly inferable from the evidences of organic life, in the shape of petrifactions, which they embrace. The lowest of this series of rocks is a white sandstone, consisting of transparent, loosely cohering grains, special allusion to which is made by Carver, in his travels in 1766, and which may be received as testimony, were there no other, that this too much discredited author had actually visited this region.
I have mentioned the interest excited by our Chippewas finding the bark letter, or pictographic memorial at the deserted Sioux encampment above Sac River. It turned out, as we were informed, that this Aboriginal missive was a reply to a similar proposition transmitted from Sandy Lake, by the Chippewas. The very person, indeed, who inscribed the Chippewa bark message, was one of the ten persons who had accompanied us from that lake. Gov. Cass, on learning this fact, requested him to draw a duplicate of it on a roll of bark. He executed this task immediately. We thus had before us the proposition in this symbolic character, which is calledke ke winby the Chippewas, and its answer. By this mode of communication two nations of the most diverse language found no difficulty in understanding each other.[91]
On the second day after our arrival, the Indians consummated their intentions, as signified by the bark letter, and the Sandy-Lake delegation assembled with the Sioux at the old quarters of the military, now occupied as an Indian agency, and smoked the pipe of peace. There were present at this pacification, besides the chiefs Shacopee and Babasikundiba, and minor chieftains, His Excellency Gov. Cass, Col. Leavenworth, and sundry officersof the garrison and the expedition. The ceremonies were conducted under the auspices of the U. S. Indian Agent, Mr. Taliaferro. Every attention was given to make these ceremonies impressive, by a compliance with the Aboriginal customs on these occasions, and it is hoped not without leaving permanent effects on their minds.
The pipe employed by the native diplomatists, in these negotiations, is invested with a symbolic and sacred character, as if the fumes of the weed were offered, in the nature of frankincense, to the Deity. The genuflections with which it is presented, more than the words expressed, countenance this idea. The bowl of the pipe used on this occasion consisted of the well-known red pipe-stone, called opwagonite,[92]so long known in Indian history as being brought from theCoteau des Prairies. It is furnished with a wooden stem two or three feet long, and two and a half inches broad, shaved down thin so as to resemble a spatula. It is then painted with certain blue or green clays, and ornamented with braids of richly dyed porcupine quills, or the holcus fragrans, and the tuft feathers of the male duck or red-headed woodpecker. These state pipes are usually presented by the speakers as memorials of the speeches, and laid aside by the officials having charge of Indian affairs. Col. Leavenworth presented us with some of these carefully ornamented diplomatic testimonials.
I obtained from the Sioux some very carefully moulded pyramidal-shaped pieces of the blue and green clays from the valley of the St. Peter's, which they employ in painting their pipe-stems and persons. The coloring matter of these appears to be carbonate of copper. It is brought from the Blue Earth River. I also obtained from the Indians very small and carefully tied leathern bags of the red oxide of iron, which they obtain in the state of a dry, powdery mass, on the prairies near the Big Stone. The Indians brought me, from the same region, crystals of salt, scraped up from the margin of certain waters on the prairies, of a dark cast, mixed with impurities. The tendency of these crystals to assume a cubic form was quite distinct. The most interesting development, in the mineralogical way, consisted of small lumps of native copper, which I obtained on an eminence on the banksof the Mississippi, directly opposite the influx of the St. Peter's. They occupy, geologically, a diluvial position, being at the bottom of the prairie-drift stratum, and immediately above the superior limestone.
In the luxurious kitchen gardens of Camp Leavenworth, great depredations have been made by a small quadruped of a burrowing character, called gopher. By patient watching, gun in hand, one of these was killed, and its skin preserved and prepared. The animal is ten inches long to the termination of the tail, with a body very much the size and color of a large wharf-rat. It has five prominent claws, and two broad cutting teeth, but its most striking peculiarity is a duplicature of the cheek, which permits it to carry earth to the mouth of its burrow. It has been called the pouched rat. Sir Francis Drake found a similar animal in his visit to the Gulf of California, in 1587. The distribution of this species, of which this seems to be the northern limit, is very wide through Atlantic America, and it is known to be destructive to vegetation throughout Alabama, Georgia, and the Carolinas. I had, two years ago, been led to notice its ravages in Missouri and Arkansas. But the animal called gopher, in the southern country, is a burrowing tortoise, and the name is improperly applied to this species, which is thePseudostoma pinetorum.
A peculiar species of squirrel was observed in this vicinity, which is also found to be a destructive visitor to the military gardens. In appearance, this species resembles the common striped squirrel, but it has a more elongated body, and shorter legs. The body has six black stripes, with the same number of intervening lines of spots, on a reddish-brown skin. This Minnesota squirrel has, since the return of the Expedition, been named, by the late Dr. Samuel L. Mitchell,sciurus tredeceum.
