Definition.A tumor is a circumscribed mass of tissue made up of cells of the same kind as the tissue from which it grows.
There are two distinct types of tissue in the body: epithelial and connective, and therefore two types of tumors: theepithelial tissue tumorsand theconnective tissue tumors.
Tumors may also be classified astypical, andatypical. A typical tumor is one in which the cells are identical to those in the tissue from which it springs, and also has the same arrangement of cells. They may be of epithelial or connective tissue origin. The tissue is identical in all respects and the growth is benign. An atypical tumor is one of epithelial or connective tissue origin in which, though the cells are the same as those in the tissue from which it grows, their arrangement is quite different. They are malignant.
The most important classification of tumors is that intobenignandmalignant.
Abenign tumoris one in which there is no tendency to rapid growth; the symptoms are purely local, and the general health is not affected, except indirectly.
On the other hand amalignant tumoris one which takes on a rapid growth with a tendency to infiltrate oradhere to surrounding tissues; recurs when removed, and is accompanied by great pain and a rapid loss of weight and strength. These are commonly known as cancerous.
Malignant growths are of two types, carcinomatous and sarcomatous, dependent upon the tissue from which they emanate.
Thecarcinomataspring from the epithelial type of tissue while thesarcomataemanate from the connective tissue type.
Origin.Tumors originate from many causes. Some are congenital and others grow in later life from an inherited tendency.
Any continued irritation which acts mechanically or chemically so as to maintain a constant, though slight, degree of undue vascularity of a part, such as the hot, rough stem of a clay pipe or a jagged tooth, favors the development of a malignant growth. Certain benign growths, such as warts or moles, are especially prone to malignant change. Age and sex also predispose to tumor formation.
Thus carcinoma is a rarity under thirty years of age; the mammary gland of the female is more liable to carcinoma than the male; while on the other hand the esophagus, lip and tongue of the male are more liable to attack.
The possibility of certain malignant growths being of germ origin is thought to be evident (though not yet proven) from many facts. The fact that where there are malignant growths present, lymphatic glands, quite distant from the original growth, become secondarily infected, through the lymphatic vessels, seems to carry out this view.
Particles of a carcinoma (metastasis) floating in the blood stream, finding lodgment elsewhere also establish new growths (metastatic).
Tumors are named according to the tissues from which they arise, thus:
Fibrous tissue——FibromaFatty tissue——LipomaMucous tissue——MyxomaMuscular tissue——MyomaCartilage——ChondromaBone——OsteomaBlood vessels——AngiomaLymphatics——LymphangiomaLymphatic glands——Lymphoma
Fibrous tissue——FibromaFatty tissue——LipomaMucous tissue——MyxomaMuscular tissue——MyomaCartilage——ChondromaBone——OsteomaBlood vessels——AngiomaLymphatics——LymphangiomaLymphatic glands——Lymphoma
Fibrous tissue——Fibroma
Fatty tissue——Lipoma
Mucous tissue——Myxoma
Muscular tissue——Myoma
Cartilage——Chondroma
Bone——Osteoma
Blood vessels——Angioma
Lymphatics——Lymphangioma
Lymphatic glands——Lymphoma
Warty——PapillomaGlandular——AdenomaSkin——Epithelioma
Warty——PapillomaGlandular——AdenomaSkin——Epithelioma
Warty——Papilloma
Glandular——Adenoma
Skin——Epithelioma
Definition.Cysts are hollow tumors filled with fluid or semi-solid contents. They are classified according to their mode of development:
1. Cysts formed in already existing spaces such as sebaceous cysts in the sebaceous glands of the skin; mucous cysts in mucous glands, and distension cysts in ducts of large glands like the salivary, lacteal, hepatic, etc.2. Cysts of new formation into the tissue spaces from the effusion of blood or plasma.3. Congenital cysts known as dermoids.4. Cysts of parasitic origin.The only cyst with which the chiropodist ordinarily comes in contact is of the sebaceous variety.
1. Cysts formed in already existing spaces such as sebaceous cysts in the sebaceous glands of the skin; mucous cysts in mucous glands, and distension cysts in ducts of large glands like the salivary, lacteal, hepatic, etc.
2. Cysts of new formation into the tissue spaces from the effusion of blood or plasma.
3. Congenital cysts known as dermoids.
4. Cysts of parasitic origin.
The only cyst with which the chiropodist ordinarily comes in contact is of the sebaceous variety.
Sebaceous Cyst.A sebaceous cyst is a tumor resulting from retained sebum (secretion of the sebaceous glands).
They sometimes, though rarely, are found on the soles of the feet. They range in size from a millet seed to the size of an egg or larger; they may be globular or flattened. They may be single or multiple; the skin over them is normal in color and smooth, or white if distended, red if inflamed. They grow very slowly and ordinarily persist indefinitely,but calcareous changes are common. Not infrequently they break down and ulcerate. The wall is made up of connective tissue lined with epithelium and the secretion if chemically altered, becomes fluid, semi-fluid, cheesy or purulent.
Treatment.Spontaneous cure often occurs when a cyst becomes inflamed and suppurates. The pus is evacuated either spontaneously or by incision, following which the walls of the sac adhere and its cavity is obliterated.
Treatment directed toward the obliteration of the sac is the only procedure which gives promise of permanent cure; mere puncture and evacuation will effect only temporary relief, the sac soon filling again.
Incision followed by dissection and removal of the sac, either intact or punctured, is radical and efficient.
Puncture and evacuation, followed by swabbing out with pure phenol or strong iodin, may set up an inflammatory reaction within the sac, which acts similarly to the suppurative process, causing adhesion of the walls, thus preventing a recurrence.
A fracture may be defined as a broken bone. Fractures are classified as follows:
1. As to their degree.2. As to the direction of the line of fracture.3. As to their location.4. As to the etiology.5. As to their relation to the overlying skin.6. As to the number of fragments.7. As to whether they are complicated or not.
1. As to their degree.2. As to the direction of the line of fracture.3. As to their location.4. As to the etiology.5. As to their relation to the overlying skin.6. As to the number of fragments.7. As to whether they are complicated or not.
