(43) In a man wounded at Paardeberg the bullet entered the leg to the inner side of the crest of the tibia, about 3 inches below the tubercle; thence it coursed upwards to emerge about 2 inches above the cleft of the knee-joint on the outer side. Regulation dressings were applied, and a week later the man arrived at the Base, with little apparent mischief in the knee-joint. He was placed in bed and warned against movement; on the second day, however, he got up and walked to the latrine. When bending his knee to sit down he was seized with agonising pain in the joint, and had to call out for help; he was then carried back to bed in a more or less collapsed condition. The knee commenced to swell; there was rise of temperature and great pain, together with extreme restlessness. I was asked to see him two days later, and after a consultation, Major Burton, R.A.M.C., freely incised the knee-joint bi-laterally. One opening was closed, the second plugged for drainage, as there was a large quantity of pus. No improvement followed, and a week later Major Burton amputated through the thigh. An attack of secondary hæmorrhage a few days later, combined with the degree of septic infection, ended the man's life. On examination of the joint, a groove forming three-fourths of a tunnel was found in the external tuberosity of the tibia, leading into the knee-joint beneath the external semilunar cartilage. The bullet had then passed upwards over the outer border of the cartilage, bruised the margin of the external condyle of the femur in such a manner as to depress the outer compact layer, and finally escaped from the joint near the upper reflection of the synovial membrane. The synovial membrane was granular in appearance and reddened, but there was no suppuration outside the confines of the joint, except in a cavity corresponding to 2 inches of the track before it actually perforated the tibia. A localised abscess had evidently formed here and been diffused into the joint by the movement of flexion already described.(44) A man wounded during General Hamilton's advance on Heilbron was struck on the outer aspect of the heel. An oval opening of some size led down to a track in the os calcis; the bullet was retained. The foot was dressed, and put up later in a plaster-of-Paris splint. On the tenth day the splint was removed to see to the wound, which looked satisfactory and was re-dressed.A few hours later the man was seized with very severe pain in the ankle, and a day later I was asked to see him by Mr. Alexander. The man was anæsthetised, and I examined the wound with care, and also removed the retained bullet from the inner margin of the leg. The bullet was reversed, having no doubt suffered ricochet, hence the large aperture of entry, but it was in no way deformed. I could not certainly determine the presence of any fluid in the ankle-joint, and as the pain was apparently localised to the distribution of the musculo-cutaneous nerve, I decided not to freely open the joint. In this, however, I erred, and two days later, after consultation, the joint was freely incised by Mr. Alexander. It was then found that the bullet in its passage had just touched the posterior aspect of the tibia and wounded the ankle-joint. A localised collection of pus which had formed in the deep part of the wound had been diffused into the joint by the movements made when the splint was removed, in a similar manner to that described in the last case. This joint also did badly, and an amputation of the leg had to be performed by Mr. Alexander to save the man's life.
(43) In a man wounded at Paardeberg the bullet entered the leg to the inner side of the crest of the tibia, about 3 inches below the tubercle; thence it coursed upwards to emerge about 2 inches above the cleft of the knee-joint on the outer side. Regulation dressings were applied, and a week later the man arrived at the Base, with little apparent mischief in the knee-joint. He was placed in bed and warned against movement; on the second day, however, he got up and walked to the latrine. When bending his knee to sit down he was seized with agonising pain in the joint, and had to call out for help; he was then carried back to bed in a more or less collapsed condition. The knee commenced to swell; there was rise of temperature and great pain, together with extreme restlessness. I was asked to see him two days later, and after a consultation, Major Burton, R.A.M.C., freely incised the knee-joint bi-laterally. One opening was closed, the second plugged for drainage, as there was a large quantity of pus. No improvement followed, and a week later Major Burton amputated through the thigh. An attack of secondary hæmorrhage a few days later, combined with the degree of septic infection, ended the man's life. On examination of the joint, a groove forming three-fourths of a tunnel was found in the external tuberosity of the tibia, leading into the knee-joint beneath the external semilunar cartilage. The bullet had then passed upwards over the outer border of the cartilage, bruised the margin of the external condyle of the femur in such a manner as to depress the outer compact layer, and finally escaped from the joint near the upper reflection of the synovial membrane. The synovial membrane was granular in appearance and reddened, but there was no suppuration outside the confines of the joint, except in a cavity corresponding to 2 inches of the track before it actually perforated the tibia. A localised abscess had evidently formed here and been diffused into the joint by the movement of flexion already described.
(44) A man wounded during General Hamilton's advance on Heilbron was struck on the outer aspect of the heel. An oval opening of some size led down to a track in the os calcis; the bullet was retained. The foot was dressed, and put up later in a plaster-of-Paris splint. On the tenth day the splint was removed to see to the wound, which looked satisfactory and was re-dressed.
A few hours later the man was seized with very severe pain in the ankle, and a day later I was asked to see him by Mr. Alexander. The man was anæsthetised, and I examined the wound with care, and also removed the retained bullet from the inner margin of the leg. The bullet was reversed, having no doubt suffered ricochet, hence the large aperture of entry, but it was in no way deformed. I could not certainly determine the presence of any fluid in the ankle-joint, and as the pain was apparently localised to the distribution of the musculo-cutaneous nerve, I decided not to freely open the joint. In this, however, I erred, and two days later, after consultation, the joint was freely incised by Mr. Alexander. It was then found that the bullet in its passage had just touched the posterior aspect of the tibia and wounded the ankle-joint. A localised collection of pus which had formed in the deep part of the wound had been diffused into the joint by the movements made when the splint was removed, in a similar manner to that described in the last case. This joint also did badly, and an amputation of the leg had to be performed by Mr. Alexander to save the man's life.