The River St. Peter's is called, by the Dacotas,Watepa Minnesota. The prefixed termwatepa, is their word for river;minniis the name for water. The termsotahas been variously explained. The Canadian French, who have proved themselves most apt translators of Indian phrases, render it by the wordbrouille, orblear; or, if we regard this as derivative from the verbbrouiller,mixed, ormottled—a condition of the waters of this river, whenever the Mississippi is in flood, and consequently at a higherelevation when it rushes into the mouth of the St. Peter's, producing that addled aspect of the water, to which the Dacotas, it is believed, apply the termsota.
The scenery around St. Peter's is of the most sylvan and delightful character. About six miles west of the cantonment there are several beautiful lakes, in the prairies. The largest of these is about four miles in circumference, and is called Calhoun Lake, in compliment to the Secretary of War. Its waters are stored with bass and other varieties of fish. There are several pure springs of sparkling water, issuing from the picturesque cliffs which face the Mississippi at this place. I visited one about a mile from the cantonment, which deposits a yellow sulphurous flocculent mass along its course. On the prairies is found theholcus fragrans, which is braided by the Indian females, and employed in some instances to decorate their deer-skin clothing. This aromatic grass retains its scent in the dried state. Along the waters of the St. Peter's is found theacer negundo, the inner bark of which, mixed with the common nettle, is employed by the natives in the state of a strong decoction, as a cure for thelues venerea.
Mr. Carver having described certain antiquities near the foot of Lake Pepin, in 1766, inquiries were made after objects of this kind in the vicinity. I was informed that traces of such remains existed in the valley of the St. Peter's, but can say nothing concerning them from actual inspection.[93]
Of the Dacotas, or Sioux, for which St. Peter's forms the central point, some anecdotes have been related which denote that they are, on certain occasions, actuated by exalted motives. It is related that the chief Little Crow, going out to the confines of the Chippewa Territory, to examine his beaver-traps, discovered an individual of that tribe in the act of taking a beaver from the trap. As he was himself unperceived, the tribes being at war, and the offence an extreme one, a summary punishment would have been justified by Indian law. But the Sioux chief decided differently: "Take no alarm," said he, approaching the offender: "I come to present you the trap, of which I see you stand in need. Take mygun, also, as I see you have none of your own, and return to the land of your countrymen; and linger not here, lest some of my young men should discover your footsteps."
A still more striking and characteristic incident is related of a chief called the Red Thunder. Col. Wm. Dixon, a Scotchman of family, who made his influence felt in the late war of 1812 as a leader of the Sioux and a merchant among them, married the sister of this notable chief. So daring were the acts of Red Thunder, that he had put the Chippewa nation in awe of him. At length, however, after a long series of the bravest acts, he was taken prisoner, with a favorite dog, and condemned to expiate his offences at the stake. It was a time of want by his captors. One day he said to them: "Why do you not feed my dog?" They replied, "feed him yourself." " Then," he said, "give me a knife." This being thrown to him, he cut a piece of flesh from one of his large and fleshy thighs, and threw it to the dog. Admiration of this act ran through the Indian camp. They immediately released him, and bestowed on him the highest attentions and honors.
The Dacota or Sioux nation constitute one of the families of America who speak a peculiar language. Lieut. Pike, who visited them in 1806, estimated their numerical strength at twenty-one thousand six hundred and seventy-five; of which number he computed three thousand eight hundred to be warriors. They consist of six or seven independent tribes, or sub-tribes, bearing different names, who occupy most of the country between the Mississippi and Missouri, between N. latitude 43° and 46°. The Mendawekantoñs are located on the Mississippi, below the Falls of St. Anthony and the mouth of the St. Peter's. The Sessitoñs and Yanktoñs occupy the upper waters of the St. Peter's. The Titoñs only extend west of the Missouri. The several tribes regard themselves as a confederacy, which is the signification of the term Dacota. They do not acknowledge the name of Sioux as an Indian word. We first hear of them from the early French missionaries, who visited the head of Lake Superior about the middle of the 17th century, under the name ofNadowasie.[94]They speaka language which prevails over an immense area, which is now occupied by the prairie tribes towards the west and southwest, from whence, it is inferred, they came. They appear, at a former time, to have reached and dwelt at the sources of the Mississippi, and to have approached, if not reached, the west end of Lake Superior; for it is from these positions that the oldest traditions represent them to have been driven by the Chippewas. Lieut. Pike thinks they are, undeniably, descendants of Tartars. If so, I feel inclined to think that they must have made the circuit of the Mexican provinces before reaching the Mississippi Valley, for the track of their migration is traced towards the south certainly as far as the country of the Kansas and Osages; while they preserve some striking traits and characteristics which appear to be referable to those intertropical regions.