1. As to their degree.
2. As to the direction of the line of fracture.
3. As to their location.
4. As to the etiology.
5. As to their relation to the overlying skin.
6. As to the number of fragments.
7. As to whether they are complicated or not.
Degree of Fracture.A fracture which only involves a portion of the thickness of the bones, so that its continuity has not been entirely lost or a fragment has not been completely detached, is called anincomplete fracture. A fracture which involves the entire thickness of the bone, so that it is divided into two or more distinct fragments, is called acomplete fracture.
Among the varieties of incomplete fracture are: greenstick; fissured; depressed.
Greenstick Fractures(really a bending rather than abreak of the bone) are mostly seen under the age of fifteen, and the bones of the leg are rarely affected.
Fissured Fracturesare those in which there is a split or crack in the bones; they are very rare in the bones of the lower extremity.
Depressed Fracturesare fractures in which one or more segments of broken bone are depressed; they are most common in fractures of the skull.
Complete Fracturesare divided according to the line and the seat of the breech of bone continuity.
Directions of the Lines of Fractures
Transverse, when the line of fracture does not deviate more than ten to fifteen degrees from that of the transverse axis. This variety is rare in the shaft of the long bones. It is usually found at the lower end of the radius or of the femur, and in the short bones.
Longitudinal, when the break is parallel to the long diameter of the bone; very few cases of this variety are seen.
Oblique, when the direction of the line of fracture may form any angle with the transverse axis of the bone up to a right angle. When it approaches the latter, it belongs to the group of longitudinal fractures. In the oblique variety, the line of fracture may be single or multiple. This and the spiral form are most frequent in the shafts of the long bones.
Spiral, when the break line is spiral. This variety of fracture was formerly considered to be very rare. The more systematic use of the X-ray as part of the routine of diagnosis has shown that spiral fractures are quite frequent in the shafts of the tibia and fibula. They are usually the result of a rotating or twisting force.
Comminuted, when there is extensive splintering of the bone adjoining the fracture or one of the fragments.
Impacted, when the fragments are driven into each other. This variety usually occurs in the neck of the femur.
Compression, or Crushing Fractures, when the broken bones are compressed or crushed; this variety usually occurs in the tarsal bones. The spongy portion and cortical layer are both crushed. In some cases there is a perfect pulpification of these bones. This condition occurs after falls from a height upon the sole of the foot.
In the Diaphysis of a Bone.Breaks in the diaphysis of a bone are spoken of as fractures of theshaft, and to be still more exact, it is stated whether of the upper, middle, or lower third.
At the Ends of Bones.Fractures occurring at the ends of bones receive the name of the part which the line of fracture transverses; for example, fractures of theneckof a bone, of atuberosity, of aprocess, of acondyle, etc.
There are two forms of fracture that require special mention in connection with their location. These areepiphyseal separationsandarticular fractures.
Epiphyseal Separations.The union of the epiphysis to the diaphysis commences during puberty, hence these fractures are less common in childhood than after the ages of eleven or twelve. As a rule, they can only occur before the twentieth year. The periosteum is more resisting and tougher during the early years of life than later on.
Articular Fracture(joint fractures). Like epiphyseal separations, recognition and proper treatment of these fractures have assumed great importance.
Articular fractures may be divided into three classes:
1.Intra-articular.In these the line of fracture lies entirely within the joint. Such fractures are most frequently found in the elbow and knee joint.2.Para articular.In these the line of fracture extends close to the joint but not into it. An example of this class is thesupracondyloidfracture of the humerus.3.Articular fractures proper.The majority of joint fractures belong to this class. The line of fracture either extends into the joint from without or it extends from the joint outward. As example, the ankle joint; the majority of the typical supramalleolar, malleolar, and spiral fractures of the tibia and fibula.
1.Intra-articular.In these the line of fracture lies entirely within the joint. Such fractures are most frequently found in the elbow and knee joint.
2.Para articular.In these the line of fracture extends close to the joint but not into it. An example of this class is thesupracondyloidfracture of the humerus.
3.Articular fractures proper.The majority of joint fractures belong to this class. The line of fracture either extends into the joint from without or it extends from the joint outward. As example, the ankle joint; the majority of the typical supramalleolar, malleolar, and spiral fractures of the tibia and fibula.
Etiology.Fractures may be divided into two groups: thetraumaticand thepathologicorspontaneous. In the traumatic, the fracture is the result of violence acting upon a bone which is either normal or shows slight changes due to the physiologic causes mentioned. A pathologic or spontaneous fracture is one which occurs in a bone, the strength of which has been diminished by some preceding abnormal or pathologic changes. In this variety the degree of force which produced the fracture would not be sufficient to cause a fracture in a healthy bone.
The causes of traumatic fractures may be either predisposing or exciting.
Predisposing Causes.The bones of the human body attain their greatest strength toward middle age. From infancy up to that time the bones are very elastic and yielding. Toward old age an interstitial atrophy occurs. It causes a thinning of the cortex of the shafts and of the trabeculae of the spongy portions of the long and short bones. It is an actual diminution of the bone substance and a corresponding increase of the fat. This is especially seen in the neck of the femur. When it occurs in old age, it acts as a predisposing cause, but when it occurs prematurely or reaches an extreme degree, it must be considered as pathologic.
Fractures by External Violenceare divided both clinically and from a mechanic standpoint into two classes:directandindirect. In fractures by direct violence the bone breaks immediately under the point where the force has been applied. In this class of fractures there is more damage to the soft tissues and this damage is generally more serious than in indirect fractures. Direct fractures are more likely to occur in exposed bones like the clavicle, os calcis, etc.
An example of fracture by direct violence is found in fractures of the tarsal bones after a fall upon the feet from a height.
Under the head of fractures by indirect violence belong (a) those which occur as the result of a rotary or twisting force (spiral fracture of the tibia or fibula, for example); (b) those which are produced by compression; (for example, a fall upon the feet may cause an impacted fracture of the upper end of the tibia); (c) those which are the result of a tearing force.
Fractures resulting from a tearing force occur when a joint is suddenly moved beyond its normal range of excursion. The firmly attached ligaments being a fixed point, the ends or some process of the bones composing the joint are torn off from the remainder of the bone. Examples of this are fractures of the internal or external malleoli, following forcible eversion or inversion of the foot.
Fractures are also caused by muscular action and by gunshot injuries.