These two cases are particularly instructive as showing, first, how quietly a small amount of deep suppuration may sometimes take place; and, secondly, the importance of keeping the joints quiet on a splint when there is any reason to suspect their implication by wounds of this character.
The general treatmentof the wounded joints was simple. The old difficulties of deciding on partial as against full excision, or amputation, were never met with by us. We had merely to do our first dressings with care, fix the joint for a short period, and be careful to commence passive movement as soon as the wounds were properly healed, to obtain in the great majority of cases perfect results. Careful light massage, if available, was used to promote absorption of blood.
If suppuration occurred, the choice between incision and amputation had to be considered. In the early stages this choice depended entirely on the nature of the injury to the bones. If this were slight, incision was the best plan to adopt. I saw several cases so treated which did well, although convalescence was often prolonged, and only a small amount of movement was regained. Amputation was sometimes indicated in cases of severe bone-splintering, when the shafts were implicated,but was as a rule only performed after an ineffectual trial to cut short general infection of the septicæmic type by incision.
I have dwelt at such length on the subject of suppuration on account of its importance, but I should add that, on the whole, suppuration of the joints was uncommon, except in the case of injuries far exceeding the average in primary severity.
Special joints.—Such deviations from the general type of injury as above described depended entirely on peculiarities of anatomical arrangement, and peculiarities in the situation of the joint clefts in the different parts of the body. A few words as to these are perhaps necessary.
Shoulder-joint.—Wounds of this articulation were by no means common. This depended, I think, on two points in the architecture of the joint: first, a bullet to enter the front of the cavity and traverse the joint needed to come with great exactitude from the immediate front; secondly, wounds received from a purely lateral direction calculated to pierce the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity were naturally of very rare occurrence. Wounds of the prominent tip of the shoulder received while the men were in the prone position were not uncommon, but it was remarkable how rarely the shoulder-joint was implicated in these. The question of the narrow nature of the cleft exposed also comes up in this position. As far as my experience went, injuries to the lower portion of the capsule accompanying wounds of the axilla were those most often met with. The ease and neatness with which pure perforations of the head of the humerus can be produced was also an important element in the frequent escape of this joint. No case of fracture of the glenoid cavity happened to come under my notice.
I saw few instances in which the joint needed incision, and cannot recall or find in my notes any case in which serious trouble arose.
Elbow-joint.—Injuries to this joint came second in frequency in my experience to those of the knee. They were, in fact, comparatively common, especially in conjunction with fractures of the various bony prominences surrounding the articulation. Fractures of the lower end of the humeruswere of worse prognostic significance than those of the ulna, on account of the greater tendency to splintering of the bone. I saw several cases of pure perforation of the olecranon without any signs of implication of the elbow-joint. In a case which has been utilised for the illustration of some of the types of aperture (fig. 20, p. 59), at the end of a week there was no sign of any joint lesion, although the bullet had obviously perforated the articulation.
Several cases of suppuration which came under my notice did well. I saw one of them a few days ago, six months after the injury, with perfect movement. In another of which I took notes, the bullet entered over the outer aspect of the head of the radius, to emerge just above the internal condyle anteriorly. A considerable amount of comminution of the olecranon resulted, and when the man came into hospital some ten days later the joint was suppurating. The joint was opened up from behind, and some fragments of bone removed by Mr. Hanwell. On the 26th day this joint was doing well, and considerable flexion and extension were possible without pain. There was a somewhat abundant discharge of bloody synovia during the first few days after the operation.
Fig. 59.Fig. 59.
Illustrates the very neat and limited injury to the Phalanges over the dorsal aspect of the first inter-phalangeal joint of the Middle Finger, accompanying a gutter wound received by the patient while holding a rifle
I never saw any troublesome results from perforations of thecarpus. The joints of thefingersalso offered littlespecial interest, except in so far as they afforded astonishing examples of the extreme neatness of the injuries which a small-calibre bullet can produce. Fig. 59 is a good example of such an injury.
Hip-joint.—I can only repeat with regard to this joint what I have already said as to the injuries to the head of the femur. I had practically no experience of small-calibre bullet injuries to the femoral constituent, and beyond the single case of injury to the acetabular margin mentioned on p. 193 I saw no obvious wounds of the joint at all.
The knee, as usual, proved itselfpar excellencethe joint most commonly injured, no doubt as a result of its size, the extent of its capsule anteriorly, and its exposed position. In spite, however, of the frequency with which it suffered injury, and the opportunities it afforded for observation of the progress of the effusions towards absorption, the injuries to the joint gave less anxiety and attained a more favourable prognostic character than is the case in civil practice. This depended on the very favourable course observed in the frequent pure perforations following a direct line. These occurred in every direction, the accompanying hæmarthrosis usually disappearing completely in an average period of little over a month. The extremes can be fairly placed at a fortnight and six weeks. Limitation of movement was slight or non-existent in many cases; in others it was of a very moderate character, and I only remember to have seen one case in which a really serious anchylosis developed. In this the man was struck from a distance of 300 yards, and a considerable amount of bone dust from the femur was found in the lips of the exit aperture. The wounds healedper primam, but when I saw the man two months later anchylosis in the straight position was apparently complete.
