"And thou shalt put in the breast-plate of judgment the Ureem and Thumeem." Exodus, 28, 30. What the Ureem and Thumeem were is not distinctly explained in the bible.
That they were not the twelve precious stones contained in the breast-plate, as some have erroneously imagined, is quite clear; for we do not find that God directed Moses to make the Ureem and Thumeem, as he did when he said, "And thou shalt make the breast-plate," &c., &c.
It is plain from the text itself, that they were something in addition to the breast-plate, and put therein, after it was finished, by Moses himself; and therefore God says, "And thou shalt put into the breast-plate of judgment the Ureem and Thumeem."
From this fact, it is evident that there was something additional placed in the breast-plate by Moses; and for this reason, it is supposed that it was made double, that it might the more conveniently holdthem. It now remains to inquire what the Ureem and Thumeem in reality were, and what the particular use of them. As to the former, there are various opinions among the learned. Many celebrated Christian divines have ventured many erroneous definitions on the subject. According to the opinions of the most erudite and pious Hebrew doctors and rabbins, the following appears to be the most reasonable view of the case.
It was, say the rabbins, the Tetragrammaton, or ineffable name of the Deity, which Moses was commanded to place in the breast-plate, and was consecrated to holy purposes. It was vested with divine power to give an oracular reply from God to any counsel being asked of him by the high priest, during the time in which he wore it. Now, as the answer came immediately from God, it was therefore properly designated "asking counsel of God." As to the Ureem and Thumeem, it was especially to ask counsel of God on such momentous occasions only, in relation to the Jewish nation.
In the Mishna ofYoomahare explained three express conditions necessary to be observed in the asking of counsel by the Ureem and Thumeem.
First.—Concerning the person inquiring. He must not be a private person. He must be either the king, the president of the Sanhedrin, who presided over the whole nation, the general of the army, or some other noble prince, or governor in Israel.
Second.—Concerning the nature of the question. It must not be respecting the affairs of privatepersons; but such only as relate to the public interest of the whole nation, either of church or state.
Third.—Concerning the person who presents the question. He must be the high priest, clothed in his pontifical robes, and his breast-plate with the Ureem and Thumeem.
The learned Maimonides observes in his celebrated work, "Moreh Nevoocheem," or a "guide to the perplexed," part second, chapter forty-five, that the Ureem and Thumeem was a degree of the divine inspiration. Speaking of the different degrees or orders of prophecy, he says: "And thus every high priest who inquired by the Ureem and Thumeem was of this order, as already mentioned."
The divine presence rested on him, and he spoke by the holy spirit, that is, he delivered his answers with the assistance of the holy inspiration. According to this opinion, it was but one degree below the spirit of prophecy. All the learned and eminent men among the Jews say, that the manner of asking counsel, and receiving the answer thereto, was as follows.
The person who inquired did not make the request in an audible tone; but in such a way as one who is at his devotion pronounces the words, sufficiently loud to be heard by none but himself.
The question being made, the priest looked into the breast-plate, and on perceiving some letters on the stone of the same glistening, he, by combining them together, obtained the answer. We shall bestexemplify the foregoing by the following passage from the book of Judges.
"Now, after the death of Joshua, it came to pass that the children of Israel asked the Lord, saying, who shall go up for us against the Canaanites first, to fight against them." The reply was: "Yehuda Yangaleh" or "Judah shall go up;" for as soon as the question was propounded, the priest looked into the breast-plate, and seeing the name of Judah appear prominent, he was assured that Judah was the tribe. The priest looked again, and beheld theYodshine, theNgainfrom the name ofSimeon; then the Lamed from another name, and theHehfrom another; these four letters being put together made the word "Yangaleh" which signifies, "He shall go up." When the priest found that no more letters glistened, he knew immediately that the answer was completed. Hence the reason why they are calledUreem, which signifiesLight, from the shining of the letters; andThumeem, or perfection, as the answer was thus complete and perfected.
This fact distinguished the Jewish oracles from the pretended heathen oracles, which were always delivered in an enigmatical and ambiguous manner. The Jewish oracles were always clear and explicit, never falling short of perfection, either in the manifestation or the certainty of the truth thereof.
During the existence of the second temple, the Ureem and Thumeem were not consulted; for when the ark and coverlid, the cherubim and the two tables of stone, disappeared at the destruction of thefirst temple, the breast-plate with theUreemandThumeemshared the same fate. Notwithstanding that on the return of the Jews to Jerusalem, they had the pontifical robes, with the breast-plate with four rows of stones, engraved with the names of the tribes of Israel; yet no question was ever asked, and consequently no communication ever received from theUreemandThumeem. Two reasons are assigned for this.