Pathologic(spontaneous fractures):
1. Fractures resulting from bone fragility of local origin as for example, tumors, osteomyelitis, aneurisms.2. Fractures resulting from bone fragility due to some general disease, as for example, tabes dorsalis, paresis, rachitis, osteomalacia, and exhausting chronic diseases.
1. Fractures resulting from bone fragility of local origin as for example, tumors, osteomyelitis, aneurisms.
2. Fractures resulting from bone fragility due to some general disease, as for example, tabes dorsalis, paresis, rachitis, osteomalacia, and exhausting chronic diseases.
Fractures are divided intocompound, oropenandsimple, orsubcutaneous, according to whether a communication does or does not exist between the seat of fracture and a wound of the skin.
A compound fracture is one in which the cutaneous wound communicates with the seat of the fracture.
A simple fracture is one in which a wound of the skin is absent, or, if present, no communication exists between it and the seat of the fracture.
The majority of compound fractures are the result of direct violence, and the injuries of the soft parts, are, as a rule, far more extensive and serious than in a simple fracture. A fracture which is simple at first, may become compound as a result of necrosis of the skin lying over it; or as a consequence of the original injury; or of pressure upon it by a displaced fragment; or by penetration of the skin, in efforts to use the limb.
Fracture.In the ordinary use of the term “fracture” is understood to indicate acompleteorincompleteseparation of the bone into two or more fragments, the lines of which are continuous with each other.
Multiple Fracture.The termmultiple fractureis applied to the simultaneous fracture of two or more non-adjacent bones, and also to those cases in which two or more fractures of the same bone exist, and the lines are not continuous with each other. Such multiple fractures are usually the result of direct violence.
Complicated Fracture.When a fracture is accompanied by injuries of the viscera, nerves, etc., the termcomplicated fractureis applied. Such a fracture may be simple or compound. The term complicated, as ordinarily employed, is limited to those fractures which are accompanied by local, rather than by general complications.
Symptoms of a Recent Fracture.In the examination of a patient who has sustained a recent fracture, procedure should be as follows: the history of the patient and of the accident should be taken; an examination should be made for objective signs, like deformity, abnormal mobility, crepitus, and ecchymosis; subjective symptoms, such as pain and loss of function of the limb should be ascertained; an X-ray picture should be taken and every possible precaution observed to exclude distortion or exaggeration.
Treatment of Fractures.First Aid.The treatment of fracture may be said to begin from the moment of its occurrence. Much can be done for the comfort of the patient and correct union of the fracture by intelligent treatment during the first hours.
The proper temporary fixation of the limb, the mode of transportation, and the removal of the clothing, all require special mention.
The use of first aid dressings, those which can be used until more permanent and suitable ones can be applied, varies, of course, with the individual bone affected. In fractures of the tibia, fibula and foot, as well as in those of the lower half of the femur, the use of the blanket splint will be found of great aid. Instead of a blanket, a long pillow or soft cushion can be employed in the same manner.
The “blanket splint” can be readily made by folding a blanket in such a manner that it extends from the middle of the injured thigh to below the foot. Two pieces of narrow, strong board, or better still, two broomsticks are rolled up in the blanket, one at either end. The rolled-up blanket is now turned in so that the board supports with their enveloping turns of blanket, lie upon the posterior surface. Thus, a trough is formed in which the limb is placed and firmly secured by loops of bandage, one below the foot, the second just above the ankle, the third below the knee, and the fourth near the upper end of the blanket.
In fractures of the leg, after the application of the emergency splint, the patient should be transported in a recumbent position, the support being as firm as possible,a wide board, shutter or a wooden rail being preferable. If such supports are not at hand, and the patient is to be moved without their use, the persons transporting the invalid should be distributed in the following manner: one supporting the head and shoulders, a second the pelvis, and the third the two limbs.
Reduction.The reduction of a fracture is the effort made by the surgeon to overcome any tendency to displacement, and thus to place the fragments in such close apposition that an accurate and firm union is possible. The best time in general for the reduction of a fracture is as soon as possible after the accident, if the patient’s general condition will permit. If there is marked displacement of fragments, so that there is danger of necrosis of the overlying skin or of damage to the adjacent vessels or nerves, an early reduction is imperative.
In all cases in which reduction is very painful or difficult, whether performed shortly after the accident or at a later period, it is best to administer an anesthetic to overcome muscular contraction and to decrease the amount of pain. After reduction of a fracture, retentive apparatus is indicated in order to maintain apposition. In the use of dressings there will be two kinds, those which are temporary and those which are permanent. The former are employed where the swelling of the limb is such that some dressing can be employed which will not cause pressure.
Certain general principles should be followed in the use of splints; for instance, a splint, after being applied, should not interfere with the circulation, allowance always being made for the swelling of the limb, which almost invariably occurs during the first week. The splint, if flat, should be wide enough to obviate the possibility of pressure against the point of fracture; also, it should project a little beyond the limb.
In general, it is best to immobilize the adjacent joints, above and below the seat of fracture, but no dressing should be permitted to remain so long as to produce stiffness of the joints and muscular atrophy.
The skin, even in simple fractures, must be cleansed with green soap, water and alcohol. If blebs or an area of threatening necrosis of the skin exist, they should be freely dusted with powdered boric acid and a few layers of aseptic gauze applied.
The form of retentive apparatus to be employed will vary, of course, with the individual bone requiring treatment.
The most important articles of a fracture equipment are as follows:
1. Plaster of Paris bandages for making molded splints and circular casts.2. A stock of basswood, three-sixteenths of an inch thick, for making wooden splints.3. An assortment of metal splints or materials for making them.4. Muslin for bandages and slings.5. Five yard rolls of ordinary and zinc oxide adhesive plaster, three inches wide.6. Cotton batting and sheet wadding for padding splints.7. Strips of tin or thin cypress for strengthening plaster casts.
1. Plaster of Paris bandages for making molded splints and circular casts.
2. A stock of basswood, three-sixteenths of an inch thick, for making wooden splints.
3. An assortment of metal splints or materials for making them.
4. Muslin for bandages and slings.
5. Five yard rolls of ordinary and zinc oxide adhesive plaster, three inches wide.
6. Cotton batting and sheet wadding for padding splints.
7. Strips of tin or thin cypress for strengthening plaster casts.
The selection of a dressing for the immobilization of a fracture depends upon,first, the particular bone involved and whether apposition can be maintained with or without extension;second, whether great swelling be present or not;third, whether the fracture be simple or compound; andlast, whether ambulatory treatment be preferable to that in the recumbent position. This latter applies, of course, only to fractures of the lower extremity.