The comparatively frequent association of popliteal aneurisms with wounds of the knee-joint has already been spoken of in relation to anchylosis. Wounds of the popliteal space from larger bullets sometimes caused more troublesome after-stiffness than wounds of the articulation itself. Again I remember a small pom-pom wound at the inner margin of the ligamentum patellæ without obvious wound of the joint,which was accompanied by synovitis from contusion, and was followed by very considerable limitation of movement. This had only been partially improved when the patient returned home, in spite of prolonged massage and passive movement.
The general remarks on the joints cover all that need be said as to suppuration of the knee-joint.
The ankle-jointmaintained the undesirable character which it has always held as a subject for gunshot injuries. This is entirely a question of sepsis, and in great measure depends on the fact that the foot, as enclosed in a boot, is invested with skin particularly difficult to thoroughly cleanse; while the socks are an additional source of infection to the wounds before the patients come under proper treatment.
Of seven cases of suppurating ankle-joint, of which I have notes, only two retained the foot, and one of these after a very dangerous illness. This case was one of special interest as exemplifying the results dependent on variations in velocity on the part of the bullet. The patient was struck at a distance of twenty yards. The bullet entered the front of the right ankle-joint and emerged through the internal malleolus, just behind its centre, causing no comminution of the latter. It then entered the left foot by a type wound one inch behind and below the tip of the internal malleolus, traversed and comminuted the astragalus, and emerged one inch below the tip of the external malleolus. The first joint healedper primam. The second produced by the bullet when passing at a lower rate of velocity was accompanied by considerable comminution of the bone. It suppurated, and gave rise to great anxiety both for the fate of the foot and the life of the patient. It is probable that the more abundant hæmorrhage which took place from the second wound was in part responsible for the occurrence of infection.
The second of the two cases is of some interest in relation to the doctrine of chances as to the position in which a wound may be received. The man was wounded in one of the earlier engagements, a bullet passing transversely through his leg immediately behind the bones and about half an inch above the level of the ankle-joint. He recovered, and rejoined his regiment,only to receive at Paardeberg a second wound, about an inch lower, which traversed the ankle-joint. On his return to Wynberg he happened to be sent to the same pavilion, and occupied the same bed he had left on returning to the front.
The subject of the result of wounds of the joints of thefoothas received sufficient consideration under the heading of wounds of the tarsus.
The repetition of the fact that, among the whole series of cases on which this chapter is founded, not a single instance of primary or secondary excision of a joint, either partial or complete, is recorded, forms an apt conclusion to my remarks on this subject.
Injuries to the head formed one of the most fruitful sources of death, both upon the battlefield and in the Field hospitals. It has been suggested that the mere fact of wounds of the head being readily visible ensured all such being at once distinguished and correctly reported, while wounds hidden by the clothing often escaped detection. When the external insignificance of many of the fatal wounds of the trunk is taken into consideration this is possible; but, on the other hand, it must be borne in mind that the head is in any attitude the most advanced, and often the most exposed, part of the body, and even when the soldier had taken 'cover,' it was frequently raised for purposes of observation. For the latter reasons I believe injury to the head fully deserved the comparative importance as a fatal accident with which it was credited.
A number of somewhat sensational immediate recoveries from serious wounds of the head have been placed upon record. Observation, however, shows that these, with but few exceptions, belonged either to certain groups of cases the relatively favourable prognosis in which is familiar to us in civil practice, or that the wounds were received from a very long range of fire, and hence the injuries were strictly localised in character.
Wounds of the scalp.—Nothing very special is to be recorded with regard to these; they either formed the terminals of perforating wounds, or were the result of superficial glancing shots. The glancing wounds were of the nature offurrows, varying in depth from mere grazes to wounds laying bare the bone. Their peculiarity was centred in the fact that a definite loss of substance accompanied them, the skin being actually carried away by the bullet; hence gaping was the rule. Every gradation in depth was met with, but the only situations in which wounds of considerable length could occur were the frontal region in tranverse shots, or, when the bullet passed sagitally, the sides of the head, or the flat area of the vertex.
The danger of overlooking injuries to the bone was of special importance in the short subcutaneous tracks occasionally met with at the points at which the surface of the skull makes sharp bends. In all such wounds it was a safe rule to assume a fracture of the skull until this was excluded by direct examination. In some of the gutter wounds and subcutaneous tracks crossing the forehead and sides of the head, signs of intracranial disturbance were occasionally observed in the absence of external fracture, such as transient muscular weakness, unsteadiness in movements, giddiness, diplopia, or loss of memory and intellectual clearness. In connection with such symptoms the classical injury of splintering of the internal table of the skull, the external remaining intact, had to be borne in mind, but I observed no proven instance of this accident. I am of opinion, moreover, that its occurrence with small bullets travelling at a high degree of velocity must be very rare, since little deflection is probable unless the contact has been sufficiently decided to fracture the external table; while in the cases of spent bullets the injury is unlikely, as requiring a considerable degree of force.
Injuries to the cranial bones, without evidence of gross lesion to the brain.—It may be premised that these were of the rarest occurrence, and they may be most readily described by shortly recounting the conditions observed in a few cases I noted at the time. The injuries resulted from blows with spent bullets, from bullets barely striking the skull directly, or those striking over the region of the frontal sinuses. Wounds of the mastoid process will not be considered in this connection as being of a special nature (see p. 299).
I saw only one case of escape of the internal, with depressed fracture of the external, table of the skull.