First.—Because the saidUreemandThumeemwere instituted to ask counsel of the Lord of such things which concernedallthe tribes of Israel, and the common interest of the whole nation. Now, there being at that time the tribes of Judah and Benjamin only, these oracles could notbeconsulted, the common interest of the nation having then ceased.
Secondly—And possibly the principal reason, was, that theTetragrammaton, or ineffable name of the Deity, which Moses put between the folds of the breast-plate, was wanting. This being the most important part, and the very essence of the whole—when the cause ceased, the effect also ceased.
The Pentateuch, or written law, was communicated by God to Moses, and by him to the people of Israel at different times, and adapted to the various seasons, places and circumstances during the forty years' sojournment in the wilderness.
The mode adopted in instructing the Israelites in the wilderness in the divine law was as follows: Every passage or chapter of the written law, whether historical or preceptive, was written by Moses, as received from God himself, which he placed before his council or senate, called, afterwards, Sanhedrin, as well as before the whole body of the people. This council consisted of seventy elders, or senators, the most learned and pious among the nation, of whom Moses was the president. Every chapter of the law was explained by Moses according to the oral tradition, which he received coeval with the written law. The agreement of these two was proved in such a way as to show that the oral law is the true and genuine spirit and sense of the Pentateuch; thatthey are so intimately and inseparably connected with each other as to be considered as one and indivisible.
Aaron, the high priest, was honored with the appointment of repeating, for the instruction of the people, all the learning taught by his brother Moses. Aaron was succeeded by his sons. Then came the elders who gathered together all the Israelites and placed them in their several academies for the study of the law. Every individual of Israel was permitted to make memoranda of the oral law, in order to assist the memory, for personal and private convenience, but the public instruction was taught orally. This oral tradition was transmitted from Moses down to the days of the celebrated Rabbi, Judah the Prince, son of the learned Simon the Just, about a hundred and fifty years after the destruction of the second temple. After the death of Moses, Joshua the son of Nun, his successor, taught the said law in his Sanhedrin, and delivered it to the elders who succeeded him; and in like manner the tradition of the Mishna was successively transferred from generation to generation, and was concluded by Rabbi Judah, above named, who flourished in the reign of the Emperor Antoninus, by whom he was honored with the title of Prince, and invested with a supremacy of power for his office. It was generally believed in those days that there never rose up in Israel any man like unto him, in whom so much piety, wealth and glory were united.
It was in consequence of his extreme piety anddevotion to spiritual purposes only, and divesting himself of all worldly cares and pleasures, that he was designated Rabbinu Hakodesh, or the Holy Rabbi. This pious man, acting as president of the Sanhedrin, consulted his colleagues, who, perceiving the decline of literature, such as contained in the oral law at that period, and fearful of the consequences thereof to the nation at large, took into their serious consideration the necessity of adopting some plan by which such tradition should not be entirely forgotten. They saw and felt that the many sufferings and persecutions inflicted upon their co-religionists would ultimately be the cause of the loss of that knowledge which was so dear to them as God's own people. That it would be impossible for future generations to understand the practical part of the divine precepts as embodied in the Pentateuch. It was therefore with holy zeal that they judged it proper to collect and compile all the oral tradition explanatory of the written law and commit the same to writing, in order that it should be handed down to posterity. This is the same Mishna now in existence among the Jews at this day. It is written in short sentences and aphorisms, and generally considered to be in pure Hebrew, with some few exceptions. It contains full elucidations of the Pentateuch, as admitted by the most eminent Jewish doctors of all ages, who testify that without such elucidations the written law would have remained a sealed book to the world at large.
In the following chapter we shall treat of theGemara, or Completion, usually called the Talmud, the same being a commentary on the Mishna.
For the present, we shall content ourselves by laying before our readers a succinct account of the contents of the Mishna.
The Mishna is divided into six general heads, called in Hebrew, Sedoreem, orders or classes. The first is styled Zeroeëm, which signifiesseeds, and is subdivided into eleven sections.
First—Berochout, or Blessings.—This section treats of the laws directing the order of prayers and thanksgivings for the produce of the earth, and for all other benefits conferred on man by the beneficent creator; with the consideration as to time and place when they are to be said or repeated.
Second—Pyoh, or Corner.—This section treats of those laws which direct the leaving of the corner of the field, as the portion for the benefit of the poor, as commanded in the book of Leviticus.
Third—Demai, or Doubtful.—This treats of such things of which there exists some doubt, as to tithes having been paid for them, the Israelites not being allowed to eat of anything until it had been tithed.
Fourth—Terumous, or Oblations.—This section points out such things of which a portion was to be set apart as devoted to the use of the priests.