Operative Treatment of Simple Fractures.Operative treatment of a recent simple fracture is indicated in general, when reduction cannot be completely made; when correct apposition cannot be maintained; when there is interposition of bone or soft parts; when the fracture is a spiral one with considerable displacement of the fragments; whenfragments are rotated upon each other, and when there are multiple fractures.
The most favorable time to operate in recent simple fractures is at the end of the first or beginning of the second week. At this time the process of callus formation is most active. The blood clots and loose shreds of tissue have begun to be absorbed, so that the fragments are more easily accessible.
Methods of Fixation of the Fragments.In the majority of cases the reposition of the fragments alone is not sufficient to maintain accurate apposition. It is usually necessary to employ some means of mechanical fixation. In all the methods employed, the preparation of the parts is the same as for any aseptic operation. The opportunity for serious complications resulting from septic infection, is greater than in any other class of operations. It is for this reason that extraordinary caution must be exercised. The incision should be large enough to expose the seat of the fracture thoroughly.
The materials used to secure fixation are: absorbable sutures, such as chromicized catgut or kangaroo tendon; metal suture of silver or bronze aluminum wire; screws, nails, plates, clamps, etc.
Injuries in the Vicinity of the Ankle Joint.In the examination of a patient who shows evidence of injury in the vicinity of the ankle joint, such as swelling, deformity, loss of function, etc., the following conditions must be thought of, in the order given:
1. Fractures of the lower ends of the tibia and fibula (Pott’s Fracture).2. Dislocation at or near the ankle.3. Fractures of the tarsal bones.4. Rupture of the tendon Achillis.5. Sprains of the ankle.
1. Fractures of the lower ends of the tibia and fibula (Pott’s Fracture).2. Dislocation at or near the ankle.3. Fractures of the tarsal bones.4. Rupture of the tendon Achillis.5. Sprains of the ankle.
1. Fractures of the lower ends of the tibia and fibula (Pott’s Fracture).
2. Dislocation at or near the ankle.
3. Fractures of the tarsal bones.
4. Rupture of the tendon Achillis.
5. Sprains of the ankle.
Fractures of the Lower Ends of the Tibia and Fibula.Commonly given the name ofPott’s Fracture. They may be the result either of forcible abduction or eversion of thefoot, or of inversion or adduction. If the sole or main movement is eversion, theinternalmalleolus is broken, and if the force continues to act, it also causes theexternalmalleolus to be broken. In the second variety, fracture by inversion, the first effect of the force is to break the fibula at the external malleolus. If the movement continues, the internal malleolus or a greater portion of the tibia is broken off.
Diagnosis.The diagnosis is usually easy to make. The ankle joint is greatly swollen, the depression, normally present in front of and behind the malleoli, being obliterated. The foot is displaced outward, and the internal malleolus is prominent. This deformity will often persist and become a cause of disability after healing of the fracture.
There is also backward displacement of the foot. These displacements may be so marked as, at first glance, to resemble a true dislocation of the ankle.
Abnormal lateral and anteroposterior mobility may be ascertained by grasping the sole of the foot with one hand and moving it inward and outward, or backward and forward, while the other hand steadies the leg. There is great tenderness between the tibia and fibula at the front of the ankle, and over the points of fracture in the malleoli.
If the fibula alone be broken, abnormal mobility and crepitus may be elicited by pressing its tip inward with the index finger of the one hand while a finger of the other hand is placed at the seat of fracture.
In some cases of Pott’s fracture the foot will move inward instead of outward. The degree of outward displacement can be measured by the difference in the distance from the front of the ankle to the cleft between the first and second toes, as measured on the sound and injured foot. There is not always complete loss of function. In fractures of the external malleolus alone, the patient may walk quite well.
Treatment of Fractures of the Leg.The treatment of a simple fracture of one or of both bones of the leg dependsfirst, upon whether or not swelling is present, andsecond, upon the amount of displacement of fragments and ourability to keep them in apposition after reduction. If the case is seen within a few hours after the injury and but little, if any, swelling be present, the following is a perfectly safe and justifiable method of treatment:
The limb is wrapped with strips of sheet-wadding from the toes to the middle of the thigh, and a circular plaster of Paris cast is applied extending over the same area. Before the cast is dry, it is cut open along the median line, in front, to allow for any swelling. The cast is best applied while the patient is under the influence of an anesthetic, so as to permit reduction of the fragments by traction upon the foot. In from ten days to two weeks the cast should be removed and a fresh one applied. The second cast does not require to be cut open, and can be left on the limb until the end of the fourth week. It is then removed and if union be complete, no further cast need be worn. Massage of the limb and passive and active motion are now begun.
Fractures of the Tarsal Bones.Fractures of these bones have been found far more frequently than was thought before the use of the X-ray. Many cases of tarsal fracture have been treated for sprains of the ankle. It is only when the recovery is slow or the injury is followed by a traumatic flat foot that the surgeon begins to suspect that a more serious condition was present at the time of the original injury.
The astragalus and os calcis are the tarsal bones that are usually affected. Fractures of the os calcis, in the majority of cases, are due to compression. The patient falls from a height to the ground, on a hard substance. The os calcis is crushed between the astragalus and the ground.
There are three general types of fracture of the os calcis:
1. That in which the fracture has been confined largely to that portion lying behind a vertical plane through the middle of the body of the astragalus. There are three varieties of this heel fragment type: (a) cases with one large heel fragment; (b) cases of small heelfragments (in this variety, also called avulsion fracture, the sudden contraction of the calf muscles pulls the fragment off; at times the tendo Achillis itself is torn off from the attachment to the os calcis at the same time); (c) cases showing only fissures in the bone.2. Comminution of the anterior half of the os calcis.3. All the cases of extensive comminution of the bones; the bone is literally shattered.
1. That in which the fracture has been confined largely to that portion lying behind a vertical plane through the middle of the body of the astragalus. There are three varieties of this heel fragment type: (a) cases with one large heel fragment; (b) cases of small heelfragments (in this variety, also called avulsion fracture, the sudden contraction of the calf muscles pulls the fragment off; at times the tendo Achillis itself is torn off from the attachment to the os calcis at the same time); (c) cases showing only fissures in the bone.