(45) In marching on Heilbron a man in the advance guard was struck by a bullet at right angles just within the margin of the hairy scalp. The regiment was at the time to all intents and purposes outside the range of rifle fire, and the patient was the only individual struck among its number. When brought into the Highland Brigade Field Hospital, a single typical entry wound was discovered; examination with the probe gave evidence of a slight depression in the external table of the frontal bone just above the temporal ridge. Although no perforation was detectible by the probe, and this was positively excluded on the raising of a flap (Major Murray, R.A.M.C.), it was considered advisable to remove a 1/4-inch trephine crown, the pin of the instrument being applied to the margin of the depression. No depression or splintering of the internal table was discovered, nor any injury to the dura, nor blood upon the surface of that membrane. The man made an uninterrupted recovery.(46) A case of frontal injury was shown to me at Wynberg, in which a distinct furrow could be traced across the upper part of the frontal sinuses. There had been no symptoms beyond temporary diplopia, and the wound was healed; no surgical interference had been deemed necessary.(47) In a man wounded at Poplar Grove, a single typical wound of entry was found 3/4 of an inch above the right eyebrow and the same distance from the median line. No primary symptoms were observed, but on the evening of the second day the temperature rose above 100° F., and the man seemed somewhat heavy and dull. The patient was examined by Major Fiaschi and Mr. Watson Cheyne, and it was decided to explore the wound. Mr. Cheyne removed fragments both of external and internal tables, one of the latter having made a punctiform opening, not admitting the finest probe, in the dura-mater. The bullet was traced into the nasal fossæ, where it was subsequently localised with the aid of the Roentgen rays when the patient came under my observation at Wynberg some days later (fig. 60).
(45) In marching on Heilbron a man in the advance guard was struck by a bullet at right angles just within the margin of the hairy scalp. The regiment was at the time to all intents and purposes outside the range of rifle fire, and the patient was the only individual struck among its number. When brought into the Highland Brigade Field Hospital, a single typical entry wound was discovered; examination with the probe gave evidence of a slight depression in the external table of the frontal bone just above the temporal ridge. Although no perforation was detectible by the probe, and this was positively excluded on the raising of a flap (Major Murray, R.A.M.C.), it was considered advisable to remove a 1/4-inch trephine crown, the pin of the instrument being applied to the margin of the depression. No depression or splintering of the internal table was discovered, nor any injury to the dura, nor blood upon the surface of that membrane. The man made an uninterrupted recovery.
(46) A case of frontal injury was shown to me at Wynberg, in which a distinct furrow could be traced across the upper part of the frontal sinuses. There had been no symptoms beyond temporary diplopia, and the wound was healed; no surgical interference had been deemed necessary.
(47) In a man wounded at Poplar Grove, a single typical wound of entry was found 3/4 of an inch above the right eyebrow and the same distance from the median line. No primary symptoms were observed, but on the evening of the second day the temperature rose above 100° F., and the man seemed somewhat heavy and dull. The patient was examined by Major Fiaschi and Mr. Watson Cheyne, and it was decided to explore the wound. Mr. Cheyne removed fragments both of external and internal tables, one of the latter having made a punctiform opening, not admitting the finest probe, in the dura-mater. The bullet was traced into the nasal fossæ, where it was subsequently localised with the aid of the Roentgen rays when the patient came under my observation at Wynberg some days later (fig. 60).
Gunshot fracture of the skull with concurrent brain injury.—This was the commonest form of head injury, and possessed two main peculiarities; firstly, the large amount of brain destruction compared with the extent of the bone lesion; secondly, the fact that any region of the skull wasequally open to damage. In consequence of the second peculiarity, the position and direction of secondary fissures are not so dependent on anatomical structure as in the corresponding injuries of civil practice. Thus, fractures of the base, for instance, were less constant in their course and position. The cases as a whole are best divided into four classes.
Fig. 60.Fig. 60.—Mauser Bullet in Nasal Fossa. (Skiagram by H. Catling.) Case No. 47
1. Extensive sagittal tracks passingdeeplythrough the brain, and vertical wounds passing from base to vertex orvice versa, in the posterior two thirds of the skull. These will be referred to as general injuries.
2. Vertical or coronal wounds in the frontal region.
3. Glancing or obliquely perforating wounds of varying depth in any part of the head.
4. Fractures of the base.
Of these classes the first was nearly uniformly fatal; thesecond relatively favourable, and with low degrees of velocity often accompanied by surprisingly slight immediate effects; while the third had perhaps the best prognosis of all, but this varied as to the defects that might be left, and with the region of the head affected.
1.General injuries.—Fractures of this class may be treated of almost apart. For their production the retention of a considerable degree of velocity on the part of the bullet was always necessary, and the results were consequently both extensive and severe.
The aperture of entry was comparatively small, since to take so direct and lengthy a course through the skull the impact of the bullet needed to be at nearly an exact right angle to the surface of the bone. Any disposition to assume the oval form, therefore, depended mainly upon the degree of slope of the actual area of the skull implicated. In size the aperture of entry did not greatly exceed the calibre of the bullet; in outline it was seldom exactly circular, but rather roughly four-sided, with rounded angles, slightly oval, or pear-shaped. The margin of the opening consisted of outer table alone, the inner being always considerably comminuted. Fragments of the latter, together with the majority of those corresponding to the loss of substance of the outer table, were driven through the dura mater and embedded in the brain. These bony fragments were more or less widely distributed over an area of a square inch or more, and not confined to a narrow track.
Fig. 61.Fig. 61.