Having passed the better part of three days in the vicinity of St. Peter's, adding to our collections and portfolios, we left it on the second of August, and proceeded down the river to the village of La Petite Corbeau, or the Little Raven, situated on the east bank not far above the mouth of the St. Croix. The river, in this distance flows between lofty cliffs of the white sandstone and neutral-colored limestones, which are first conspicuously displayed at the Falls of St. Anthony. Springs of water, not infrequently, issue from these cliffs. We landed at one of these, flowing in through a gorge at the distance of four miles below St. Peter's, on the east bank, for the purpose of visiting a remarkable cave, from the mouth of which a small stream issues. The cave is seated wholly within the beautiful white crumbling sandstone rock. It is, in fact, the loose character of the rock which permits the superincumbent waters of the plains above to permeate through it, that has originated the cave. The stream consisted of the purest filtrated water, which is daily carrying away the loosened grains of sand into the Mississippi, and thus enlarging the boundaries of the cavern.[95]We had been erroneously informed that this was Carver's Cave, and looked in vain for this traveller's name on its walls.[96]The atmosphere in thiscave was found to be seven degrees higher than the water. We noticed nothing in the form of bones or antiquities.
The village of Petite Corbeau consists of twelve large lodges, which are said to give shelter to two hundred souls. They plant corn, and cultivate vines and pumpkins. They sallied from their lodges on seeing us approach, and, gathering along the margin of the river, fired afeu de joieon our landing. The chief was among the first to greet us. He is a man below the common size, but brawny and well proportioned, and, although above fifty years of age, retains the look and vigor of forty. He invited us to his lodge—a spacious building about sixty feet by thirty, substantially constructed of logs and bark. Being seated, he addressed himself to His Excellency Gov. Cass. He said that he was glad to see him in his village. That, in his extensive journey, he must have suffered many hardships. He must also have noticed much of the Indian mode of life, and of the face of the country, which would enable him to see things in their proper light. He was glad that he had not, like others who had lately visited the country, passed by his village without calling. He referred, particularly, to the military force sent to establish a garrison at St. Peter's, the year before, who had passed up on the other side of the river. He acquiesced in the treaty that had been recently concluded with the Chippewas. He referred to a recent attack of a party of Fox Indians on their people, on the head waters of the St. Peter's. He said it was dastardly, and that, if thatlittletribe should continue their attacks, they would at length drive him into anger, and compel him to do a thing he did not wish.
While this speech was being interpreted, the Indian women were employed in bringing basketsful of ears of Indian corn from the fields, which they emptied in a pile. This pile, when it had reached a formidable height, was offered as a present to the Expedition. It was, indeed, the beginning of the season of green corn, with them, and we were soon apprised, by the sound of music from another lodge, that the festival of the green-corn dance was going forward. Being admitted to see the ceremonies, the first thing which attracted notice was two large iron kettles suspended over a fire, filled with green-corn cut from the cob. The Indians, both men and women, were seated in a large circlearound them; they were engaged in singing a measured chant in the Indian manner, accompanied by the Sioux cancega or drum and rattles; the utmost solemnity was depicted on every countenance. When the music paused, there were certain gesticulations made, as if a mysterious power were invoked. In the course of these ceremonies, a young man and his sister, joining hands, came forward to be received into the green corn society, of whom questions were asked by the presiding official. At the conclusion of these, the voice of each member was taken as to their admission, which was unanimous. At the termination of the ceremonies, an elderly man came forward and ladled out the contents of the kettles into separate wooden dishes for each head of a family present. As these dishes were received, the persons retired from the lodge by a backward movement, still keeping their faces directed to the kettles, till they had passed out.
Descent of the river from the site of Little Crow's Village to Prairie du Chien—Incidents of the voyage, and notices of the scenery and natural history.