2. Comminution of the anterior half of the os calcis.
3. All the cases of extensive comminution of the bones; the bone is literally shattered.
Fractures of the Astragalus.These can be divided into: (a) those of the neck; (b) those of the body. The former are the most common fractures of the astragalus. They may follow sudden dorsal flexion, or forced supination, or pronation of the foot. They may be due to a fall from a height or from direct violence. Fractures of the body of the astragalus are usually the result of a crushing force which ordinarily have a like effect on the body of the os calcis, and are often associated with fractures of the latter bone. The variety of fractures is considerable, varying from two large fragments, to complete comminution of the bone.
A fact of considerable importance in the interpretation of skiagraphs of fractures of the astragalus, is a knowledge of the presence in many normal individuals of a little bone known as theos trigonum. It may occur detached from the astragalus or may be attached to it as a process, on its posterior aspect, and on account of the swelling and pain around the ankle, a diagnosis can seldom be made without the routine use of the X-ray in every injury in this region.
The swelling, with obliteration of the depressions normally present around the ankle, does not differ from that characteristic of a sprain of the ankle or of a Pott’s fracture. If there is extensive comminution of the os calcis or astragalus, the malleoli may be a little lower than normal.
The X-ray must always remain our most reliable means of diagnosis at the time of the injury. At a later period the chief symptoms are a painful flat foot, ankylosis of theankle joint, pain and difficulty in pronating and supinating the foot.
The prognosis of fractures of the tarsal bones is not favorable, even though the lesion has been recognized at the time of injury. Even in the most favorable cases there is some limitation of lateral motion. The outlook is better in those cases of fracture of the os calcis in which there is a large heel fragment, than if the fracture is comminuted. The most frequent sequel is stiffness of the ankle-joint and traumatic pes valgus. Infection is frequent in compound fractures.
Treatment.This does not differ from that of a Pott’s fracture until the greater part of the swelling has disappeared. The skin of the foot and lower portion of the leg should be thoroughly cleansed and covered with gauze. This is necessary on account of the possibility of necrosis of the skin of the heel, and the danger of infection of the bruised soft tissues around the heel.
The foot should be placed in a well-padded box or in a posterior splint of the Volkman type. Ice bags should be applied over the sides of the heel.
After from eight to ten days, a circular plaster cast can be applied, extending from the toes to the knee. An anesthetic should be given during the application of the cast, the foot being held flexed at right angles and sheet wadding freely used around the ankle. The cast should be worn for seven weeks. At the end of this time the patient is gradually permitted to step upon the injured foot. Passive and active motion are also now employed.
Fractures of the neck of the astragalus, with rotation of the posterior fragment, are usually followed by great limitation of the movements of the ankle joint. This condition might be greatly improved by an open operation.
Fractures of the Metatarsal Bones.These are usually due to direct violence, as occurs when a heavy weight falls upon the dorsum of the foot. Another example of direct violence is a fracture following a crushing injury, as in being run over.
In indirect violence, such as follows dancing, jumping, or sudden twists of the foot, the fifth metatarsal bone is the one most often involved. There is but little tendency to displacement except when several bones are broken at the same time, and then it is toward the dorsum of the foot.
The diagnosis in fractures produced by direct violence is made from the following: presence of severe localized pain; swelling; and, not infrequently, crepitus and abnormal mobility. In those fractures due to indirect violence (second, third and fifth metatarsals), there is pain when the patient endeavors to put pressure upon the toes or tries to invert the foot. The usual signs of fracture are absent. A skiagraph should be made in every case.
Fracture of the metatarsal bones is liable to be followed by traumatic flat foot, on account of the sinking of the arch, or painful large calluses forming on the sole of the foot may interfere with walking.
Treatment.The treatment in such fractures is by immobilization in a posterior metal or plaster splint, for four weeks. If there is continual pain upon walking after the injury, a steel insole will often give relief. The treatment of compound fractures of the metatarsal bones does not differ from that of other bones.
Dislocations.A dislocation is a displacement from each other of the articular ends of the bones which enter into the formation of a joint. A diagnosis can usually be made from certain objective and subjective symptoms, taken in conjunction with an accurate history of the manner in which the accident occurred.
Examination should be made in a systematic manner in every case, us follows:
(1)Inspection.The limb should be first inspected to note the position, the alterations of contour, or of the axis of the limb, or the projection or absence of certain bony prominences. The position is often so characteristic that a diagnosis can be made by inspection alone.
(2)Palpation.By this one can learn the relation of the displaced articular ends to each other, unless the swelling is too great, or the patient is very stout. This method also enables one to ascertain the absence of normal prominences or the presence of abnormal ones. The end of the displaced bone may be felt in an abnormal position.
(3)Measurement.The limb may only appear to be or is actually shortened. In the latter event the normal measurements between bony prominences will be altered.
(4)A skiagraphshould be made in all doubtful cases to confirm the diagnosis of dislocation, and also to ascertain whether there is an accompanying fracture.
When the patient is stout, or when considerable swelling exists the use of the X-ray is of especial value.
The attitude of the limb is often so characteristic that simple inspection will enable one to make a diagnosis by this means alone. In stout persons, a change in the axis of the limb or a change in position is apt to be overlooked. The relation of the articular surfaces can be determined by palpation, unless the swelling is too great. Measurement of the limb will usually show a shortening, depending upon the position in which the limb is held. The movements of a dislocated joint are usually limited. If any movement of the end of one of the bones is felt, it is always at an abnormal point. Pain is referred to the dislocated joint and the patient is unable to use the limb.
Treatment.As a rule, a dislocation should be reduced as soon as the diagnosis is made, and, if necessary, an anesthetic should be administered.
When reduction has been accomplished, the bone often goes back with a snap, the contour of the limb is restored, and the movements of the joint are free again.
If it is impossible to reduce a recent dislocation, the following obstacles must be considered: (a) interposed portions of the capsule; (b) interposed muscles or tendons or sesamoid bones; (c) torn off fragments of bone; (d) a fracture of the shaft close to its articular end, which would prevent its being used as a lever for reduction.
The after-treatment of a dislocation is usually quite simple. A bandage or splint should be applied, which willkeep the joint immobilized for a period of two weeks, after which passive motion and massage can be begun for fifteen minutes twice daily, the splint or bandage then to be reapplied for another two weeks.