Diagram of Aperture of Entry in Occipital Bone, showing radiating fissures exact length. The exit in the frontal region was of typical explosive character. Range '100 yards'
The amount of fissuring at the aperture of entry was often not so extensive as I had been led to expect. Fig. 61 is a diagram illustrating a fairly typical instance; in some cases no fissuring existed. As a rule the nearer to the base, the greater was the amount of fissuring observed. The fissures were sometimes very extensive in this position, probably as aresult of the lesser degree of elasticity in this region of the skull. Again, when the aperture of entry was near the parts of the vertex where sudden bends take place, considerable fissuring of the same nature as that seen in the superficial tracks (fig. 68) was produced in the flat portion of the skull above the point of entrance.
Radial fissuring around the aperture of entry in the skull scarcely corresponds in degree with that seen when the shafts of the long bones are struck, and is far less marked and regular than when one of these small bullets strikes a thick sheet of glass set in a frame. I saw several apertures in the thick glass of the windows of the waterworks building at Bloemfontein produced by Mauser bullets. They differed little from the opening seen in an ordinary plate-glass window resulting from a blow from a stone, except perhaps in the regularity and multiplicity of the radial fissures. As in the skull, the opening was a little larger than the calibre of the bullet, and the loss of substance on the inner aspect considerably exceeded that on the outer.
The degree of fissuring is probably affected by the resistance offered by the particular skull, or the special region struck, but as a rule the elasticity and capacity for alteration in shape possessed by the bony capsule, is opposed to the production of the extreme radial starring observed in the long bones or a fixed sheet of glass. Corroborative evidence of the influence of elasticity in the prevention of starring is seen in the limited nature of the comminution of the ribs in cases of perforating wounds of the thorax.
In the most severe cases we can only speak of the 'aperture' of exit in a limited sense in so far as the opening in the scalp is concerned; this was often comparatively small, not exceeding 3/4 of an inch in diameter. Beneath this limited opening in the soft parts, the bone of the skull was smashed in a most extensive manner. The portion exactly corresponding to the point of exit of the bullet was carried altogether away, but around this point a number of large irregularly shaped fragments of bone, from 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter, were found loose, and often so displaced as to expose a considerable area of the dura-mater. Beyond thearea of these loose fragments, fissures extended into the base and vertex, in the latter case often being limited in their extent by the nearest suture.
Over extensive fractures of this nature general œdema and infiltration of the scalp, due to extravasation of blood, were present. When the exit was situated in the frontal region ecchymosis often extended to the eyelids and down the face, while in the occipital region similar ecchymosis was often seen at the back of the neck.
The opening in the dura mater at the aperture of entry was either slitlike, or more often irregular from laceration by the fragments of bone driven in by the bullet. At the point of exit a similar limited opening corresponded with the spot at which the bullet had passed, while separate rents of larger size were often seen at some little distance. The latter were the result of laceration of the outer surface of the membrane by the margins of the large loose fragments of bone above described.
Injury to the brain more than corresponded in extent to the fractures of the bone. Pulping of its tissue existed over a wide area both at the points of entrance and of exit. In the former position the amount of damage was the less, the gross changes roughly corresponding with the tissue directly implicated by the bullet itself, and the fragments of bone carried forward by it. The degree of splintering of the skull therefore in great part determined the severity of the lesion. At the exit aperture much more widespread destruction existed, while masses of brain tissue, small shreds of the membranes, fragments of bone, anddébrisfrom the scalp were found occasionally bound together by coagulated blood and protruding from an exit opening of some size. The largest masses of suchdébriswere most often seen in instances in which the bullet had entered by the base to escape at the vertex of the skull.
The brain in the line of injury suffered comparatively slightly, but small parenchymatous hæmorrhages into its tissue indicated in lesser degree the same type of injury undergone by the mass of brain pulp and small blood-clots found at the external limits of the wound. Beyond this extensive hæmorrhages at the base of the skull were common.
With regard to the extensive character of the brain destruction in the region of the aperture of exit, it must be borne in mind that this lesion corresponds in position with one which would exist even if the injury were of a non-penetrating degree. A large proportion of the contusion and destruction is therefore explained by violent impact of the projected brain with the skull prior to the passage of the bullet, and not to the direct action of the bullet on the tissues.
These cases of 'general injury' afford a marked example of the lesions to which the term 'explosive' has been applied, and as such have an important bearing on the theories held as to the mode of production of explosive effect. The increased area of tissue damage at the aperture of exit favours the theory of direct transmission of a part of the force with which the bullet is endowed, to the molecules of tissue bounding the track made by the projectile. Thus the area of destruction corresponds with the cone-like figure which one would expect to be built up by the vibrations spreading from the primary point of impact. The exit region of the skull is subjected not alone to the force of the travelling bullet, but also to that exerted over a much wider area by the tissue to which secondary vibrations have been communicated. The brain itself is, in fact, dashed with such violence against the bone as to cause a great part of the injury.
No doubt the brain in its reaction to the bullet forms as near an approach to a fluid as any solid tissue in the human body, and experimental observation has shown how greatly its presence or absence in the skull affects the degree of comminution on the exit side; hence the fondness for the so-called hydraulic theory that has been always exhibited in the case of these injuries. The localisation of the injury in its highest degree to the neighbourhood of the exit aperture, however, shows that in any case the main wave takes a definite direction in a course corresponding to that of the bullet.
The real importance of the presence of the brain within the skull in increasing the amount of damage at the exit end of the track, is as a medium for the ready transmission offorcible vibrations. That the latter are to some extent conveyed as by a fluid is evidenced by the occasional presence of brain matter and fragments of bone in the aperture of entry, which suggests recoil or splash such as would be expected from a fluid wave.
Experience of the character of the lesions observed after severe concussion by the ordinarily somewhat coarser forms of violence common to civil life, fully explains the severity of the damage to the brain tissue met with in injuries due to bullets of small calibre. Viewing the elaborate arrangements which exist for the preservation of the central nervous system from the moderate vibration incidental to ordinary existence, it is easy to appreciate the harmfulness of such exquisite vibratory force as that transmitted by a bullet of small calibre travelling at a high rate of velocity.
Effect of ricochet in the production of severe forms of injury.—In connection with the lesions above described mention must be made of cases in which the aperture of entry reaches a large size, or a portion of the skull is actually blown away.
Examples of the former class were not uncommon; I will briefly relate one.
(48) A Highlander while lying in the prone position at Rooipoort, was struck by a bullet probably at a distance of about 1,000 yards. A large entry wound in the scalp was produced, while the defect in the skull was coarsely comminuted and was capable of admitting three fingers into a mass of pulped brain. Both brain matter and fragments of bone were found in the external wound, which was situated just anterior to the right parietal eminence. The bullet passed onwards through the base of the skull, crossing the external auditory meatus, fracturing the zygoma and probably the condyle of the mandible, and eventually lodged beneath the masseter muscle. Blood and brain matter escaped from the external auditory meatus.The patient was brought off the field in a semi-conscious condition, the pupils moderately contracted but equal, the pulse 66, very small and irregular in beat, the respiration quiet and easy, and with paralysis of the left side of the body. The fæces had been passed involuntarily.The wound was cleansed and bone fragments removed. The patient had to travel in a wagon for the next three days until the column halted. The progress of the case was unsatisfactory, as the wound became infected, and the man eventually died on the 14th day of general septicæmia, but with little evidence of local extension of septic inflammation.In this instance the head was no doubt struck by a bullet which had previously made ricochet contact with the ground. I saw several such cases.
(48) A Highlander while lying in the prone position at Rooipoort, was struck by a bullet probably at a distance of about 1,000 yards. A large entry wound in the scalp was produced, while the defect in the skull was coarsely comminuted and was capable of admitting three fingers into a mass of pulped brain. Both brain matter and fragments of bone were found in the external wound, which was situated just anterior to the right parietal eminence. The bullet passed onwards through the base of the skull, crossing the external auditory meatus, fracturing the zygoma and probably the condyle of the mandible, and eventually lodged beneath the masseter muscle. Blood and brain matter escaped from the external auditory meatus.
The patient was brought off the field in a semi-conscious condition, the pupils moderately contracted but equal, the pulse 66, very small and irregular in beat, the respiration quiet and easy, and with paralysis of the left side of the body. The fæces had been passed involuntarily.
The wound was cleansed and bone fragments removed. The patient had to travel in a wagon for the next three days until the column halted. The progress of the case was unsatisfactory, as the wound became infected, and the man eventually died on the 14th day of general septicæmia, but with little evidence of local extension of septic inflammation.
In this instance the head was no doubt struck by a bullet which had previously made ricochet contact with the ground. I saw several such cases.
Closely connected with such injuries are those in which large portions of the skull and scalp were actually blown away. I never witnessed one of these myself, but I recall two instances described to me by officers who lay near the wounded men on the field. In one the frontal region was carried away so extensively that, to repeat the familiar description given by the officer, 'he could see down into the man's stomach through his head.' In a second case the greater part of the occipital region was blown away in a similar manner, and this was of especial interest as the wounded man was seen to sit up on the buttocks and turn rapidly round three or four times before falling apparently dead. The observation offers interesting evidence of the result of an extensive gross lesion of the cerebellum.
In the absence of exact information, it may well be that such injuries as the two latter were produced by some special form of bullet, but as both were produced while the patients were lying on the ground, and therefore especially liable to blows from ricochet bullets, I am inclined to attribute both to this cause.
In considering injuries of the above nature, one cannot help speculating on the possible influence of a head-over-heels ricochet turn on the part of the bullet while traversing the long sagittal axis of the skull. It is not uncommon for apical target ricochets to present evidence of damage to the apex and base of the mantle alone. This must depend on a rapid turn on impact, which might well be imitated in the case of the skull, and would then go far to explain the production of some of the most severe forms of explosive exit wounds met with. See cases 48, 54, 68.
Short of ricochet, the influence of simple wobbling mustalso be considered in shots from a long range. The entry wound may be large as a result of this condition, but as the velocity possessed by the bullet is low, the injuries would probably not be of a very severe nature.
In connection with the subject of wobbling, reference should be made to the form suggested by Nimier and Laval, in which the wobble, as the result of resistance to the apex of the revolving bullet, assumes the form of movement seen when the spin of a top is failing. This would explain a peculiarity in some wounds of entry over the skull first pointed out to me by Mr. J. J. Day. When such wounds were explored, as well as the presence of brain in the entry aperture, a number of fragments of the external table of the skull were found everted and fixed in the tissues of the scalp. As already suggested, this may be mere evidence of splash, but it may be equally well explained by a process of wobble around the axis of revolution of the bullet. This might, no doubt, also be invoked to explain the displacement of some of the fragments in fractures of the long bones, where considerable resistance to the passage of the bullet is offered.
II.Vertical or coronal wounds in the frontal region.—These injuries were common, and offered some of the most interesting illustrations of the variations in symptoms and effects following apparently exactly identical lesions, judging from the condition of the external soft parts alone; since the latter sometimes gave little indication of the force (dependent on the rate of velocity) which had been applied.