Fifth—Shevingis, or Seventh.—This section explains the laws of the seventh year, called the Sabbatical year, during which period the land was to remain at rest, and lie fallow; and during whichtime all debts were remitted and obligations canceled.
Sixth—Killayim, or Mixtures.—This portion lays down the laws which prohibit the mixing or joining of things together of an opposite or different nature or species; as, the sowing of various kinds of seeds in one and the same spot of ground; or suffering cattle of different kinds to engender; or the grafting a scion of one species of plant on the stock of another of a different character.
Seventh—Mangsire Reeshoun, or First Tithe.This section signifies the first tithes, and treats of the laws of the said tithes which shall be apportioned to the Levites.
Eighth—Mangsire Shynee, or Second Tithes.This treats of the laws of the second tithes, which were to be taken up to Jerusalem, and there to be eaten, or to be redeemed, and the produce expended at Jerusalem in peace offerings.
Fifth—Chalah, Loaf, or Cake.—This section speaks of the laws relative to setting apart a cake of dough for the priests; of the description of dough the cake should be, and what kind of dough was prohibited from being used for the purpose.
Tenth—Orlah, or Uncircumcised.—This section explains the law touching the illegality of eating the fruit of any tree until the fifth year of its growth. As follows: During the first three years of its bearing fruit, it must not be eaten; the fourth year it was holy to the Lord; and on the fifth year, it was permitted to be eaten by the owner thereof.
Eleventh—Bickureem, or First Ripe Fruits.This section treats of the manner in which the first ripe fruits were to be offered up in the holy temple at Jerusalem.
The second general head or class is calledSeder Moed, or order of festivals. It is so denominated because it treats of all those laws which were made concerning festivals and days of solemn observance. This second class is divided into twelve sections.
First—Sabbath, or Rest.—This is so called because it treats of all the laws respecting the Sabbath. This division contains twenty-four chapters.
Second—Eyruveen, or Mixtures, or Associations.—This section shows in what manner food might be conveyed from house to house on the Sabbath day. All the inhabitants of the court or place in which the association was formed, were allowed so to do. It also explains the rules laid down for any journey to be made on the Sabbath.
Third—Pesochim, or Passover.—This portion treats of all the laws, customs, and ceremonies, to be observed at the offering up of the paschal lamb on the eve of the festival of Passover.
Fourth—Shekoleem, or Shekels.—This treats of the half shekels, which every Israelite, whether rich or poor, was bound to pay every year towards defraying the expenses of the daily sacrifices offered up on the altar in Jerusalem.
Fifth—Youmoh, or Day.—This section treats of the great and solemn day of atonement; pointing out the ceremonies of the day, and the duties of thehigh priest on that holy occasion. It also speaks of the sacrifices which were to be offered up as expiations for the sins of the people.
Sixth—Succoh, or Tabernacle.—This portion treats of the feast of tabernacles. It points out in what manner the tabernacle should be built; the use of the palm tree, the citron, the myrtle, and the willow of the brook, which were ordered to be taken and used on the said festival.
Seventh—Youm Touv, or Festival.—It is called, also, Bytsoh, or Egg, being the word with which it commences. This section contains the laws and regulations for the due observance of the festivals of the Lord. It points out what work may, or may not, be lawfully done on any of the festivals which are called holy days of convocation, on which all manual labor or traffic is prohibited.
Eighth—Roush Hashono, or New Year.—This treats of the laws and solemnities of the sacred day of the new year; such as the sounding of theshoupharorcornet; of the prayers and regular service of that holy occasion. It describes, also, the ceremony for the observance at the appearance of the new moon, by which all the holy days were regulated by the Sanhedrin during the existence of the second temple.
Ninth—Tanganees, or Fast.—This division treats of the different fasts held throughout the year, and the manner in which they are to be observed by every Israelite. These fasts are held on different occasions for various reasons, and purposes; such asdays of repentance, humiliation, and of calamity and misfortune which befel the nation in the several ages of persecution.
Tenth—Megilloh, or Roll of the Book of Esther.—This section treats of the feast of Purim, and directs how the roll shall be written and read on this festival. It speaks of many other rules and regulations to be observed on this feast, which commemorates the miraculous deliverance of the Jewish people from the hands of the wicked Haman, who contemplated the destruction of the whole nation. It also treats of the laws concerning the synagogue, and the reading of the holy law on the several days of solemn and religious observance throughout the year.
Eleventh—Moed Koton, or Lesser Festivals.This treats of such work as may or may not be done during the middle days of the passover and tabernacle holidays. It is, therefore, called Moed Koton, as the middle days of the said festivals are considered less holy than the first and last two days. It contains, also, the laws regulating the conduct of mourners.