Backward Dislocationsoccur more frequently than those in a forward direction.
The injury usually is the result of a fall backward while the foot is flexed. This causes an extreme plantar flexion of the foot. The astragalus, and with it the foot, is displaced backward. The lateral ligaments are usually extensively torn. In the majority of cases there is an accompanying fracture of either one or both malleoli or of the shaft of the fibula.
Diagnosis.The front portion of the foot is shortened while the heel is more prominent than normal. The lower end of the tibia protrudes over the dorsum of the foot and the sharp edge of its articular surface can be distinctly felt. The extensor tendons and the tendo Achillis are tense and prominent. It may be distinguished from a supramalleolar fracture by the fact that the malleoli in the latter have moved backward with the foot, while in a dislocation backward they are prominent at some distance in front of the heel.
Treatment.Reduction is usually effected by forced plantar flexion, the foot being pulled forward and the lower end of the tibia being pushed backward. These steps are then followed by dorsal flexion of the foot.
After reduction, the leg should be immobilized for three weeks in a molded posterior splint. Light passive motion can be begun during the fourth week. In old unreduced cases an arthrotomy is indicated.
Forward Dislocations.These are much rarer than the backward form. They are usually due to a forced dorsal flexion of the foot. This form is less often accompanied by a fracture of the malleoli than is the case in the backwarddislocation. The fibula is seldom broken, the usual seat of the fracture being in the tip of the internal malleolus or in the articular surface of the tibia.
Diagnosis.The whole foot appears to be lengthened. The prominence due to the heel has disappeared; the upper articular surface of the astragalus can be felt, the tibia and the malleoli being nearer to the heel.
The condition can be differentiated from a fracture of both bones of the leg above the malleoli by the fact that in a forward dislocation the malleoli are further back than normal, while in a supramalleolar fracture they have moved forward with the foot.
Treatment.Reduction is readily effected by marked dorsal flexion of the foot, pressure being made in a forward direction upon the lower end of the tibia, and the foot pushed backward. Plantar flexion now completes the reduction. The after treatment is the same as in the backward form.
Lateral Dislocations.The other forms of dislocations seen in the ankle are those in a lateral direction, either inward or outward. The diagnosis is usually easy. The upper convex surface of the astragalus is directed toward the external malleolus and can be felt there. The inner border of the foot is raised; the outer rests upon the bed.
This form of dislocation is very frequently a compound one, or it is accompanied by fractures of the bones of the leg or of the astragalus; but it may occur without these injuries.
Treatment.The treatment of these lateral dislocations differs but little from that of fractures of the lower end of the tibia and fibula. Reduction is effected by adduction or abduction of the foot. The chief danger is from infection on account of the extensive injury of the skin and soft parts. If reduction is impossible, perform an arthrotomy.
Subastragaloid Dislocation.Two forms of dislocation can occur in the joint between the astragalus and the two tarsal bones (os calcis and scaphoid) with which it articulates. In the true subastragaloid form, the astragalus continuesto articulate with the tibia and fibula, but it is displaced from its articulation with the os calcis and scaphoid. In the second form of subastragaloid dislocation, the astragalus is completely separated from its articulation with the bones of the leg as well as with the calcaneus and scaphoid. To this form the name total dislocation of the astragalus is given.
True Subastragaloid Dislocations.These dislocations may occur in four directions, inward, outward, forward, and backward.
Dislocation inward.The most frequent cause is a forcible adduction of the foot combined with violence acting in the direction of the long axis of the foot. The diagnosis can be made from the position of the foot. The foot is adducted and rotated inward, as in a case of clubfoot. The sole of the foot is directed inward. The inner edge of the foot is concave and shortened while the outer edge appears lengthened. The external malleolus and head of the astragalus are very prominent on the outer side of the foot. Below and behind the inner malleolus the scaphoid projects beneath the skin.
Dislocation Outward.This occurs after forced adduction of the foot. The symptoms are the opposite of those of the inward variety. The foot is in the position of a flat foot, its inner edge depressed and outer edge raised. The inner malleolus is close to the sole of the foot, and in front of it the head of the astragalus forms a prominence. The injury is not infrequently compound, so that the astragalus presents into the wound.
Dislocation Backward.The cause is usually a plantar flexion of the foot. The signs are very pronounced; the head of the astragalus can be seen and felt lying upon the upper surface of the scaphoid and cuneiform bones. The anterior portion of the foot is shortened while the heel is lengthened and the tendo Achillis is very prominent.
Dislocation Forward.This follows forced dorsal flexion of the foot, the patient falling forward after landing with his heels upon the ground. The diagnosis can be made becauseof the lengthened anterior portion of the foot and the shortened heel. An important point in the diagnosis of subastragaloid dislocation is the absence of any prominence due to the projection of the body of the astragalus, in front, behind, or to either side of the malleoli, as is seen in the case of the tibiotarsal dislocations. A second diagnostic point is the abnormal position of the calcaneus and scaphoid with relation to the malleoli and astragalus. The swelling is usually so great that a diagnosis is very difficult without the use of the X-ray.
Treatment of Subastragaloid Dislocations.Reduction can usually be effected in recent cases by manipulation and traction. In the inward variety the existing adduction is at first increased. Pressure is now made over the outer side of the adduction and the inner side of the foot, and the foot is then strongly abducted. In the outward variety, the abduction is first increased. Pressure is then made over the outer side of the foot until reduction is effected. In the backward variety, the plantar flexion is first increased and the foot is then strongly flexed in the opposite direction. In the forward type, forced dorsal flexion will effect reduction. The foot should be placed upon a posterior molded splint for three weeks, after which passive motions are begun. If the reduction is impossible, an arthrotomy with excision of the astragalus may be necessary.
Total Dislocation of the Astragalus.This form of dislocation is much more frequent than those of the ankle joint proper, or of the articulation between the astragalus, calcaneus, and scaphoid. The displacement of the astragalus may occur in one of six directions: forward; outward and forward; inward and forward; inward; backward, and by rotation.
The most frequent variety is the “outward and forward.” In this variety the foot is rotated markedly inward and the external malleolus is very prominent. The foot is in a clubfoot position. The dislocated astragalus can be felt as an irregular angular bone just below the external malleolus.