With the lower degrees of velocity simple punctured fractures of the skull resulted, without extensive lesion of the frontal lobes as evidenced by immediate symptoms. The nature of the fractures differed in no way from the punctured fractures we are familiar with in civil practice. The openings of entry in the bone were irregularly rounded, corresponding in size to the particular calibre of the bullet concerned. The margin consisted of outer table alone, while the inner table was either considerably comminuted, or a large piece was depressed, wounding the dura-mater and projecting into the brain substance (see fig. 63). The aperture of exit presented exactly the opposite characters, the splintering comminutionor separation of a large fragment affecting the outer table, while the inner presented a simple perforation. The latter condition is represented in figs. 71 and 72, and I will here give short notes of four illustrative cases, as being the shortest and most satisfactory method of conveying a correct idea of the nature of such injuries.
Fig. 62Fig. 62—Aperture of Entry in Frontal Bone. Case No. 50. 1/2
(49)Vertical perforation of frontal bone.—Wounded at Belmont, while in the prone position. Aperture ofentry(Mauser), at the anterior margin of the hairy scalp on the left side; course, through the anterior part of the left frontal lobe, roof of the left orbit, cutting the optic nerve and injuring the back of the eyeball, floor of the orbit, the antrum, the hard palate, and tongue.Exit, in mid line of the submaxillary region. No cerebral symptoms were noted, and on the fifth day the man was sent to the Base hospital without operation; the pulse was then 70 and the temperature normal. The movements of the eyeball were perfect, but blindness was absolute. At the Base hospital the eye suppurated and was removed. The patient was then sent home apparently well. He has since been discharged from the service, and is now employed as a painter in Portsmouth Dockyard.(50)Vertical perforation of frontal bone.—Wounded at Paardeberg while in the prone position. Range, 600-700 yards. Aperture ofentry(Mauser), at the fore margin of the hairy scalp above the centre of the right eyebrow; course, through the anterior third of the right frontal lobe, roof of orbit, front of eyeball, margin of floor of orbit making a distinct palpable notch, and cheek;exitthrough the red margin of the upper lip, 1/2 an inch from the right angle of mouth. The bullet slightly grooved the lower lip.The patient rose almost immediately after being struck, and walked about a mile, although feeling dizzy and tired. The wounds, which both bled considerably, were then dressed. After three days' stay in a Field hospital, the patient was sent in a bullock wagon three days and nights' journey to Modder River and thence to the Base.There was anæsthesia over the area supplied by the outer branch of the supra-orbital nerve, extending from the supra-orbital notch backwards into the parietal region, but none over the area supplied by the second division of the fifth nerve.On the tenth day there were no signs of cerebral disturbance except a pulse of 48. The eyeball was suppurating, and the temperature rose to 99° at night. The lids were still swollen and closed.A few days later the eyeball was removed and at the same time a flap was raised and the fracture explored (Major Burton, R.A.M.C.). An opening somewhat angular, 1/3 of an inch in diameter, was found with a thin margin in the outer table of the skull (fig. 62); when this was enlarged with a Hoffman's forceps, an opening in the dura was discovered, and cerebro-spinal fluid escaped. A piece of the inner table of the skull (fig. 63), 3/4 by 1/3 an inch in size, was discovered projecting downwards vertically into the brain. This latter was removed and the wound closed. Healing by primary union followed, and no further symptoms were observed.
(49)Vertical perforation of frontal bone.—Wounded at Belmont, while in the prone position. Aperture ofentry(Mauser), at the anterior margin of the hairy scalp on the left side; course, through the anterior part of the left frontal lobe, roof of the left orbit, cutting the optic nerve and injuring the back of the eyeball, floor of the orbit, the antrum, the hard palate, and tongue.Exit, in mid line of the submaxillary region. No cerebral symptoms were noted, and on the fifth day the man was sent to the Base hospital without operation; the pulse was then 70 and the temperature normal. The movements of the eyeball were perfect, but blindness was absolute. At the Base hospital the eye suppurated and was removed. The patient was then sent home apparently well. He has since been discharged from the service, and is now employed as a painter in Portsmouth Dockyard.
(50)Vertical perforation of frontal bone.—Wounded at Paardeberg while in the prone position. Range, 600-700 yards. Aperture ofentry(Mauser), at the fore margin of the hairy scalp above the centre of the right eyebrow; course, through the anterior third of the right frontal lobe, roof of orbit, front of eyeball, margin of floor of orbit making a distinct palpable notch, and cheek;exitthrough the red margin of the upper lip, 1/2 an inch from the right angle of mouth. The bullet slightly grooved the lower lip.
The patient rose almost immediately after being struck, and walked about a mile, although feeling dizzy and tired. The wounds, which both bled considerably, were then dressed. After three days' stay in a Field hospital, the patient was sent in a bullock wagon three days and nights' journey to Modder River and thence to the Base.
There was anæsthesia over the area supplied by the outer branch of the supra-orbital nerve, extending from the supra-orbital notch backwards into the parietal region, but none over the area supplied by the second division of the fifth nerve.
On the tenth day there were no signs of cerebral disturbance except a pulse of 48. The eyeball was suppurating, and the temperature rose to 99° at night. The lids were still swollen and closed.
A few days later the eyeball was removed and at the same time a flap was raised and the fracture explored (Major Burton, R.A.M.C.). An opening somewhat angular, 1/3 of an inch in diameter, was found with a thin margin in the outer table of the skull (fig. 62); when this was enlarged with a Hoffman's forceps, an opening in the dura was discovered, and cerebro-spinal fluid escaped. A piece of the inner table of the skull (fig. 63), 3/4 by 1/3 an inch in size, was discovered projecting downwards vertically into the brain. This latter was removed and the wound closed. Healing by primary union followed, and no further symptoms were observed.
Fig. 63.Fig. 63.
Fragment of Inner Table depending vertically from lower margin of puncture shown in fig. 62. The centre was perforated. Exact size
(51)Transverse frontal wound.—Wounded at Paardeberg. The man was sitting down at the time he was struck, in the belief that he was out of the range of fire. Theentryandexitwounds were almost symmetrical, placed on the two sides of the forehead at the margin of the hairy scalp, 2¼ inches above the level of the external angular processes of the frontal bone. The patient lost consciousness for about half an hour, then rose and walked half a mile to the Field hospital. The wounds were dressed, and after a stay of three days in hospital, the man was sent the three days' journey to Modder River; during the journey he got in and out of the wagon when he wished. After two days' stay at Modder, a journey was again made by rail to De Aar (122½ miles). The wounds were healed. The man stayed at De Aar nearly a month, and then, rejoining his regiment, made a two days' march of some 22 miles on hot days. He had to fall out twice on the way by reason of headache, feeling dizzy, and 'things looking black.' He did not own to any loss of memory or intellectual trouble, but was invalided to England. This patient returned to South Africalater, and is now on active service.(52)Transverse frontal wound.—Within a few days an almost identical symmetrical wound in the frontal region occurred in the same district, from a near range. The patient became immediately unconscious, and remained so until his death some four days later, his symptoms being in no way alleviated by operation and the removal of a quantity of bone fragments and cerebraldébris. At thepost-mortemexamination, extensive destruction of both hemispheres of the brain was revealed, and large fissures extended into the base of the skull.
(51)Transverse frontal wound.—Wounded at Paardeberg. The man was sitting down at the time he was struck, in the belief that he was out of the range of fire. Theentryandexitwounds were almost symmetrical, placed on the two sides of the forehead at the margin of the hairy scalp, 2¼ inches above the level of the external angular processes of the frontal bone. The patient lost consciousness for about half an hour, then rose and walked half a mile to the Field hospital. The wounds were dressed, and after a stay of three days in hospital, the man was sent the three days' journey to Modder River; during the journey he got in and out of the wagon when he wished. After two days' stay at Modder, a journey was again made by rail to De Aar (122½ miles). The wounds were healed. The man stayed at De Aar nearly a month, and then, rejoining his regiment, made a two days' march of some 22 miles on hot days. He had to fall out twice on the way by reason of headache, feeling dizzy, and 'things looking black.' He did not own to any loss of memory or intellectual trouble, but was invalided to England. This patient returned to South Africalater, and is now on active service.
(52)Transverse frontal wound.—Within a few days an almost identical symmetrical wound in the frontal region occurred in the same district, from a near range. The patient became immediately unconscious, and remained so until his death some four days later, his symptoms being in no way alleviated by operation and the removal of a quantity of bone fragments and cerebraldébris. At thepost-mortemexamination, extensive destruction of both hemispheres of the brain was revealed, and large fissures extended into the base of the skull.
III.Glancing or oblique perforating wounds of varying depth in any portion of the cranium.—These injuries were the most common, the most highly characteristic of small-calibre bullet wounds, the most interesting from the point of view of diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment, and beyond this they formed the variety most unlike any that we meet with in civil practice.
They were met with in every region of the cranium, and in every degree of depth and severity. The lesser are best designated as gutter fractures, the deeper are perforating and gradually approximate themselves to the type of injury described as class 1.
When the bullet struck a prominent or angular spot on the skull a considerable oval-shaped fragment was occasionally carried away, leaving an exposed surface of the diploë (case 60, p. 274). Under these circumstances the apparent lesion on raising a flap was slight, but exploration often showed extensive intra-cranial mischief. Thus in the case referred to both dura and brain were wounded, and continuing hæmorrhage led to the development of progressive paralysis, relieved only by operation.
From the more deeply passing bullets a more or less oval opening resulted, in which both tables were freely comminuted and displaced. These cases differed from the typical gutter fracture only in length and outline, and the nature of the accompanying intra-cranial lesion was identical, while in the latter particular they differed much from fractures in which the impact of the bullet was direct, in spite of a near resemblance in the appearances in the osseous defect.
I saw one instance in which a circular fissure about 1½ inch from the actual opening of entry surrounded the latter, the area of bone within the circle being somewhat depressed, though radial fissures were absent.
In several of these cases fragments of lead were either found on the fractured surface of the bone or within the cranial cavity, showing that the bullets had undergone fissuring of the mantle, or had actually broken up on impact.
Gutter fractures.—The nature of the injury to the bones in these is best illustrated by a series of diagrams of sections such as are shown below.
Fig. 64.Fig. 64.
Gutter Fracture of first degree. The drawing does not show well the small fragments of bone usually carried from the margins of the depression by the bullet
In the most superficial injuries the outer table was grooved and depressed, usually with loss of substance from small fragments directly shot away: these latter had either been driven through the wound in the soft parts, or remained embedded on the deep aspect of the enveloping scalp (fig. 64). In the less common variety the scalp was slit to a length corresponding with the injury to the bone, but more often oval openings in the skin existed at either end of the track. The inner table was practically never intact, but the amount of comminution naturally varied with the depth to which the outer table was implicated (fig. 65A, andB).
The following is an illustrative example of this degree,and also emphasises the consequences which may follow primary non-interference.