The next morning we embarked at 5 o'clock. On descending the river six miles, we passed the mouth of the St. Croix.[97]This stream heads on high lands, which form a rim of hills around the southern and western shores of Lake Superior, where it is connected with the River Misacoda, or Broulè of Fond du Lac. The Namakagon, its southern branch of it, is connected with the Maskigo,[98]or Mauvais River of La Pointe, Lake Superior. Immediately above its point of entrance into the Mississippi the St. Croix expands into a beautiful lake, which is some twelve miles long, and about two in width. The borders of the Mississippi about this point assume an increased height, and more imposing aspect. In many places, as the voyager descends from this spot to Lake Pepin, he observes the calcareous cliffs to terminate in pyramids; the crest of the hills frequently resemble the crumbling ruins of antique towers. At 12 o'clock we came to the vicinity of an isolated calcareous cliff, called La Grange, which may be regarded as one of those monuments resulting from geological denudation, which constitute a striking feature in the St. Peter's region. The top of this cliff affords a fine view of the scenery of the Mississippi for a long distance above and below it. It has been found to be three hundred and twenty-two feet above the river.[99]
This spot is noted as being near the site of Tarangamani, or the Red Wing's Village. This chief is one of the notable men of his tribe. He has been long celebrated as a man skilled as a native magician. The village consists of four large, elongated, and of several small lodges. Tarangamani is now considered the first chief of his nation. He is noted for his wisdom and sagacity. He bears the marks of being sixty years of age. His grand-daughter married Col. Crawford, a man of commercial activity about Prairie du Chien and Michilimackinac, during the late war of 1812, who has left descendants in the lake country. We observed, at this village, several buffalo skins undergoing the Indian process of dressing. The hair having been removed, they were stretched on the ground, where they were subjected to a process analogous to tanning by being covered with a decoction of oak bark.
In ascending the hill of La Grange, we first encountered the rattlesnake, two of which we killed. This is the highest northern point at which we have observed this species on the Mississippi. I observed on this elevation small detached masses of radiated quartz, cinnamon-colored and white, together with an ore of iron crystallized in cubes. Having cursorily examined the environs, the expedition again embarked. It was 1 o'clock when we entered Lake Pepin. This admired lake is a mere expansion of the Mississippi, having a length of twenty-four miles by a varying width of from two to four miles. During this distance there is not the least current during calm weather. The prospects, in passing through this expanse of water, are of the most picturesque kind. Its immediate shores are circumscribed with a broad beach of gravel, in which may be found rolled pieces of the chalcedonies, agates, and other species of the quartz family, which are characteristic of the drift-stratum of the upper borders of the Mississippi. On the eastern shore, at a short distance from the margin, there is a lofty range of limestone cliffs. On the west, the eye rests on an elevated formation of prairie, nearly destitute of trees. From this plain several conical hills ascend, which have the appearance, but only the appearance, of artificial construction. The lake is quite transparent, and yields several species of fish. The most remarkable of these is theacipenser spatularia, of which we obtained a specimen. It is also remarkable for its numerousvarieties, and the large size of its fresh-water shells. I procured several species ofunio, which, from their size and character, attracted my attention, particularly to the subject of this branch of American conchology. Several of these, from the duplicates of my cabinet, have attracted the attention of conchologists.[100]Lake Pepin receives a river from the west called the Ocano, or more properlyAu Canot; its mouth having been, in former times, a noted place for concealing canoes during the winter season.[101]At a point, on the east shore, about half way down the lake, where a small stream enters, we were informed there existed the remains of an old French fort, or factory; but we did not land to examine them.
In passing through this lake the interpreters pointed to a high precipice in the cliffs on the east shore, which Indian tradition assigns as the locality of a tragical love tale, of which a Dacota girl was the heroine. To avoid the dilemma of being compelled to accept a husband of repulsive character, and to sacrifice her affections for another person, she precipitated herself down this precipice. The tale has been so differently told to travellers visiting the region, that nothing but the simple tradition appears worth recording. Olaita and Winona, have been mentioned as the name of the Dacota Sappho.
At 6 o'clock in the evening we encamped on a gravelly beach on the east shore of the lake, the weather threatening a storm. Rain commenced at 8 o'clock, and continued at intervals, with severe thunder and most vivid flashes of lightning during the night. At 5 o'clock the next morning (4th), the expedition was again in motion. The rain had ceased, but the morning remained cloudy. The scenery on the borders of the lake continued to be impressive. The precipices on the east shore shot up into spiral points; yet the orbicular elevations are covered with grass and shrubbery. These high grass-crowned elevations, without forest, terminate near the influx of the Chippewa River in a remarkable isolated elevation, calledMont La Garde, from the fact that it is,and long has been, a noted look-out station for Chippewa war parties, who descend this stream, against the Sioux. It commands an extensive view of Lake Pepin. This lake was thought to be two miles wide opposite our last night's encampment; it narrows to probably less than half a mile at its mouth. The west shore along this portion of the lake consists of singularly striking, picturesque, level, and elevated prairie lands.
Carver, in 1768, places his remains of ancient circumvallations in this vicinity, but "some miles below Lake Pepin."[102]This was a period when no attention had been directed to the subject of antiquities in the United States, and his mind appears to have been impressed strongly by what he saw. As opportunities did not allow me to land, nor was the precise spot, indeed, known to any of our guides or men, reference can only be made to the observations of a man who is known to have been the first American traveller that has called attention to our western antiquities. Mr. H. V. Hart, long a resident of this region, verbally assures me that he has visited these works.[103]