Treatmentis the same as in subastragaloid dislocations.
Dislocation of the Metatarsal Bones.This may be either complete or incomplete at Lisfranc’s joint. It occurs most often in an upward direction. The dorsum of the foot is more convex than normal, while the sole of the foot is flattened. One can see and feel the displaced ends (upper) of the metatarsals on the dorsum of the foot. The foot is shortened and the toes point inward.
Dislocations of the individual metatarsal bones are much rarer. The middle ones are displaced upward, and the first and fifth, inward and outward respectively.
Dislocation of the Toes.This occurs most often in the metatarsophalangeal joint of the great toe after forcible flexion. The dislocation may be complete or incomplete. In the former case, the proximal end of the first phalanx and the dorsum of the foot are prominent, and the head of the metatarsal bone projects on the sole of the foot. The reduction of toe dislocations presents no difficulties.
Definition.A sprain is a joint wrench due to a sudden twist or traction, the ligaments being pulled upon or lacerated and the surrounding parts being more or less damaged.
Sprains of the Ankle.On account of its flexibility and constant use in weight-bearing, the ankle is the joint most frequently sprained.
Sprains are common in a limb with weak muscles; in a deformed extremity in which the muscles act in unnatural lines, and in a joint with relaxed ligaments.
A joint, once sprained, is very liable to a repetition of the damage from slight force.
Symptoms.The symptoms manifested in a sprain are as follows: severe pain in the joint; nausea and sometimes syncope; impairment, or loss of motion; severe pain upon motion; early swelling if hemorrhage is severe—in any case swelling begins in a few hours; movement of the joint becomesdifficult or impossible; the tear in the ligament may be distinctly felt; in a day or two pain and tenderness become intense and discoloration becomes marked.
Diagnosis.Usually the diagnosis is easy to make, but in all doubtful cases an X-ray picture should be taken in order to be certain that a fracture does not exist.
Treatment.The first indication is to arrest hemorrhage and to limit inflammation. For the first few hours apply pressure and an ice-bag. Wrap the joint in absorbent cotton, wet with iced water; apply a wet gauze bandage, and put on an ice bag.
In a mild sprain, use lead and opium wash. In a severe sprain, place the extremity upon a splint and apply to the joint flannel kept wet with lead-water and laudanum, iced water, tincture of arnica or alcohol and water. If the pain is severe, a small dose of morphine should be given.
Judicious bandaging limits the swelling. When the acute symptoms begin to subside, rub stimulating liniments, such as chloroform or arnica, upon the joint once or twice a day and employ firm compression by means of a bandage of flannel or rubber. Later in the case use hot and cold douches, massage, passive motion and the bandage.
Another method of treatment of sprains of the ankle is by strapping with adhesive plaster, but it is advisable only for slight injuries. In severe cases, in which extensive laceration of the ligaments is suspected from the marked extravasation, it is best to immobilize the foot in a plaster-of-Paris splint for two weeks; later baking in a hot-air oven (see “Arterial Hyperemia”) with massage, and active and passive motion are advisable.
In simple sprains, the fixation does not produce serious stiffness, and without fixation the repair of the ligaments is only partial. In the latter case, the result is weakness of the ligaments and an instability of the foot which leads to frequent recurrence. This explains many habitual sprains. On the other hand, under appropriate treatment, a sprain should recover without leaving any functional disturbance.
The termsweak footandflat footwill be used to designate themildand thesevereforms of the same condition which include all the deviations from the normal height of the arch of the foot.
Flat Footmay be congenital or acquired, the former being a very infrequent deformity, and the latter one of the most common pathologic conditions.
Congenital Flat Footis a deformity of infrequent occurrence, and in some cases is associated with defective formation of the bones of the foot. In this condition the whole foot is displaced outward in relation to the leg; the sole is rolled outward, the inner malleolus is prominent and the foot is abducted on itself, and in severe cases, it cannot be replaced in its normal position on account of the contracted tissues.
Treatment.The foot should be massaged and, by gentle manipulation, forced into its proper position and held by a plaster-of-Paris dressing, changed at the proper intervals. A tenotomy may be required to bring the foot into its proper position.
When the child begins to walk, a well-fitting arch support should be worn.
Acquired Flat Foot.The common form of acquired flat foot is the static variety, which is an expression of adisproportion between the body weight and the sustaining power of the muscles and ligaments.
Common Causes.1. The use of improper shoes is by all means the most frequent cause of flat foot, and frequently makes all of the following causes more pronounced.
2. Weakness and insufficiency of the muscles, resulting from poor general condition; advancing age; convalescence from acute illness; from childbirth; and from injuries of the leg, especially fractures.
3. Prolonged standing, especially on hard wood and stone floors.
4. Rapid body growth.
5. Rapid increase in body weight.
6. Excessive weight bearing.
7. Shortened condition of the gastrocnemius muscle.
Other causes are rickets; inflammation of the ankle joint, as in tuberculosis; or, as a result of a badly treated fracture of the ankle-joint; or, as a result of paralysis of the muscles of the inner side of the leg.
Pathology of Acquired Flat Foot.The pathologic condition is due to change in the relations of the bones rather than to any change in the bones themselves. The abnormal position is an exaggeration of the normal yielding of the foot under weight bearing. The front of the astragalus rotates inward, and with it the bones of the leg turn at the hip-joint.
The deformity is essentially a displacement of the astragalus on the bones of the tarsus. The scaphoid, cuneiform, and the base of the first metatarsal move downward and inward with the head of the astragalus; the outer border of the foot is made more concave and the inner border becomes convex in extreme cases. In the severest cases, the head of the astragalus, and scaphoid may be displaced below the plane of the other bones. The ligaments are respectively shortened and stretched in the severest cases and there is a loss of motion in certain of the tarsal articulations, due to faulty apposition of joint surfaces, and to constant strain.
Symptoms.The feet burn and tire easily and feel stiff and lame. They may swell, and the size of the shoe worn must be then increased. Later, a painful period generally begins in which walking is avoided and a dragging pain in the arch and behind the inner malleolus is noticed. This is increased by walking and standing and tender points may be found under the scaphoid and on the upper surface of the heel. The foot feels strained and irritated and is a constant source of discomfort. The inner malleolus is generally more prominent and the foot is displaced outward in relation to the leg. The height of the arch is somewhat diminished; it may be much lowered, or it may be flat on the ground.