Twelfth—Hagigah, or Festival Offerings.This section specifies the laws relating to the offerings made on the different festivals; the description of the persons; how they are to be qualified, and in what manner they are to appear before the Lord on the three great festivals in every year, when all the Israelites that possibly could, were expected to be in attendance at the holy city of Jerusalem.
The third general head, or class, is called Nosheem, or women. This is subdivided into seven sections.
First—Yevomous, or Marriage.—This section is so called, as it treats of the laws by which one brother is expected to marry the relict of his deceased brother. It shows how, and when, the obligation shall take place; the duties and the ceremonies to be observed at the performance of the same.
Second—Kesuvous, or Documents.—This speaks of the laws relating to marriage contracts, and dowries, and of estates, whether real or personal, which may fall to some married women; how the same shall be disposed of, by, or allotted to, the said party or parties.
Third—Nedoreem, or Vows.—This treats of such vows which, when made, become binding, and by what persons such vows shall be made; how vows are considered null and void, since the husband has the power of confirming or annulling the vows of his wife. This law is very particularly specified, as to how such may be done; and the class of vows which fall under the control of the husband, and those which do not.
Fourth—Nozeer, or Nazarite.—This section treats of those laws which guide the different classes of Nazarites who take upon themselves the vows of abstinence.
Fifth—Sotah, or to turn aside.—This treats of the enactments relating to trials occasioned through jealousy between man and wife; the natureof the punishment inflicted on the woman, if it be proved that she had been guilty of the crime of adultery.
Sixth—Gitten, or Letter of Divorce.—This treats of the laws of divorce. It explains when, and under what circumstances, a divorce may be granted. It directs also all the formulæ to be used and observed in all cases of divorce.
Seventh—Kedusheen, or Betrothing.—This treats of the laws, customs, and ceremony of betrothing; the forms, rites, and regulations to be observed at the solemnization of the marriage according to the laws of Moses and Israel.
The fourth general head, or class, is called Nezeekeen, or Damages. This class is divided into eight sections; the first of which is again subdivided into three separate sections, as follow.
First—Bovoh Kamma, or First Gate.—This first section treats of all such damages, which may be recovered for injuries done, either by man or beast.
Second—Bovoh Meziah, or Middle Gate.—This treats of the laws of usury. It explains what is, and what is not, considered an act of usury. It speaks also on matters of special trust; of letting or hire, and such like transactions between man and man.
Third—Bovoh Bosroh, or Last Gate.—This treats of the laws relating to commerce, copartnership, buying and selling; also, the laws of inheritance, and the right of succession.
The above three sections are called by the Talmud and Mishna, gates, because, in the East, the courts of law were held within the gates of the city.
Second—Sanhedreen, or Senate.—This speaks of the great senate, as also of the minor courts of judicature; of the causes for trial, and the nature of the punishment inflicted for the several crimes; the four kinds of death, as the penalty for capital offenses. It describes, also, very minutely, the mode to be adopted by the Judges in the examination of witnesses.
Third—Maccous, or Punishment.—This portion treats more especially of that which may constitute false testimony, or inadmissible evidence; the laws relative to the forty stripes inflicted on the delinquent; the reason why the rabbins directed that only thirty-nine stripes should be inflicted instead of forty, as stated in the bible; also, the manner in which the said punishment should be administered. It relates, likewise, the regulations to be observed by such persons who were compelled to seek shelter in the cities of refuge.
Fourth—Shevungous, or Oaths.—This section explains the laws to be observed in the administration of an oath; in what cases an oath shall or shall not be submitted to the contending parties; who shall or who shall not be considered qualified to take the oath.
Fifth—Adoyous, Testimonies or Evidences.This treats of the decisions of the many important cases, collected from the evidence and testimony ofthe most eminent and learned rabbins and doctors of the great Sanhedrin of olden times.
Sixth—Avoudoh Zoroh, or Idolatry.—This section is so called, as it treats of all manner of idolatry. It is also entitled the "the worship of the planets." It explains the manner and form of the different modes of worship, as practised by the idolatrous nations, with the view of preventing the Israelite from becoming contaminated by them.
Seventh—Ovous, or Fathers.—This section contains the history of those holy fathers who, in their respective ages, successively received by tradition the oral law; from the days of Moses, the great lawgiver, down to the period when it was compiled and committed to writing by the celebrated rabbinu Hakodesh. It contains, also, many of the wise sayings, aphorisms, and moral maxims of the learned men, and is therefore called the "Ethics of the fathers."
Eighth—Houroyous, or Precepts.—This section is so called, because it treats of the punishment and penalty to be inflicted on those who should presumptuously act against, or teach anything in opposition to, the decrees and decisions of the great Sanhedrin at Jerusalem.
The fifth general head, or class, is called Kodosheem, or holy things. It is subdivided into eleven sections.
First—Zevocheem, or Sacrifices.—This section treats of the order to be observed in offering up the cattle for sacrifices, and points out their natureand quality. It also relates the time and the place; and specifies by whom they were to be killed and brought up as an offering upon the altar of the Lord.
Second—Minochous, or Meat Offerings.—This portion treats of the oblations of oil, flour, and wine, proper for each offering; and of the two waive loaves, which were to be made of fine flour, such as were offered up, on the festival of pentecost.
Third—Choolin, or Profane.—This section points out that which is clean, and that which is unclean; what may and what may not be lawfully eaten; and the law which prohibits the killing of the dam and its young, both in one day. It also shows the law prohibiting the eating of the "sinew which shrank;" and the law forbidding the taking of the dam with its young. It, moreover, embraces the laws appertaining to the killing of cattle and fowl for domestic use; and who may, and who may not, be permitted to kill the animals for food to be eaten by Israelites.
Fourth—Bechourous, or First Born.—This section treats of the laws relating to the first born of both man and cattle; pointing out in what manner, and at which period, they were to be redeemed, either with money, or brought up as an offering to the Lord. It speaks also of the tithes of all manner of cattle.
Fifth—Eyrachin, or Valuation, or Estimation.—This section treats of the manner in which things devoted to the Almighty are valued, so that they may be redeemed and applied to ordinarypurposes; as also how the priest shall value a field, devoted or sacrificed to the Lord by its owner.
Sixth—Temuroh, or Exchange.—This portion explains how far it may be lawful to exchange one sacred thing for another; as, whether an animal which had been consecrated as an offering to be sacrificed to the Lord might be exchanged. In most cases, where an animal had been consecrated to the Lord, and then exchanged, both the animal and its substitute became sacred.
Seventh—Kerisus, or Excisions.—This section relates to offenses which, if wantonly committed, were punished by the offender being cut off from among the people, calledKohrice. It points out, at the same time, what offenders were liable to this punishment. It likewise explains how those who had offended through accident, had to bring a sin or trespass offering.
Eighth—Mengeloh, or Trespass.—This portion treats of the nature of the trespass made by converting such things which have been consecrated and devoted to holy purposes, to profane or unholy matters.
Ninth—Tomeed, or Continual Offerings.—Herein are specified the daily sacrifices, and the description as to how, and in what manner, they were to be offered upon the altar of the Lord.
Tenth—Middous, or Dimensions.—This book is so called, because it speaks of the dimensions and proportions of the temple. It describes the mount on which the temple stood, and the full extent of theouter court. This was considered requisite to be known; for whoever had become unclean, from any circumstance whatever, was prohibited from entering the temple on pain of excision.
Eleventh—Koneem, or Nests.—This section speaks of the birds, such as pigeons or turtle-doves, which were brought as offerings by the poor, instead of the more expensive, which they were unable to bring. The smaller value was equally acceptable to the God of mercy and kindness.
The sixth general head, or class, is entitled Taharous, or purifications. It is divided into twelve sections.
First—Kyleem, or Vessels, Utensils.—This book is so called, because it treats of the pollutions incident to vessels, and how they are to be purified from such uncleanness. It treats also of the manner in which garments of every description may be purified, in the event of their becoming polluted or defiled by uncleanness of any kind.
Second—Oholous, or Tents.—This section treats of the manner in which houses become polluted; the nature of such pollutions; and how far those who enter such dwellings may thereby become contaminated, and how they may be purified.
Third—Negoim, or Plagues, or Diseases.—This book explains all the laws relative to the plague of leprosy; whether on man or beast, dwellings or garments. It shows how and in what manner infection took place; and how the things or persons so afflicted may become purified.
Fourth—Poroh, or Heifer.—This section speaks of the laws relating to the red heifer; how the said heifer should be burned to ashes, in order to make the water for purification; and in what manner all defilements, contracted by the touch or contact of a dead body, could be purified by means of the ashes of the red heifer.
Fifth—Taharous, or Purifications.—This portion treats of all those laws pertaining to such defilements which may be contracted otherwise than by the touch of a dead body; and of the manner purification may, and can take place.
Sixth—Mikvoous, or Baths.—This section treats of the laws and regulations for baths to be used for purification by ablutions; of all persons who may have from any cause whatever become unclean. Herein is also specified the manner in which the bath should be constructed, and the quantity of water required for every ablution.
Seventh—Niddoh, or Separation.—This portion explains all the laws relating to the pollutions and purifications of women after child-birth, and on every occasion of uncleanness.
Eighth—Machshereen.—This section explains in what manner seed or fruit became susceptible of defilement or pollution through the admixture of liquids.
Ninth—Zobeem, or Issues.—This portion treats of the laws relating to the impurities arising from the issues of the body; and points out how and when they are deemed unclean; and how and in whatmanner either persons or things may become affected by their pollution.
Tenth—Tibbul Youm, or Purification of a Day.—This portion speaks of persons who may become unclean, and require ablution to purify them; which purification cannot be considered complete until the setting of the sun on the same day when the purification shall take place.
Eleventh—Yodoyeem, or Hands.—This section treats of the laws and regulations for cleansing the hands from any uncleanness; and the custom and ceremony to be observed in washing the hands on the different occasions.
Twelfth—Uktseem, or Stalks.—This last section is so called, because it explains how the touching of the stalks of any sort of fruit may convey pollution to the fruit itself.
SYNOPSIS OF THE FOREGOING MISHNA.
No. 1.—Seder Zeroeem contains11 sections.No. 2.—Seder Moed contains12 sections.No. 3.—Seder Nosheem contains7 sections.No. 4.—Seder Nezekeen contains10 sections.No. 5.—Seder Kodosheem contains11 sections.No. 6.—Seder Taharous contains12 sections.Total63 sections.
In the foregoing chapter we described the manner in which the Mishna was compiled, together with its contents, from its first delivery by Moses till the time of its being committed to writing by Rabbi Judah the Prince. We shall now proceed in regular order to explain what the Talmud is, and how it was composed by the several learned men among the Jews both in Jerusalem and in Babylon.
The compilation of the Talmud ranks among the most ancient Hebrew writings. It consists of two distinct heads—the Mishna and the Gemara, and both together form the Talmud.
The Mishna, as already explained, chiefly contains the oral or traditional laws transmitted down to posterity from the time of Moses the Lawgiver, to that of Rabbi Judah the Prince or Nassi.
The Gemara consists of expositions and comments on the Mishna, as also various other subjects connected with Jewish literature, and more especially Jewish theology. It contains also treatises on moralphilosophy, ethics, mathematics, astronomy and chronology, and many other branches of the different sciences known in those days. The Gemara or expositions on the Mishna was commenced in the days of the Rabbins, Gamaliel and Simeon, the two sons of Rabbi Judah the Holy, about the year 3980 of the creation, and was completed and compiled into one body by Rav Ashi, President, and Raviny, Vice President, who are considered the actual compilers of the Babylonian Talmud. This took place about the year 4260.
The authors of the Talmud in general are styled Amooroim, dictators, as they dictated the several explications of the Mishna, as discussed in the different schools, and which are all found in the Talmud. The comments and expositions are known by the name of Gemara, which signifies completion, because therein is fully explained all the traditional doctrines of the Jewish law and its religion. The Mishna is the text, the Gemara the comment, or glossary, and both together form the Talmud.
There are two Talmudim. The first is styled Talmud Yerushalmi, or Jerusalem Talmud. This was compiled by Rabbi Jochanan in five sedorim or divisions. This Talmud does not contain the whole of the Mishna. It was completed about the year 4060. The second Talmud is called Talmud Bably, or Babylonian Talmud, which was completed about two hundred years after the other Talmud. The Talmud Yerushalmi is the least esteemed of the two, and consequently less studied and quoted by thelearned among Israel. It is the Babylonian Talmud which is usually studied and consulted in all points of jurisprudence, as connected with all religious affairs, both in, and out, of the synagogue. It is therefore to be understood, that whenever the Talmud is simply notified, it means the Babylonian Talmud; as the other Talmud is never quoted, unless particularly and expressly mentioned.
The Talmud Bably is arranged in the following order. The Mishna forms the text, and the Gemara is annexed as the comment or glossary. The same order is observed as with the Mishna, although it must be observed that the Gemara appears only on thirty-six sections, whereas the whole of the Mishna contains sixty-three sections, as explained in the foregoing chapter. The order of the Talmud is as follows:
No. 1.—Seder Zeroeem contains1 section.No. 2.—Seder Moed contains11 sections.No. 3.—Seder Nosheem contains7 sections.No. 4.—Seder Nezekeen contains8 sections.No. 5.—Seder Kodosheem contains8 sections.No. 6.—Seder Taharous contains1 section.Total36 sections.
Having given a brief description of the Mishna and the Talmud, and their contents, we now direct the attention of the reader to the following observations, as a summary to the preceding two chapters.
The Pentateuch, or Five Books of Moses, is generally understood by the term "written law," and the Talmud as the oral or traditional law. The oral law was handed down from Moses to Joshua, from the elders to the prophets, and from them to the Great Synod, which consisted of one hundred and twenty of the most learned men of the age, and in like manner from time to time, until the days of Rabbi Judah, already mentioned. This great man, seriously contemplating the state of his nation as regarded their religious affairs, and perceiving that those who were learned in the law were gradually diminishing in number, feared that the knowledge of the oral law might ultimately be forgotten, and with it the essential portion of the law of Moses.In the true spirit of devotion and piety, this Rabbi collected all the doctrines and precepts which had been taught orally, down to that period, and with the assistance of his pious colleagues, committed them to writing, and arranged them in the order of the Mishna, as already described. After the Mishna had been written, and presented to the nation at large, it was received by them with a general and unanimous consent. It was universally approved, and was held by them as an authentic document, delivered to Moses by the Almighty, while on the mount, as an explanation of the written law. The prevailing opinion among the people then was, that the Mishna had been handed down by tradition, and they were confirmed in such opinion by the conviction that the same had been taught to them in their youth in the various schools and academies which were established for such purposes. It was then considered expedient by the learned in those days, that some further explanation should be given, in order to render the Mishna more intelligible to the general class of readers.
With this view, some of the most eminent among the Jewish doctors, taught in the schools the oral law together with the signification thereof, and in this way they illustrated all the most abstruse and difficult passages by useful and instructive commentaries. These illustrations and glossaries increased from time to time, which formed the Talmud, such as it is at present in the possession of the Israelites. It abounds with aphorisms and ethics, which wereintroduced by the Rabbins and Doctors who composed the Talmud, in the course of their discussions. It was in this manner, that they supported the opinions advanced by them on the various subjects upon which they treated. These subjects were frequently illustrated by moral tales and allegories, such being the tutelar system prevalent among most of the oriental nations in those days.
In the said Talmud the Rabbins taught also the various arts and sciences, such as known in those times, although it may be conceded that they may not have reached to such perfection as in the present enlightened age; nevertheless the principle was known by the Israelites of old, and practically applied by them as far as necessity demanded. It is well known that astronomy, geometry, architecture, physics, natural philosophy, as well as many of the other sciences, were in high cultivation both before and after the Babylonian captivity.
The building of the tabernacle in the wilderness—the beautiful temple of Solomon,—the superb edifice erected by Herod the Great, may certainly be advanced as specimens of the science of architecture, in which must naturally be included that of geometry. It cannot be denied that the Jews were also famous in hydraulics, aqueducts, etc., military tactics and war implements, engineering, agriculture, etc.
That astronomy was successfully cultivated by the Israelites of old, is proved by the perpetual chronological calendar which was formed and brought to perfection in the days of the Talmudical doctors. Thiscalendar is composed both of the lunar and solar revolutions. Though it may not be strictly the province of this chapter to treat upon this subject, the reader will excuse the digression, in order to introduce a short extract of this calculation to show the basis upon which the same is founded, and prove that a knowledge of astronomy existed in those days, by the teachers of the Talmud. According to the Mosaic Law, the Israelites are directed to calculate the year and compute their holy days according to the lunar year. Twelve lunar,synodical revolutions,i.e.29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3 seconds, compose one simple year. Thus we make sometimes 353, 354, 355 days, allowing for fractions. Yet theEpactemof 10 days, 21 hours, 11 minutes and 20 seconds, in which the solar year exceeds the lunar, might be the cause, that the holy days would be removed from their respective seasons,—which would be the case, when calculating by the lunar only. So that in a period of seventeen years the feast of Passover would be in the autumn instead of the spring, and the feast of tabernacle in spring instead of the autumn. On this account it was that the Jewish chronologists took care to remedy this defect, by forming alternately, sometimes to compose the year of thirteen lunar months, as 383, 384, 385 days, for which reason they adopted a period of 19 years, in which they formed seven complete years,—as the 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, 19, complete of thirteen lunar months, and the interval twelve years,simple, of twelve lunar months only; and in this periodical calculation of 19 years,according to the above rotation of twelvesimpleand sevencompleteyears, thelunarandsolaryears then agree, without any variation whatever.[A]Hence it is that the Jewish calculation is very exactly and astronomically contrived, for it has never failed since its first introduction, now nearly fifteen centuries. This is a sufficient proof that the science of astronomy was known to the ancient Israelites.
We have already stated, that the Talmud contains many allegories, aphorisms, ethics, etc., which, it must be observed, are not to be interpreted in their literal sense, but as being intended to convey some moral and instructive lesson,—such being the system peculiar to oriental nations. This system not having been clearly understood by many of the Jews and Gentiles in both ancient and modern times, has led to the belief that the whole of the Talmud, as it now exists, is of divine origin. Now in justice to the authors of the Talmud, it must be stated, that they never intended to convey any such idea; their object was simply to render their discussions and dissertations intelligible to their coreligionists of those days, and that it should be carefully handed down to posterity. With this view it was, that the compilers of the Talmud left the work in its original and genuine state, with all the arguments and disputations as given by the authors in the various ages, so that they might not be charged with having interpolated it with ideas of their own, foreign to the views and intentions ofthe original authors of the work. This is sufficient to show that thewholeof the Talmud never was considered by the learned, as having a divine origin; butthoseportions of the Mishna, illustrative of the written law, as already explained, were received as divine, having been successively transmitted by oral tradition, from Moses to Rabbi Judah, the Prince, and by him placed before the world and handed down unalloyed to succeeding generations. In coming ages, the learned among Israel, desirous that the study of the Talmud should not be entirely lost, have added comments and glossaries, in order to render the work as easy as possible to the comprehension of the student. The Talmud contains, not, as has been said, the narrow-minded sentiments of bigots, but the devout and conscientious discussions of men deeply impressed with the love of divine providence, and anxious to inculcate that love in others by precept and observation.
It was wisely remarked by the celebrated Luzzato, "that the ancient Rabbies were the incorrupt reporters of the ceremonials and rites of the Jews, andno innovators!that they did not attempt to grasp a subject they could not comprehend, nor seek to hide by sophistical arguments, eloquently clothed, a truth that was apparent."No!for, says the Venetian sage, they spoke of things to the study of which their whole lives had been devoted, and their piety gave weight to their opinions.
We are aware, however, that we are open to severe criticisms; but we trust that our remarks mayneither shock the ear of the more enlightened portion of the Jewish nation, nor incur the displeasure of those, who still believe it to be a crime to urge a word respecting this time honored production. Much has been said on this subject. Whilst some have labored incessantly to enforce the divinity of the Talmud—others again, either from prejudice or other unholy motives, have set at nought the entire composition, and condemned it as useless in the present age. How far the latter may be justified in the promulgation of such sentiments, may be easily ascertained by a glance at Judaism at the present, in view of the strife and contention between the Orthodox and the Reform, with but little benefit to Judaism in general. The reader will look "on this picture and on that" and decide for himself.
We might quote many authorities of high standing among the Jewish literati, such as existed formerly in the schools of Jamnia, Tiberias, Surah, Pombeditha, etc.; and in subsequent ages, those unrivalled Luminaries that appeared in Spain and France, Germany and Poland, who have recommended the study of the Talmud as a guide to the perfect understanding of the holy writings. On the present occasion we prefer citing that which has been said of its merits by other divines, differing from the Jew in faith.
A celebrated Christian divine of the Catholic church who flourished in the fourth century, Aurelio Augustino, in a work called "The City of God," makes the following remarks:
"For, indeed, that nation, that people, that state, that republic, the Israelites, to whom was given the eloquence of God, in no way confounded the pseudo-prophets with their true prophets. But by a unanimous consent, and differing in nothing among themselves, they recognized the latter as the depositaries of the sacred writings, and considered them the authors. These true prophets were philosophers, that is, lovers of wisdom: being themselves wise men, they were theologians, prophets, and teachers of probity and piety. Whoever therefore lives and grows wise according to their doctrines, lives and grows wise not according to the doctrines of men, but according to thedoctrines of God, who spoke through them."
"He further states, that as the love of virtue, with which these philosophers were deeply imbued, is the foundation of true belief, and the basis of all religion, so their works, coming from so pure, so enlightened, and so pious a source, are entitled to be received, not only by Jews, but by men of all creeds, as guides to the true knowledge of God and to that state of spiritual bliss, which it should be our sole aim in this life to attain," for which reason, in his first book, "De Arcanis Catholicæ Veritatis," he strongly urged the propriety of having the Talmud translated into Latin, that it might be studied in the schools of Italy.
Peter Galatino, a learned Franciscan monk, who flourished in the early part of the sixteenth century, was known to be a great persecutor of the Jews.Yet in speaking of the sacred writings and Jewish literature in general, he expressed himself nearly in the following terms: That he regarded the Talmud as a divine work, and that he considered every part of it as perfect, and adorned with excellent moral instruction, adapted both for the guidance of our active and contemplative life, and entitled on account of its inspired authors, to be regarded as a work of extreme piety and goodness.
The above quotations are worthy of consideration. Let those Jews then, who would attempt to cast a slur upon the Talmud, look for one moment at these remarks, and pause while reflecting, that they were made by Catholics, ere they proceed in their attacks upon a work which could command such expressions from those whose religion was so widely different, but whose reason could not refuse to yield to the cogent proofs the divine book in itself contained.