When the foot is really flattened, it presents two types, one theflexible flat foot, in which the arch can be restored by gentle manipulation; the other, therigid foot, which is held by structural changes in the position of deformity.
An intermediate type is sometimes seen, in which the peroneal spasm is so great that the foot is held abducted and everted as long as the spasm lasts (spastic flat foot.)
Some symptoms of flat foot that are less generally recognized, which are of great value in diagnosis are: corns, ingrowing nails, callosities on the sole of the front of the foot, enlargement of the great-toe joint, and pain (especially at night) in the calves of the legs and backbone, which is aggravated by standing and walking.
Diagnosis.The diagnosis of flat foot, whether flexible or rigid, is made chiefly by inspection. The difficulty comes in the milder cases, which form the bulk of those seen, and in which the changes in form are slight.
Symptoms.The symptoms, as described by the patient, are the most reliable and points of tenderness under the arch or heel would help to confirm the diagnosis. Some help may be obtained from a wet impression of the foot, on a piece of paper, but the slighter cases show but little changes in the imprint. In most normal feet, the outer border of the foot touches the paper, and in flat foot, only two areas bear the weight, one on the inner side of the front of thefoot, and one under the inner part of the heel. An X-ray picture is often of great assistance.
The diagnosis of rheumatism is frequently made in flat foot, and is often the source of much misdirected treatment. Rheumatism should be diagnosed only in connection with unmistakable symptoms of rheumatism in the upper extremities.
So-called “rheumatic” pains in the knees and hips may be secondary to flat foot.
Prognosis.As a rule, this condition does not recover spontaneously. Under ordinary conditions, uncomplicated cases should be at once relieved by proper treatment, and in time should be cured.
Unfavorable factors are: great weight; disease of the ankle-joint; the presence of bony spurs under the os calcis.
The prognosis is more favorable in young adults than in persons of advanced age. Patients, who without relief have worn the ordinary supports sold at the stores will, as a rule, manifest extreme sensitiveness as to the fit of any of the supports which may be applied.
Treatment.The foot must be restored and held in its normal position and measures must be adopted to quiet local irritability or inflammation, and to strengthen the muscles. The best treatment does not consist in the permanent wearing of a flat-foot support; the support should be regarded in the same light as one uses a crutch in a fracture of the leg.
As a preliminary to all treatment, the use of proper shoes must be insisted upon. A shoe should be as wide in front, as the unshod foot, when bearing the weight of the body.
Supports.Flexible supports may be made of boiler felt; one objection to these is their liability to stretch. They are of service in young children, in mild cases, and in convalescent cases where it is desirable to have the patient use a flexible instead of a stiff support in order to bring the muscles into play.
Rigid supports are best made of tempered spring steel(18 to 20 gage), forged hot to fit a cast of the foot. They may also be made of phosphor-bronz, celluloid or aluminum.
The shape of the plate is largely a matter of judgment. The easiest way to determine the shape of the plate to be used in a given case is to have the patient stand with the operator’s hand under the inner side of the foot; the operator then places the foot in the normal position and notes where the pressure must be applied to secure the proper correction; when the anterior part of the foot is flattened, a slight dome must be constructed in the front of the plate; when the os calcis is clearly tilted over, the plate must have two flanges at the heel to hold it in place. In general, the plate must reach forward to a point just behind the great-toe joint, and must furnish support as far as the front of the heel. The plate should be higher on the inner side, and a flange formation is generally necessary to accomplish this. An outer flange prevents the foot from slipping off the outer side of the plate. When the foot no longer requires support, the plate should be gradually discontinued.
The “Thomas” sole may be used in mild cases. This is made by building up the inner part of the sole of the shoe one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch higher than the outer side, thus securing a slight inversion of the foot.
Exercise and massage of the deficient muscles should form a part of the routine treatment in all cases of flexible flat foot.
To diminish local inflammation and irritability, the foot should be soaked in hot water; hot and cold alternate douches should be applied, and hot-air treatment and massage should be employed.
Rigid Flat Foot.Rigid flat foot cannot be successfully treated until the position of the foot is corrected. The patient should be anesthetized, and, by the use of a wedge as a fulcrum, the bones should be forced into position. A pressure of about two hundred pounds is generally necessary to effect this reduction. After this, the foot is placed in a plaster cast, in extreme adduction and is allowed to remain thus encased for three weeks. After this, a properlyfitted plate should be worn. The results are usually satisfactory.
Operative Treatment.Cases that have resisted all other forms of treatment, may be cured by the removal of a wedge-shaped piece of bone, with the base downward and inward at the point of greatest inward convexity, that is, in the neighborhood of the head of the astragalus. Osteotomy of the front of the os calcis and neck of the astragalus will at times be necessary for a radical cure.
Many other operative procedures have been advised for flat foot and they have been employed with varying successes.
Hallux Flexus or Hammertoe.The upward prominence of a toe (usually the second or third) in a rigid position, is known ashallux flexusorhammertoe. In this condition the toe is flexed in its second joint so that the end bears on the ground, while the junction between the phalanges makes a prominence upward. Helomata and callosities may develop on the end of the toe, but the chief discomfort is in the disturbances which arise on the prominence which presses against the side of the foot-gear.
Treatment.A knowledge of the forces at work will show how futile must be any effort to correct this deformity by strapping or bandaging. There is a shortening of the plantar fibres of the lateral ligament of the joint. The trouble does not lie in the flexor tendons, as it seems, and operations directed to this point fail. Even with incision of the lateral ligaments, followed by the application of a splint, recurrences are common and amputation must be the procedure.
The condition described as hammertoe may exist in several or in all of the toes, the great toe being least often involved. This occurs most often as a result of wearing improper shoes, but is sometimes the consequence of paralysis.
Flexed or Clawed Toes.Extreme flexion of all but the great toes causes the weight to be borne by their dorsal aspect. In this condition the toes, and especially the smallones, develop painful helomata on the prominent joints, and the small toe may become the source of great discomfort.
Treatment.Radical surgical measures are here indicated. Tenotomy or amputation is essential to a cure.
Painful Heel.Painful heel is a suggestive but unscientific term applied to tenderness of the under side of the heel. It is associated with one of the following conditions: