A.PHONETICS.

A.PHONETICS.1.Distinctive sounds.1.The distinctive sounds are the following:LabialDentalPalatalVelarLaryngeal5Stops: unvoicedptkʾStops:,,voicedbdgSpirants (unvoiced)shNasals (voiced)mnŋTrill (voiced)r10Lateral (voiced)lHigh vowelsi(e,y)u(o,w)Low vowela2.ais a low unrounded vowel, as in Standard Englishfar, but more tense and with the corners of the mouth (lips) slightly15drawn back:hàlamanàngarden.3.iandu, in what may be regarded as the normal form, are about as high as the Standard (American) English vowels inpitandput, but more tense; moreover, the lips are well drawnback foriand well rounded foru:ínitheat,lutúinbe cooked.204.In the final syllable of a phrase (or of a word spoken alone) the tongue position ofianduis as a rule lowered, often all the way to mid position; the tenseness and lip position are, however, kept, so that the resulting sound often resembles Frenchèand lowero.255.uis nearly always so lowered:bágonew,buhòkhair. It is not lowered inpùʾten.6.iis not lowered before dentals:káhitthough,ákinmy,pígilcompulsion. It is usually kept high also before velars:sahìgflooring,siŋsìŋring. Some words ending in velars more or less30regularly have the lowering:pútik, pútekmud; so especially someproper names:IntsèkChinese,LóleŋLola.Even in other cases the higher variants ofiare commoner than the lower;hindìʾnot,kamìwe,gabìnight,mulìʾagainare commoner than these words withe; a very few words, such asulèʾagainhave oftenerethani; others, such asitèmblackare fairly regular in their variation.7.Within a closely unified phrase the lowering is as a rule omitted:ulí syaagain he(ulèʾ),Hintú na!Stop!(hintòʾ). In5this regard the habits are variable; the form chosen depends mostly on the speaker’s momentary attitude toward the closeness of joining of the words.A dissimilative factor also seems to be involved: a followingiorufavors the lowering:10Natùtúlug aŋ áso.The dog is sleeping.Natùtúlog si Hwàn.Juan is sleeping.8.ooccurs in a number of words as the vowel in the last two syllables: in all of them the intervening consonant is the glottal stop:óʾoyes,doʾònthere;boʾòʾwholehas occasionallybuʾòʾ.15The raised variant is not used within the phrase:Óʾo pòʾ.Yes, sir.Yes, ma’am.doʾòn syathere he.eoccurs in the same way inleʾègneck, besideliʾìg.9.In word-formation, when, by the addition of suffixes, theioruis no longer final, it is not lowered:lútoʾcook,lutúinbe20cooked;itèmblack,itimànbe made black. Occasionally, however,the lowered vowel is retained:táohuman being,ka-taó-hanmankind,besidekataúhan, tao-taó-hanmanikin,pupil of the eye, besidetautaúhan.The words withoʾo(§8) keep the lowered vowel when uncontracted:25pina-roʾon-ànwas gone to(doʾònthere); these words are also reduplicated witho:kinà-dò-roʾon-ànis been in.10.eandooccur also in unassimilated loan-words:bèsbolbaseball,Silà y nag-bè-bèsbol,They are playing baseball,estudiyànte, istudiyàntestudent,polìs, pulìspoliceman,sipérofootball30player,baŋkérocanoer(both with Spanish suffix-éroadded to Tagalog words:sípaʾfootball,baŋkàʾcanoe).Foresee also §29.11.As the variation betweeniandeand betweenoanduis thus never distinctive, there is no need of indicating it in transcription;35I have, however, used the characterseandowherever I heard markedly lowered variants.12.ianduoccur also as non-syllabics; I use, respectively, the charactersyandw:yaònthat,gáyalike,wíkaʾspeech,word,táwagcall. In final position they are always lowered: thus in40patàydead person,ikàwthou,yrepresents non-syllabice,wnon-syllabico.13.In word-formation before suffixes vowels are in certain cases lost, see Morphology:káninbe eaten,-káineatwith suffix-in.14.The laryngeal (glottal) stop occurs as a distinctive sound only after a vowel at the end of words:bátaʾchild,boy,girl,hindìʾnot,hintòʾstop.As a non-distinctive sound it is used as a vowel-separator5wherever syllabic vowels follow each other without an intervening distinctive non-syllabic. In this use I shall not indicate it in transcription, as it may be taken for granted wherever vowels are written together. Such words as those in §8will therefore from now on be transcribed without the sign for glottal stop:10doòn, óo, boòʾ. Sotáo(§9) meanstáʾo, etc. Cf. below.15.The distinctive final glottal stop is usually lost before a following word in the phrase:hindí syanot he,Hintú na!Stop!It is always lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child.1516.p,t,kare unvoiced fortis stops; they differ from the corresponding English sounds primarily in that they are only slightly aspirated. In sentence-final the implosion only is made.t(in contrast with the English sound) is postdental, often near to interdental.20kis always articulated in back velar position (as in Englishcoo), no matter what sound follows. The closure ofkis occasionally imperfect, so that a rather open velar spirant (resembling Slavicx) is heard:malaxàsformalakàsstrong; this variation has not been noted in transcription.25In word-formationp,t,kalternate, respectively, withm,n,ŋ; see Morphology.17.b,d,gcorrespond in position top,t,k. They are fully voiced lenis stops; in sentence-final often implosive only, and then weakly voiced.30The closure ofbis occasionally imperfect, so that a bilabial spirant is produced:túVigfortúbigwater; this variation has been ignored in transcription.In word-formationbalternates withm; see Morphology.Finaldin word-formation is always replaced byrbefore the35vowel of a suffix:lákadwalk,lakar-ànwalking-party.Initialdbecomesrin the sentence frequently after the final vowel of a preceding word and occasionally even after a final non-syllabic, in the wordsdaànhundred(not indaànroad),damò, dàw, dìn, díne, díto, diyàn, doòn; e. g.ako rìnI too.40In word-formation some words frequently changedtorafter the vowel of a prefix or a reduplication, and others do not:pa-raànmeans(daànroad,way), buti-pa-dalàbe sent(dalàbring,carry). The words (or roots) that have changeabled-are those mentioned in the preceding paragraph anddaàn, -dáka, damdàm, dámi, dámot, daŋàl, dapàʾ, dápat, dáti, -dátig, -datìŋ, dikìt, -dinìg, -díwaŋ, -dúkit, -dumè, dúnoŋ, dúsa.518.sis the normal unvoiced sibilant, spoken in postdental position. Beforeyandiyit is somewhat palatalized (more, for instance, than Russian palatalizeds),—a variation that is not distinctive and need not be noted in transcription:siyà, syàhe,she, pronounced with palatalizeds.10salternates in word-formation withn; see Morphology.In the affricate combinationts, which is felt and treated as a single sound, thesis always palatalized:IntsèkChinese.19.his the unvoiced glottal spirant; as in English, it occurs only in syllable-initial:hindìʾnot,báhayhouse,mukhàʾface.15In word-formationhis often spoken before the initial vowelof a suffix that is added to a final vowel:-básaread,basa-hànreading room. See Morphology.20.The nasalsm,n,ŋcorrespond in position to the stops. In word-formation they alternate, respectively, withp,t,k;m20also withb, andnalso withs;ŋis often prefixed to an initial vowel; see Morphology.Both in word-formation and in the phrase the nasals are occasionally assimilated in position to a following consonant:sà m pùʾten(m for ŋ),Saàŋ ka páparon?Where are you going?(for25saàn).In the sentence, finalnis lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ áki ŋ amàmy father(forákinmy).21.ris the voiced tongue-tip trill, postdental. It occurs between vowels within simple, underived words:árawsun,day,—no30doubt as a substitute ford, which never occurs in this position; everywhere elseris merely a variant ofd(§17).22.lis postdental; the timbre is much as in Standard French or German, the mid-tongue not lowered.23.fandv(both labiodental) occur in unassimilated foreign35words; they are occasionally replaced (especially in derivatives) bypandb.Filipínasthe Philippines,infiyèrno, impiyèrnoHell,fiyèsta, piyèstafiesta, but alwayska-piyestá-handay of a festival,sivìl, sibìlcivil,provìnsiyaprovince,bintánaʾwindow,básodrinking-glass.40roccurs freely in all positions in foreign words (cf. §21):trèntrain,trabáhowork,krùscross,relòswatch,sombrérohat,beside Tagalizedsambalílo.The occurrence ofts(§18) is probably limited to foreign words.24.When in word-formation a vowel is lost before a suffix (§13), the non-syllabics thereby brought together are subject to5various changes:sigl-ànbe filled,silìdwith suffix-an. See Morphology.2.Syllabication.a.In the word.25.If a single non-syllabic follows a stressed vowel, the latter10is spoken with open syllable accent, and the non-syllabic beginsthe following syllable:bá-hayhouse,sù-sú-latwill write.If a single non-syllabic follows an unstressed vowel, the latter has close syllable accent,—that is, no stress-division is made between the syllables (just as in English):itòthis,kasakimànselfishness,15sumú-latwrote.If two non-syllabics intervene between two syllabics, the syllable-division is made between the non-syllabics:luk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,In-tsèkChinese. Stressedayseems, however, to have open syllable accent:káy-lanwhen?20Syllabics never follow each other without an intervening non-syllabic. If no other non-syllabic intervenes, a non-distinctive glottal stop is spoken. I have not written the glottal stop in this position, as it may always be taken for granted (§14). Hencedaànroadis pronounceddaʾàn, siìkyoung pigsiʾìk, doònthere25doʾòn, táohuman beingtáʾo.Nor do more than two non-syllabics ever follow each other in a native word. The following are examples of unusual combinationsin foreign words:An-drès, Pé-dro, beside TagalizedPíro, ká-trebedstead,sèr-mon, trabá-howork, but in reduplicationmag-tà-trabá-ho30will work,krùscross, but in reduplicationnag-kú-kurùscrosses himself, cf.barásoarm,lóboballoon(Sp.globo).26.In frequently used words, especially in more rapid speech, the intervocalic glottal stop is often lost.If like vowels thus meet, they coalesce into a single vowel of35no more than normal length:pumarònwent therebesidepumaroòn. Whenoois thus contracted, the resultingomay be raisedtou(cf. §9):pinarunànwas gone to, besidepinaronànandpinaroonàn.If unlike vowels meet, the non-syllabic corresponding to the40higher vowel (i. e.ywithi,eandwwithu,o) takes the place of the glottal stop. Sotáwobesidetáo. The combinations soresulting are treated in every way like those discussed in the next §.27.If the non-syllabic intervening between two vowels isyorw, the combination involves no peculiarity, provided that neither5of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic:bá-yantown,pag-dirí-waŋcelebration,gayònthus.If, however, one of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic (i. e.i,ewithyandu,owithw) and is not stressed, it is spoken shorter than a normal unstressed vowel: in such words10asiyònthat,buwànmoon,monththei,uare spoken shorter than in other positions. So also intáwo(see preceding §) theo.After consonants these short vowels are often entirely omitted:bwànbesidebuwàn, syàhe,shebesidesiyà. The syllable-division remains, however, as in the longer form:kápwàʾfellow- beside15kápuwàʾis pronouncedká-pwàʾ(notkap-waʾ).Even in other positions these reduced vowels are often omitted, especially in frequently used combinations:Ano yòn?What’s that?besideAno iyòn?, occasionallytáwfortáwo, táo.28.Conversely, one hears now and then a superfluous short20i,ewith ay, and anu,owith aw:iyaònforyaònthat,máyeformáyhaving,uwalàʾforwalàʾwithout.29.The combinationsayandaiare occasionally replaced by a long opene:kélanbesidekáylanwhen?,mé báhaybesidemáy báhaywife,housewife,me áreʾbesidemay áreʾmaster,owner,25téŋabesidetaíŋacar.b.In word-formation.30.When in word-formation affixes or reduplicative syllables are added to a root, the syllabication is as in a simple word:sulá-tanbe written to(súlatwritingwith suffix-an),sumú-lat30wrote(same, with infix-um-),umuwèʾ, umwèʾ(§27)went home(-uwèʾgo home, with prefixed-um-).When vowels meet, they are as a rule separated by the non-distinctive intervocalic glottal stop:maà-á-reʾwill be possible(áreʾpropertyreduplicated and with prefixma-).3531.The intervocalic glottal stop is rarely reduced, except in certain much-used combinations, the commonest being those with the prefixi-and with the prefixka-and the suffix-anin certain uses (see Morphology):iniútoswas commanded(útoscommandwith prefixesin-andi-), usuallyiniyútos; laruàn,toy(laròʾplay,40gamewith suffix-an), usuallylaruwàn, larwàn, but (with a differentuse of the suffix-an)làrúanplayground;kayibígan, kaybíganfriend(íbiglove,desire, with prefixka-and suffix-an), butkaìbígansweetheartandkaibigànaffection. For-íwanabandonwith prefixi-only the contracted formíwanbe abandonedis spoken. Cf. furtherikaápat, ikápatfourth(ápatfourwith prefixes5i-andka-).32.Conversely, an originalyorwis sometimes under emphasis replaced by glottal stop; thus, forpatayìnbe killed(patàydead person,killwith suffix-in), occasionallypataìn.33.When a word is doubled, when two words are united in10a compound word, and after the prefixes that end ing, the syllable-division is however made as though separate words were meeting in a sentence,—that is, according to the rules in the following paragraphs.c.In the phrase.1534.When words come together in the phrase, the word-division is maintained (as in English) as a syllable-division.In the case of initial consonants the division is thus like thatwithin a word:Sumúlat ka.Write (thou),Sumúlat siyà, Sumúlatsyà.He wrote,Sumáma ka.Go along,Sumáma siyà, Sumáma20syà.He went along.Before a vowel-initial the word-division is maintained as a syllable-division by the use of a non-distinctive glottal stop (as in German):Sumúlat akò.I wrote, i. e.sumú-lat-ʾakò; Sumáma akò.I went along, i. e.sumá-ma-ʾakò.25Doubled words, compound words, and forms with prefixes ending in g (namely,mag-, nag-, pag-, tag-) are similarly treated (§33):agàd-agàdimmediately(agàdat oncedoubled), i. e.agàd-ʾagàd; báhay-aklátanlibrary-building(compound ofbáhayhouseandaklátanplace for books), i. e.bá-hay-ʾak-lá-tan; pagsúlatan30act of writing(súlatwritingwith prefixpag-), i. e.pag-sú-lat;nagáralstudied(áralteachingwith prefixnag-), i. e.nag-ʾá-ral.Occasionally, in emphatic speech, the same division is made within other formations:umakiyàt, umakyàtclimbed(-akiyàtclimbwith prefixed-um-), occasionally, but rarely,um-ʾakiyàt,35usuallyumakiyàt, umakyàt(by §30).35.Reduction of the glottal stop and contraction of vowels occur only in a few much-used combinations of words:si Andrès(siis the article of proper names), alsosiy Andrès, sy Andrès; Ano iyàn?What’s that?, alsoAno yàn?and evenAn yàn?; na40itòthis(nais a particle expressing attribution), alsona yitò, na ytò.36.Occasionally such reductions go even farther, as inanòin the preceding paragraph, and occur where the glottal stop is not involved: as,sàforisàoneinsà m pùʾten, forisà ŋ pùʾ.37.The wordsat, ay, andnahave also a shorter form,t, y,5andŋ, respectively, which occurs only (but not always) after a final vowel, glottal stop, orn. When these forms are used, the final glottal stop ornis lost (§§15,20) and thet, y, orŋis treated in every way exactly as though it were part of the preceding word:butò at balàt, butò t balàtbone and skin, i. e.butòt-balàt; Iyòn10ay mabúti, Iyò y mabúti.That’s good, i. e.iyòy-mabú-ti; aŋ bátaʾ na mabaìt(clumsy, as in the speech of a child just learning to speak, for:)aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child, i. e.aŋ-bá-taŋ-mabaʾìt.3.Accentuation.15a.Word-accent.38.In a word of more than one syllable at least one syllable is normally spoken with a greater degree of stress than the others.The unstressed syllables have short vowels (about as long as the vowel in Englishpitorput) and close syllable-stress (§25).2039.A non-final syllable ending in a non-syllabic (i. e. a closed non-final syllable) never has the stress; such words asluk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,ak-làtbookare therefore always oxytone. The only exceptions are syllables ending inay; this combination seems to be felt as a unit capable of open syllable-stress:káy-lan,25ké-lanwhen; further, the wordsmín-sanonce,pín-sancousin, andnàn-don, by-form ofná-roònis there; and, finally, unassimilatedforeign words:bès-bol, sèr-mon, kwàr-ta, kwàl-tamoney(Spanishcuarto), but also Tagalizedkwaltà.Words likeká-pwàʾ(besideká-puwàʾ) are not exceptions, for30the first syllable is not closed (§27).40.The stressed syllables fall into two grammatical classes which are only in part phonetically distinct; we may call themprimaryandsecondaryword-accent.41.Theprimaryword-accent on a final syllable or (in the35cases mentioned in §39) on a closed non-final syllable, consists merely in greater stress than that of an unaccented syllable, accompanied by a pitch-rise of about half a note.1I use the graveaccent-sign:gabìnight,hindìʾnot,kamàyhand,buhòkhair,nàndonis there,sèrmonsermon.42.On a non-final open syllable the primary word-accent involves an increase of stress (less than in English), a pitch-rise5of two notes, lengthening of the vowel to about one and one-half times the duration of an unstressed vowel, and open syllable-stress (§25). I use the acute accent-mark:báhayhouse,báyantown.So also, irregularly, syllables inay:káylan, kélanwhen?, and even finally:káy, kéthan,máy, méhaving; alsomínsan, pínsan.10If an unaccented syllable precedes, the pitch-rise really begins on the latter: insumúlatwrote, for instance, the first syllable is spoken above the usual pitch, and the two-note pitch-rise is merely completed in the accented syllable.43.Thesecondaryword-accent on a final syllable has weaker15stress than the primary accent in the same place, and ordinarily lacks the pitch-rise. Grammatically, it is recognizable by the presence of the primary accent on another syllable; I use the grave accent-mark:áakiyàt, áakyàtwill climb,nárinìgwas heard.44.On a non-final open syllable the secondary accent differs20from the primary accent in similar position in two respects: its pitch-rise is less marked, varying from three-quarters to one and three-quarters notes, and its vowel-lengthening is greater, reaching twice the length of an unstressed vowel. I use the grave accent-mark:sùsúlatwill write.25When the primary accent is on the last syllable and therefore weak (§41), the secondary accent often approaches a non-final primary accent in character: the first syllable of a word likenàbuksàncame openis often phonetically the same as that of a word likenárinìgwas heard.30If an unaccented syllable precedes the secondary accent, the pitch-rise really begins in the former: in such a word assumùsúlatis writingthe first syllable is spoken with higher than normal pitch, in the second syllable the pitch is brought up to a note and three-fourths above normal, and in the third the two-note rise is35completed.Of two secondary accents following each other the preceding is the more marked:nàràramdamànis felt(nà-has more marked accent thanrà-). This helps to make the primary accent distinct, for it is stronger than a preceding secondary accent:sùsúlatwill40write(the secondsu-is stronger, not weaker, than the first);nàlàlámanis known(if the third syllable had a secondary accent,it would be less marked than the first and second, but its pitch and stress are actually higher).b.Sentence-accent.45.Certain words areatonic, i. e. are always spoken unstressed5in the phrase: e. g.aŋ ásotheora dog,sa ákinto me.The atonic words are:aŋ, at, ay, kayto(notkáy, kéthan),kuŋ, naattributive(notnàalready),naŋ, niof(notnìnor),oor(notòoh),pag, sa, si.The short variants ofat, ay, andna, namelyt, y, andŋ10(§37), having no vowel, cannot be stressed; they are treated in every way as though they formed part of the preceding word.46.In closely united phrases the last word keeps its accent, while the preceding ones often weaken theirs. Especially a final syllable often loses its accent before another word in the phrase:15dáhil dítoon account of this, often:dahil díto,aŋ maŋà báhaythe houses, often:aŋ maŋa báhay,aŋ kanyà ŋ báhayhisorher house,aŋ kanya ŋ báhay,aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe large house,aŋ malaki ŋ báhay.47.Opposed to the preceding rule is the treatment of certain20words which we may callenclitics. These very frequently, to be sure, receive the normal treatment: that is, they are stressed and the preceding word either keeps its stress or, if oxytone, often loses it; but frequently, instead, the enclitic loses its accent:Umakyàt siyà, Umakyat syà.He climbed, but alsoUmakyàt25sya.Áakyàt siyà, Áakyat syà.He will climb, but alsoÁakyàt sya.Gánu ka na bà kakínis?How clever are you now?(kà, nà, bàare all enclitic).Enclitics have the further (and more easily recognized) peculiarity30that they follow the first orthotonic (i. e. neither atonic nor pretonic, §48) word of the expression to which they belong (either as modifiers or as subject):aŋ mahahába nya ŋ paàhis(niyà, enclitic)long legs.When several enclitics come together the last one is often35stressed. Monosyllabic enclitics precede disyllabic:Nahánap na nyà aŋ sombréro.He has already looked for the hat.(nàandniyàare enclitics; the latter is treated as disyllabic even when in the contracted formnyà).The enclitics are:40(1) always: the monosyllabic forms of the personal pronouns, namelykà, kò, mò, and the words (particles)bà, bagà, dàw, dìn, màn, múna, nà, namàn,nawàʾ, ŋàʾ, pà, palà, pòʾ, sána, tulòy.(2) frequently or in certain senses: the disyllabic forms of the personal pronouns (includingsiyà, syàandniyà, nyà) exceptikàw(which is never enclitic), the demonstrative pronouns, and the wordsdíne, díto, diyàn, doòn, kayàʾ, lámaŋ, ulèʾ; occasionally5short phrases (§88).For details about these words see Syntax.48.Opposed to the rule in §46are also certain words (particles) which we may callpretonics. Their treatment is often regular: that is, the pretonic as well as the following word keeps10its accent, or the pretonic loses its accent before a following word; but sometimes the pretonic keeps its accent and the following word, if oxytone, is unaccented:máy sakìt, may sakìthaving sickness, i. e.sick, but alsomáy sakit. Onlymáyandnásaactually appear with this accentuation.15The other pretonics are so classed because they share with these two words the peculiarity that an enclitic belonging to the phrase follows not the pretonic word, but the first orthotonic word:Máy katawàn sya ŋ pára ŋ táo.He has a body like a human20being.(siyàhe, enclitic follows notmáy, which is pretonic, butkatawànbody, the first orthotonic word of the predicate).The pretonics are the particlesbáwat, káhit,kapàg,kinà,maŋà, máy, nagìŋ(together with its other forms, §250),nása(together with its other forms, §212),nìnor(notniof),ninà,25pagkà, sinà, tagà (tigà). See Syntax.49.A final syllable ending in glottal stop (§14) often receives a higher degree of stress than a corresponding syllable with a different final.If the syllable ending in glottal stop has not the word-accent,30it often receives an accent resembling the secondary accent on a non-final syllable; this is especially common if the glottal stop is lost before another word in the phrase:páreʾ, párèʾpriest,Párì HwànFather Juan.If the syllable has a word-accent and the glottal stop is lost35in the phrase, its accent is often spoken like a primary word-accent on an open syllable:Walá sya.He has none(walàʾ),Naglálarú sya.He is playing(naglálaròʾ).If, however, the glottal stop is lost beforet, y, orŋ,this heightening of accent does not take place, since the syllable is then40treated as ending int, y, orŋ:Syà y walà ŋ aklàt(i. e.walàŋ-ʾak-làt),Sya y wala ŋ aklàt.He has no bookorno books.50.In a succession of otherwise unstressed syllables a rhythmicalmovement is usually produced by means of grammatically insignificant stresses weaker than a secondary word-accent; the distribution, and, indeed, the occurrence of these is so variable that I have not tried to indicate them in transcription, especially5as they are never distinctive. Thus, in the phrases in §46an accent of this kind may fall on the next-to-last syllables of the words that lose their normal word-accent:aŋ màŋa báhay, aŋ kànya ŋ amàhis father,aŋ malàki ŋ báhay.51.The successive accents in a sentence bear a well-marked10relation to each other: the early and especially the middle ones have higher absolute pitch than the last; an accent on the last syllable of a sentence often entirely loses its pitch-rise. As a consequence of this rather fixed melody, the differences of pitch-movement between statements, questions, commands, and exclamations15of various kinds are not so marked as in English; the higher stress of emotionally dominant (emphatic) words, also, is less marked than in English.In exclamation or under emphasis the accent of a final syllable may be like that of a medial syllable, and may, in addition20take on a falling accent after the rise:Hwán!(with rising-falling stress and pitch)Juan!, for normalHuwàn, Hwàn. Other disturbances of accent also occur in exclamation.

A.PHONETICS.1.Distinctive sounds.1.The distinctive sounds are the following:LabialDentalPalatalVelarLaryngeal5Stops: unvoicedptkʾStops:,,voicedbdgSpirants (unvoiced)shNasals (voiced)mnŋTrill (voiced)r10Lateral (voiced)lHigh vowelsi(e,y)u(o,w)Low vowela2.ais a low unrounded vowel, as in Standard Englishfar, but more tense and with the corners of the mouth (lips) slightly15drawn back:hàlamanàngarden.3.iandu, in what may be regarded as the normal form, are about as high as the Standard (American) English vowels inpitandput, but more tense; moreover, the lips are well drawnback foriand well rounded foru:ínitheat,lutúinbe cooked.204.In the final syllable of a phrase (or of a word spoken alone) the tongue position ofianduis as a rule lowered, often all the way to mid position; the tenseness and lip position are, however, kept, so that the resulting sound often resembles Frenchèand lowero.255.uis nearly always so lowered:bágonew,buhòkhair. It is not lowered inpùʾten.6.iis not lowered before dentals:káhitthough,ákinmy,pígilcompulsion. It is usually kept high also before velars:sahìgflooring,siŋsìŋring. Some words ending in velars more or less30regularly have the lowering:pútik, pútekmud; so especially someproper names:IntsèkChinese,LóleŋLola.Even in other cases the higher variants ofiare commoner than the lower;hindìʾnot,kamìwe,gabìnight,mulìʾagainare commoner than these words withe; a very few words, such asulèʾagainhave oftenerethani; others, such asitèmblackare fairly regular in their variation.7.Within a closely unified phrase the lowering is as a rule omitted:ulí syaagain he(ulèʾ),Hintú na!Stop!(hintòʾ). In5this regard the habits are variable; the form chosen depends mostly on the speaker’s momentary attitude toward the closeness of joining of the words.A dissimilative factor also seems to be involved: a followingiorufavors the lowering:10Natùtúlug aŋ áso.The dog is sleeping.Natùtúlog si Hwàn.Juan is sleeping.8.ooccurs in a number of words as the vowel in the last two syllables: in all of them the intervening consonant is the glottal stop:óʾoyes,doʾònthere;boʾòʾwholehas occasionallybuʾòʾ.15The raised variant is not used within the phrase:Óʾo pòʾ.Yes, sir.Yes, ma’am.doʾòn syathere he.eoccurs in the same way inleʾègneck, besideliʾìg.9.In word-formation, when, by the addition of suffixes, theioruis no longer final, it is not lowered:lútoʾcook,lutúinbe20cooked;itèmblack,itimànbe made black. Occasionally, however,the lowered vowel is retained:táohuman being,ka-taó-hanmankind,besidekataúhan, tao-taó-hanmanikin,pupil of the eye, besidetautaúhan.The words withoʾo(§8) keep the lowered vowel when uncontracted:25pina-roʾon-ànwas gone to(doʾònthere); these words are also reduplicated witho:kinà-dò-roʾon-ànis been in.10.eandooccur also in unassimilated loan-words:bèsbolbaseball,Silà y nag-bè-bèsbol,They are playing baseball,estudiyànte, istudiyàntestudent,polìs, pulìspoliceman,sipérofootball30player,baŋkérocanoer(both with Spanish suffix-éroadded to Tagalog words:sípaʾfootball,baŋkàʾcanoe).Foresee also §29.11.As the variation betweeniandeand betweenoanduis thus never distinctive, there is no need of indicating it in transcription;35I have, however, used the characterseandowherever I heard markedly lowered variants.12.ianduoccur also as non-syllabics; I use, respectively, the charactersyandw:yaònthat,gáyalike,wíkaʾspeech,word,táwagcall. In final position they are always lowered: thus in40patàydead person,ikàwthou,yrepresents non-syllabice,wnon-syllabico.13.In word-formation before suffixes vowels are in certain cases lost, see Morphology:káninbe eaten,-káineatwith suffix-in.14.The laryngeal (glottal) stop occurs as a distinctive sound only after a vowel at the end of words:bátaʾchild,boy,girl,hindìʾnot,hintòʾstop.As a non-distinctive sound it is used as a vowel-separator5wherever syllabic vowels follow each other without an intervening distinctive non-syllabic. In this use I shall not indicate it in transcription, as it may be taken for granted wherever vowels are written together. Such words as those in §8will therefore from now on be transcribed without the sign for glottal stop:10doòn, óo, boòʾ. Sotáo(§9) meanstáʾo, etc. Cf. below.15.The distinctive final glottal stop is usually lost before a following word in the phrase:hindí syanot he,Hintú na!Stop!It is always lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child.1516.p,t,kare unvoiced fortis stops; they differ from the corresponding English sounds primarily in that they are only slightly aspirated. In sentence-final the implosion only is made.t(in contrast with the English sound) is postdental, often near to interdental.20kis always articulated in back velar position (as in Englishcoo), no matter what sound follows. The closure ofkis occasionally imperfect, so that a rather open velar spirant (resembling Slavicx) is heard:malaxàsformalakàsstrong; this variation has not been noted in transcription.25In word-formationp,t,kalternate, respectively, withm,n,ŋ; see Morphology.17.b,d,gcorrespond in position top,t,k. They are fully voiced lenis stops; in sentence-final often implosive only, and then weakly voiced.30The closure ofbis occasionally imperfect, so that a bilabial spirant is produced:túVigfortúbigwater; this variation has been ignored in transcription.In word-formationbalternates withm; see Morphology.Finaldin word-formation is always replaced byrbefore the35vowel of a suffix:lákadwalk,lakar-ànwalking-party.Initialdbecomesrin the sentence frequently after the final vowel of a preceding word and occasionally even after a final non-syllabic, in the wordsdaànhundred(not indaànroad),damò, dàw, dìn, díne, díto, diyàn, doòn; e. g.ako rìnI too.40In word-formation some words frequently changedtorafter the vowel of a prefix or a reduplication, and others do not:pa-raànmeans(daànroad,way), buti-pa-dalàbe sent(dalàbring,carry). The words (or roots) that have changeabled-are those mentioned in the preceding paragraph anddaàn, -dáka, damdàm, dámi, dámot, daŋàl, dapàʾ, dápat, dáti, -dátig, -datìŋ, dikìt, -dinìg, -díwaŋ, -dúkit, -dumè, dúnoŋ, dúsa.518.sis the normal unvoiced sibilant, spoken in postdental position. Beforeyandiyit is somewhat palatalized (more, for instance, than Russian palatalizeds),—a variation that is not distinctive and need not be noted in transcription:siyà, syàhe,she, pronounced with palatalizeds.10salternates in word-formation withn; see Morphology.In the affricate combinationts, which is felt and treated as a single sound, thesis always palatalized:IntsèkChinese.19.his the unvoiced glottal spirant; as in English, it occurs only in syllable-initial:hindìʾnot,báhayhouse,mukhàʾface.15In word-formationhis often spoken before the initial vowelof a suffix that is added to a final vowel:-básaread,basa-hànreading room. See Morphology.20.The nasalsm,n,ŋcorrespond in position to the stops. In word-formation they alternate, respectively, withp,t,k;m20also withb, andnalso withs;ŋis often prefixed to an initial vowel; see Morphology.Both in word-formation and in the phrase the nasals are occasionally assimilated in position to a following consonant:sà m pùʾten(m for ŋ),Saàŋ ka páparon?Where are you going?(for25saàn).In the sentence, finalnis lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ áki ŋ amàmy father(forákinmy).21.ris the voiced tongue-tip trill, postdental. It occurs between vowels within simple, underived words:árawsun,day,—no30doubt as a substitute ford, which never occurs in this position; everywhere elseris merely a variant ofd(§17).22.lis postdental; the timbre is much as in Standard French or German, the mid-tongue not lowered.23.fandv(both labiodental) occur in unassimilated foreign35words; they are occasionally replaced (especially in derivatives) bypandb.Filipínasthe Philippines,infiyèrno, impiyèrnoHell,fiyèsta, piyèstafiesta, but alwayska-piyestá-handay of a festival,sivìl, sibìlcivil,provìnsiyaprovince,bintánaʾwindow,básodrinking-glass.40roccurs freely in all positions in foreign words (cf. §21):trèntrain,trabáhowork,krùscross,relòswatch,sombrérohat,beside Tagalizedsambalílo.The occurrence ofts(§18) is probably limited to foreign words.24.When in word-formation a vowel is lost before a suffix (§13), the non-syllabics thereby brought together are subject to5various changes:sigl-ànbe filled,silìdwith suffix-an. See Morphology.2.Syllabication.a.In the word.25.If a single non-syllabic follows a stressed vowel, the latter10is spoken with open syllable accent, and the non-syllabic beginsthe following syllable:bá-hayhouse,sù-sú-latwill write.If a single non-syllabic follows an unstressed vowel, the latter has close syllable accent,—that is, no stress-division is made between the syllables (just as in English):itòthis,kasakimànselfishness,15sumú-latwrote.If two non-syllabics intervene between two syllabics, the syllable-division is made between the non-syllabics:luk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,In-tsèkChinese. Stressedayseems, however, to have open syllable accent:káy-lanwhen?20Syllabics never follow each other without an intervening non-syllabic. If no other non-syllabic intervenes, a non-distinctive glottal stop is spoken. I have not written the glottal stop in this position, as it may always be taken for granted (§14). Hencedaànroadis pronounceddaʾàn, siìkyoung pigsiʾìk, doònthere25doʾòn, táohuman beingtáʾo.Nor do more than two non-syllabics ever follow each other in a native word. The following are examples of unusual combinationsin foreign words:An-drès, Pé-dro, beside TagalizedPíro, ká-trebedstead,sèr-mon, trabá-howork, but in reduplicationmag-tà-trabá-ho30will work,krùscross, but in reduplicationnag-kú-kurùscrosses himself, cf.barásoarm,lóboballoon(Sp.globo).26.In frequently used words, especially in more rapid speech, the intervocalic glottal stop is often lost.If like vowels thus meet, they coalesce into a single vowel of35no more than normal length:pumarònwent therebesidepumaroòn. Whenoois thus contracted, the resultingomay be raisedtou(cf. §9):pinarunànwas gone to, besidepinaronànandpinaroonàn.If unlike vowels meet, the non-syllabic corresponding to the40higher vowel (i. e.ywithi,eandwwithu,o) takes the place of the glottal stop. Sotáwobesidetáo. The combinations soresulting are treated in every way like those discussed in the next §.27.If the non-syllabic intervening between two vowels isyorw, the combination involves no peculiarity, provided that neither5of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic:bá-yantown,pag-dirí-waŋcelebration,gayònthus.If, however, one of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic (i. e.i,ewithyandu,owithw) and is not stressed, it is spoken shorter than a normal unstressed vowel: in such words10asiyònthat,buwànmoon,monththei,uare spoken shorter than in other positions. So also intáwo(see preceding §) theo.After consonants these short vowels are often entirely omitted:bwànbesidebuwàn, syàhe,shebesidesiyà. The syllable-division remains, however, as in the longer form:kápwàʾfellow- beside15kápuwàʾis pronouncedká-pwàʾ(notkap-waʾ).Even in other positions these reduced vowels are often omitted, especially in frequently used combinations:Ano yòn?What’s that?besideAno iyòn?, occasionallytáwfortáwo, táo.28.Conversely, one hears now and then a superfluous short20i,ewith ay, and anu,owith aw:iyaònforyaònthat,máyeformáyhaving,uwalàʾforwalàʾwithout.29.The combinationsayandaiare occasionally replaced by a long opene:kélanbesidekáylanwhen?,mé báhaybesidemáy báhaywife,housewife,me áreʾbesidemay áreʾmaster,owner,25téŋabesidetaíŋacar.b.In word-formation.30.When in word-formation affixes or reduplicative syllables are added to a root, the syllabication is as in a simple word:sulá-tanbe written to(súlatwritingwith suffix-an),sumú-lat30wrote(same, with infix-um-),umuwèʾ, umwèʾ(§27)went home(-uwèʾgo home, with prefixed-um-).When vowels meet, they are as a rule separated by the non-distinctive intervocalic glottal stop:maà-á-reʾwill be possible(áreʾpropertyreduplicated and with prefixma-).3531.The intervocalic glottal stop is rarely reduced, except in certain much-used combinations, the commonest being those with the prefixi-and with the prefixka-and the suffix-anin certain uses (see Morphology):iniútoswas commanded(útoscommandwith prefixesin-andi-), usuallyiniyútos; laruàn,toy(laròʾplay,40gamewith suffix-an), usuallylaruwàn, larwàn, but (with a differentuse of the suffix-an)làrúanplayground;kayibígan, kaybíganfriend(íbiglove,desire, with prefixka-and suffix-an), butkaìbígansweetheartandkaibigànaffection. For-íwanabandonwith prefixi-only the contracted formíwanbe abandonedis spoken. Cf. furtherikaápat, ikápatfourth(ápatfourwith prefixes5i-andka-).32.Conversely, an originalyorwis sometimes under emphasis replaced by glottal stop; thus, forpatayìnbe killed(patàydead person,killwith suffix-in), occasionallypataìn.33.When a word is doubled, when two words are united in10a compound word, and after the prefixes that end ing, the syllable-division is however made as though separate words were meeting in a sentence,—that is, according to the rules in the following paragraphs.c.In the phrase.1534.When words come together in the phrase, the word-division is maintained (as in English) as a syllable-division.In the case of initial consonants the division is thus like thatwithin a word:Sumúlat ka.Write (thou),Sumúlat siyà, Sumúlatsyà.He wrote,Sumáma ka.Go along,Sumáma siyà, Sumáma20syà.He went along.Before a vowel-initial the word-division is maintained as a syllable-division by the use of a non-distinctive glottal stop (as in German):Sumúlat akò.I wrote, i. e.sumú-lat-ʾakò; Sumáma akò.I went along, i. e.sumá-ma-ʾakò.25Doubled words, compound words, and forms with prefixes ending in g (namely,mag-, nag-, pag-, tag-) are similarly treated (§33):agàd-agàdimmediately(agàdat oncedoubled), i. e.agàd-ʾagàd; báhay-aklátanlibrary-building(compound ofbáhayhouseandaklátanplace for books), i. e.bá-hay-ʾak-lá-tan; pagsúlatan30act of writing(súlatwritingwith prefixpag-), i. e.pag-sú-lat;nagáralstudied(áralteachingwith prefixnag-), i. e.nag-ʾá-ral.Occasionally, in emphatic speech, the same division is made within other formations:umakiyàt, umakyàtclimbed(-akiyàtclimbwith prefixed-um-), occasionally, but rarely,um-ʾakiyàt,35usuallyumakiyàt, umakyàt(by §30).35.Reduction of the glottal stop and contraction of vowels occur only in a few much-used combinations of words:si Andrès(siis the article of proper names), alsosiy Andrès, sy Andrès; Ano iyàn?What’s that?, alsoAno yàn?and evenAn yàn?; na40itòthis(nais a particle expressing attribution), alsona yitò, na ytò.36.Occasionally such reductions go even farther, as inanòin the preceding paragraph, and occur where the glottal stop is not involved: as,sàforisàoneinsà m pùʾten, forisà ŋ pùʾ.37.The wordsat, ay, andnahave also a shorter form,t, y,5andŋ, respectively, which occurs only (but not always) after a final vowel, glottal stop, orn. When these forms are used, the final glottal stop ornis lost (§§15,20) and thet, y, orŋis treated in every way exactly as though it were part of the preceding word:butò at balàt, butò t balàtbone and skin, i. e.butòt-balàt; Iyòn10ay mabúti, Iyò y mabúti.That’s good, i. e.iyòy-mabú-ti; aŋ bátaʾ na mabaìt(clumsy, as in the speech of a child just learning to speak, for:)aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child, i. e.aŋ-bá-taŋ-mabaʾìt.3.Accentuation.15a.Word-accent.38.In a word of more than one syllable at least one syllable is normally spoken with a greater degree of stress than the others.The unstressed syllables have short vowels (about as long as the vowel in Englishpitorput) and close syllable-stress (§25).2039.A non-final syllable ending in a non-syllabic (i. e. a closed non-final syllable) never has the stress; such words asluk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,ak-làtbookare therefore always oxytone. The only exceptions are syllables ending inay; this combination seems to be felt as a unit capable of open syllable-stress:káy-lan,25ké-lanwhen; further, the wordsmín-sanonce,pín-sancousin, andnàn-don, by-form ofná-roònis there; and, finally, unassimilatedforeign words:bès-bol, sèr-mon, kwàr-ta, kwàl-tamoney(Spanishcuarto), but also Tagalizedkwaltà.Words likeká-pwàʾ(besideká-puwàʾ) are not exceptions, for30the first syllable is not closed (§27).40.The stressed syllables fall into two grammatical classes which are only in part phonetically distinct; we may call themprimaryandsecondaryword-accent.41.Theprimaryword-accent on a final syllable or (in the35cases mentioned in §39) on a closed non-final syllable, consists merely in greater stress than that of an unaccented syllable, accompanied by a pitch-rise of about half a note.1I use the graveaccent-sign:gabìnight,hindìʾnot,kamàyhand,buhòkhair,nàndonis there,sèrmonsermon.42.On a non-final open syllable the primary word-accent involves an increase of stress (less than in English), a pitch-rise5of two notes, lengthening of the vowel to about one and one-half times the duration of an unstressed vowel, and open syllable-stress (§25). I use the acute accent-mark:báhayhouse,báyantown.So also, irregularly, syllables inay:káylan, kélanwhen?, and even finally:káy, kéthan,máy, méhaving; alsomínsan, pínsan.10If an unaccented syllable precedes, the pitch-rise really begins on the latter: insumúlatwrote, for instance, the first syllable is spoken above the usual pitch, and the two-note pitch-rise is merely completed in the accented syllable.43.Thesecondaryword-accent on a final syllable has weaker15stress than the primary accent in the same place, and ordinarily lacks the pitch-rise. Grammatically, it is recognizable by the presence of the primary accent on another syllable; I use the grave accent-mark:áakiyàt, áakyàtwill climb,nárinìgwas heard.44.On a non-final open syllable the secondary accent differs20from the primary accent in similar position in two respects: its pitch-rise is less marked, varying from three-quarters to one and three-quarters notes, and its vowel-lengthening is greater, reaching twice the length of an unstressed vowel. I use the grave accent-mark:sùsúlatwill write.25When the primary accent is on the last syllable and therefore weak (§41), the secondary accent often approaches a non-final primary accent in character: the first syllable of a word likenàbuksàncame openis often phonetically the same as that of a word likenárinìgwas heard.30If an unaccented syllable precedes the secondary accent, the pitch-rise really begins in the former: in such a word assumùsúlatis writingthe first syllable is spoken with higher than normal pitch, in the second syllable the pitch is brought up to a note and three-fourths above normal, and in the third the two-note rise is35completed.Of two secondary accents following each other the preceding is the more marked:nàràramdamànis felt(nà-has more marked accent thanrà-). This helps to make the primary accent distinct, for it is stronger than a preceding secondary accent:sùsúlatwill40write(the secondsu-is stronger, not weaker, than the first);nàlàlámanis known(if the third syllable had a secondary accent,it would be less marked than the first and second, but its pitch and stress are actually higher).b.Sentence-accent.45.Certain words areatonic, i. e. are always spoken unstressed5in the phrase: e. g.aŋ ásotheora dog,sa ákinto me.The atonic words are:aŋ, at, ay, kayto(notkáy, kéthan),kuŋ, naattributive(notnàalready),naŋ, niof(notnìnor),oor(notòoh),pag, sa, si.The short variants ofat, ay, andna, namelyt, y, andŋ10(§37), having no vowel, cannot be stressed; they are treated in every way as though they formed part of the preceding word.46.In closely united phrases the last word keeps its accent, while the preceding ones often weaken theirs. Especially a final syllable often loses its accent before another word in the phrase:15dáhil dítoon account of this, often:dahil díto,aŋ maŋà báhaythe houses, often:aŋ maŋa báhay,aŋ kanyà ŋ báhayhisorher house,aŋ kanya ŋ báhay,aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe large house,aŋ malaki ŋ báhay.47.Opposed to the preceding rule is the treatment of certain20words which we may callenclitics. These very frequently, to be sure, receive the normal treatment: that is, they are stressed and the preceding word either keeps its stress or, if oxytone, often loses it; but frequently, instead, the enclitic loses its accent:Umakyàt siyà, Umakyat syà.He climbed, but alsoUmakyàt25sya.Áakyàt siyà, Áakyat syà.He will climb, but alsoÁakyàt sya.Gánu ka na bà kakínis?How clever are you now?(kà, nà, bàare all enclitic).Enclitics have the further (and more easily recognized) peculiarity30that they follow the first orthotonic (i. e. neither atonic nor pretonic, §48) word of the expression to which they belong (either as modifiers or as subject):aŋ mahahába nya ŋ paàhis(niyà, enclitic)long legs.When several enclitics come together the last one is often35stressed. Monosyllabic enclitics precede disyllabic:Nahánap na nyà aŋ sombréro.He has already looked for the hat.(nàandniyàare enclitics; the latter is treated as disyllabic even when in the contracted formnyà).The enclitics are:40(1) always: the monosyllabic forms of the personal pronouns, namelykà, kò, mò, and the words (particles)bà, bagà, dàw, dìn, màn, múna, nà, namàn,nawàʾ, ŋàʾ, pà, palà, pòʾ, sána, tulòy.(2) frequently or in certain senses: the disyllabic forms of the personal pronouns (includingsiyà, syàandniyà, nyà) exceptikàw(which is never enclitic), the demonstrative pronouns, and the wordsdíne, díto, diyàn, doòn, kayàʾ, lámaŋ, ulèʾ; occasionally5short phrases (§88).For details about these words see Syntax.48.Opposed to the rule in §46are also certain words (particles) which we may callpretonics. Their treatment is often regular: that is, the pretonic as well as the following word keeps10its accent, or the pretonic loses its accent before a following word; but sometimes the pretonic keeps its accent and the following word, if oxytone, is unaccented:máy sakìt, may sakìthaving sickness, i. e.sick, but alsomáy sakit. Onlymáyandnásaactually appear with this accentuation.15The other pretonics are so classed because they share with these two words the peculiarity that an enclitic belonging to the phrase follows not the pretonic word, but the first orthotonic word:Máy katawàn sya ŋ pára ŋ táo.He has a body like a human20being.(siyàhe, enclitic follows notmáy, which is pretonic, butkatawànbody, the first orthotonic word of the predicate).The pretonics are the particlesbáwat, káhit,kapàg,kinà,maŋà, máy, nagìŋ(together with its other forms, §250),nása(together with its other forms, §212),nìnor(notniof),ninà,25pagkà, sinà, tagà (tigà). See Syntax.49.A final syllable ending in glottal stop (§14) often receives a higher degree of stress than a corresponding syllable with a different final.If the syllable ending in glottal stop has not the word-accent,30it often receives an accent resembling the secondary accent on a non-final syllable; this is especially common if the glottal stop is lost before another word in the phrase:páreʾ, párèʾpriest,Párì HwànFather Juan.If the syllable has a word-accent and the glottal stop is lost35in the phrase, its accent is often spoken like a primary word-accent on an open syllable:Walá sya.He has none(walàʾ),Naglálarú sya.He is playing(naglálaròʾ).If, however, the glottal stop is lost beforet, y, orŋ,this heightening of accent does not take place, since the syllable is then40treated as ending int, y, orŋ:Syà y walà ŋ aklàt(i. e.walàŋ-ʾak-làt),Sya y wala ŋ aklàt.He has no bookorno books.50.In a succession of otherwise unstressed syllables a rhythmicalmovement is usually produced by means of grammatically insignificant stresses weaker than a secondary word-accent; the distribution, and, indeed, the occurrence of these is so variable that I have not tried to indicate them in transcription, especially5as they are never distinctive. Thus, in the phrases in §46an accent of this kind may fall on the next-to-last syllables of the words that lose their normal word-accent:aŋ màŋa báhay, aŋ kànya ŋ amàhis father,aŋ malàki ŋ báhay.51.The successive accents in a sentence bear a well-marked10relation to each other: the early and especially the middle ones have higher absolute pitch than the last; an accent on the last syllable of a sentence often entirely loses its pitch-rise. As a consequence of this rather fixed melody, the differences of pitch-movement between statements, questions, commands, and exclamations15of various kinds are not so marked as in English; the higher stress of emotionally dominant (emphatic) words, also, is less marked than in English.In exclamation or under emphasis the accent of a final syllable may be like that of a medial syllable, and may, in addition20take on a falling accent after the rise:Hwán!(with rising-falling stress and pitch)Juan!, for normalHuwàn, Hwàn. Other disturbances of accent also occur in exclamation.

A.PHONETICS.1.Distinctive sounds.1.The distinctive sounds are the following:LabialDentalPalatalVelarLaryngeal5Stops: unvoicedptkʾStops:,,voicedbdgSpirants (unvoiced)shNasals (voiced)mnŋTrill (voiced)r10Lateral (voiced)lHigh vowelsi(e,y)u(o,w)Low vowela2.ais a low unrounded vowel, as in Standard Englishfar, but more tense and with the corners of the mouth (lips) slightly15drawn back:hàlamanàngarden.3.iandu, in what may be regarded as the normal form, are about as high as the Standard (American) English vowels inpitandput, but more tense; moreover, the lips are well drawnback foriand well rounded foru:ínitheat,lutúinbe cooked.204.In the final syllable of a phrase (or of a word spoken alone) the tongue position ofianduis as a rule lowered, often all the way to mid position; the tenseness and lip position are, however, kept, so that the resulting sound often resembles Frenchèand lowero.255.uis nearly always so lowered:bágonew,buhòkhair. It is not lowered inpùʾten.6.iis not lowered before dentals:káhitthough,ákinmy,pígilcompulsion. It is usually kept high also before velars:sahìgflooring,siŋsìŋring. Some words ending in velars more or less30regularly have the lowering:pútik, pútekmud; so especially someproper names:IntsèkChinese,LóleŋLola.Even in other cases the higher variants ofiare commoner than the lower;hindìʾnot,kamìwe,gabìnight,mulìʾagainare commoner than these words withe; a very few words, such asulèʾagainhave oftenerethani; others, such asitèmblackare fairly regular in their variation.7.Within a closely unified phrase the lowering is as a rule omitted:ulí syaagain he(ulèʾ),Hintú na!Stop!(hintòʾ). In5this regard the habits are variable; the form chosen depends mostly on the speaker’s momentary attitude toward the closeness of joining of the words.A dissimilative factor also seems to be involved: a followingiorufavors the lowering:10Natùtúlug aŋ áso.The dog is sleeping.Natùtúlog si Hwàn.Juan is sleeping.8.ooccurs in a number of words as the vowel in the last two syllables: in all of them the intervening consonant is the glottal stop:óʾoyes,doʾònthere;boʾòʾwholehas occasionallybuʾòʾ.15The raised variant is not used within the phrase:Óʾo pòʾ.Yes, sir.Yes, ma’am.doʾòn syathere he.eoccurs in the same way inleʾègneck, besideliʾìg.9.In word-formation, when, by the addition of suffixes, theioruis no longer final, it is not lowered:lútoʾcook,lutúinbe20cooked;itèmblack,itimànbe made black. Occasionally, however,the lowered vowel is retained:táohuman being,ka-taó-hanmankind,besidekataúhan, tao-taó-hanmanikin,pupil of the eye, besidetautaúhan.The words withoʾo(§8) keep the lowered vowel when uncontracted:25pina-roʾon-ànwas gone to(doʾònthere); these words are also reduplicated witho:kinà-dò-roʾon-ànis been in.10.eandooccur also in unassimilated loan-words:bèsbolbaseball,Silà y nag-bè-bèsbol,They are playing baseball,estudiyànte, istudiyàntestudent,polìs, pulìspoliceman,sipérofootball30player,baŋkérocanoer(both with Spanish suffix-éroadded to Tagalog words:sípaʾfootball,baŋkàʾcanoe).Foresee also §29.11.As the variation betweeniandeand betweenoanduis thus never distinctive, there is no need of indicating it in transcription;35I have, however, used the characterseandowherever I heard markedly lowered variants.12.ianduoccur also as non-syllabics; I use, respectively, the charactersyandw:yaònthat,gáyalike,wíkaʾspeech,word,táwagcall. In final position they are always lowered: thus in40patàydead person,ikàwthou,yrepresents non-syllabice,wnon-syllabico.13.In word-formation before suffixes vowels are in certain cases lost, see Morphology:káninbe eaten,-káineatwith suffix-in.14.The laryngeal (glottal) stop occurs as a distinctive sound only after a vowel at the end of words:bátaʾchild,boy,girl,hindìʾnot,hintòʾstop.As a non-distinctive sound it is used as a vowel-separator5wherever syllabic vowels follow each other without an intervening distinctive non-syllabic. In this use I shall not indicate it in transcription, as it may be taken for granted wherever vowels are written together. Such words as those in §8will therefore from now on be transcribed without the sign for glottal stop:10doòn, óo, boòʾ. Sotáo(§9) meanstáʾo, etc. Cf. below.15.The distinctive final glottal stop is usually lost before a following word in the phrase:hindí syanot he,Hintú na!Stop!It is always lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child.1516.p,t,kare unvoiced fortis stops; they differ from the corresponding English sounds primarily in that they are only slightly aspirated. In sentence-final the implosion only is made.t(in contrast with the English sound) is postdental, often near to interdental.20kis always articulated in back velar position (as in Englishcoo), no matter what sound follows. The closure ofkis occasionally imperfect, so that a rather open velar spirant (resembling Slavicx) is heard:malaxàsformalakàsstrong; this variation has not been noted in transcription.25In word-formationp,t,kalternate, respectively, withm,n,ŋ; see Morphology.17.b,d,gcorrespond in position top,t,k. They are fully voiced lenis stops; in sentence-final often implosive only, and then weakly voiced.30The closure ofbis occasionally imperfect, so that a bilabial spirant is produced:túVigfortúbigwater; this variation has been ignored in transcription.In word-formationbalternates withm; see Morphology.Finaldin word-formation is always replaced byrbefore the35vowel of a suffix:lákadwalk,lakar-ànwalking-party.Initialdbecomesrin the sentence frequently after the final vowel of a preceding word and occasionally even after a final non-syllabic, in the wordsdaànhundred(not indaànroad),damò, dàw, dìn, díne, díto, diyàn, doòn; e. g.ako rìnI too.40In word-formation some words frequently changedtorafter the vowel of a prefix or a reduplication, and others do not:pa-raànmeans(daànroad,way), buti-pa-dalàbe sent(dalàbring,carry). The words (or roots) that have changeabled-are those mentioned in the preceding paragraph anddaàn, -dáka, damdàm, dámi, dámot, daŋàl, dapàʾ, dápat, dáti, -dátig, -datìŋ, dikìt, -dinìg, -díwaŋ, -dúkit, -dumè, dúnoŋ, dúsa.518.sis the normal unvoiced sibilant, spoken in postdental position. Beforeyandiyit is somewhat palatalized (more, for instance, than Russian palatalizeds),—a variation that is not distinctive and need not be noted in transcription:siyà, syàhe,she, pronounced with palatalizeds.10salternates in word-formation withn; see Morphology.In the affricate combinationts, which is felt and treated as a single sound, thesis always palatalized:IntsèkChinese.19.his the unvoiced glottal spirant; as in English, it occurs only in syllable-initial:hindìʾnot,báhayhouse,mukhàʾface.15In word-formationhis often spoken before the initial vowelof a suffix that is added to a final vowel:-básaread,basa-hànreading room. See Morphology.20.The nasalsm,n,ŋcorrespond in position to the stops. In word-formation they alternate, respectively, withp,t,k;m20also withb, andnalso withs;ŋis often prefixed to an initial vowel; see Morphology.Both in word-formation and in the phrase the nasals are occasionally assimilated in position to a following consonant:sà m pùʾten(m for ŋ),Saàŋ ka páparon?Where are you going?(for25saàn).In the sentence, finalnis lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ áki ŋ amàmy father(forákinmy).21.ris the voiced tongue-tip trill, postdental. It occurs between vowels within simple, underived words:árawsun,day,—no30doubt as a substitute ford, which never occurs in this position; everywhere elseris merely a variant ofd(§17).22.lis postdental; the timbre is much as in Standard French or German, the mid-tongue not lowered.23.fandv(both labiodental) occur in unassimilated foreign35words; they are occasionally replaced (especially in derivatives) bypandb.Filipínasthe Philippines,infiyèrno, impiyèrnoHell,fiyèsta, piyèstafiesta, but alwayska-piyestá-handay of a festival,sivìl, sibìlcivil,provìnsiyaprovince,bintánaʾwindow,básodrinking-glass.40roccurs freely in all positions in foreign words (cf. §21):trèntrain,trabáhowork,krùscross,relòswatch,sombrérohat,beside Tagalizedsambalílo.The occurrence ofts(§18) is probably limited to foreign words.24.When in word-formation a vowel is lost before a suffix (§13), the non-syllabics thereby brought together are subject to5various changes:sigl-ànbe filled,silìdwith suffix-an. See Morphology.2.Syllabication.a.In the word.25.If a single non-syllabic follows a stressed vowel, the latter10is spoken with open syllable accent, and the non-syllabic beginsthe following syllable:bá-hayhouse,sù-sú-latwill write.If a single non-syllabic follows an unstressed vowel, the latter has close syllable accent,—that is, no stress-division is made between the syllables (just as in English):itòthis,kasakimànselfishness,15sumú-latwrote.If two non-syllabics intervene between two syllabics, the syllable-division is made between the non-syllabics:luk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,In-tsèkChinese. Stressedayseems, however, to have open syllable accent:káy-lanwhen?20Syllabics never follow each other without an intervening non-syllabic. If no other non-syllabic intervenes, a non-distinctive glottal stop is spoken. I have not written the glottal stop in this position, as it may always be taken for granted (§14). Hencedaànroadis pronounceddaʾàn, siìkyoung pigsiʾìk, doònthere25doʾòn, táohuman beingtáʾo.Nor do more than two non-syllabics ever follow each other in a native word. The following are examples of unusual combinationsin foreign words:An-drès, Pé-dro, beside TagalizedPíro, ká-trebedstead,sèr-mon, trabá-howork, but in reduplicationmag-tà-trabá-ho30will work,krùscross, but in reduplicationnag-kú-kurùscrosses himself, cf.barásoarm,lóboballoon(Sp.globo).26.In frequently used words, especially in more rapid speech, the intervocalic glottal stop is often lost.If like vowels thus meet, they coalesce into a single vowel of35no more than normal length:pumarònwent therebesidepumaroòn. Whenoois thus contracted, the resultingomay be raisedtou(cf. §9):pinarunànwas gone to, besidepinaronànandpinaroonàn.If unlike vowels meet, the non-syllabic corresponding to the40higher vowel (i. e.ywithi,eandwwithu,o) takes the place of the glottal stop. Sotáwobesidetáo. The combinations soresulting are treated in every way like those discussed in the next §.27.If the non-syllabic intervening between two vowels isyorw, the combination involves no peculiarity, provided that neither5of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic:bá-yantown,pag-dirí-waŋcelebration,gayònthus.If, however, one of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic (i. e.i,ewithyandu,owithw) and is not stressed, it is spoken shorter than a normal unstressed vowel: in such words10asiyònthat,buwànmoon,monththei,uare spoken shorter than in other positions. So also intáwo(see preceding §) theo.After consonants these short vowels are often entirely omitted:bwànbesidebuwàn, syàhe,shebesidesiyà. The syllable-division remains, however, as in the longer form:kápwàʾfellow- beside15kápuwàʾis pronouncedká-pwàʾ(notkap-waʾ).Even in other positions these reduced vowels are often omitted, especially in frequently used combinations:Ano yòn?What’s that?besideAno iyòn?, occasionallytáwfortáwo, táo.28.Conversely, one hears now and then a superfluous short20i,ewith ay, and anu,owith aw:iyaònforyaònthat,máyeformáyhaving,uwalàʾforwalàʾwithout.29.The combinationsayandaiare occasionally replaced by a long opene:kélanbesidekáylanwhen?,mé báhaybesidemáy báhaywife,housewife,me áreʾbesidemay áreʾmaster,owner,25téŋabesidetaíŋacar.b.In word-formation.30.When in word-formation affixes or reduplicative syllables are added to a root, the syllabication is as in a simple word:sulá-tanbe written to(súlatwritingwith suffix-an),sumú-lat30wrote(same, with infix-um-),umuwèʾ, umwèʾ(§27)went home(-uwèʾgo home, with prefixed-um-).When vowels meet, they are as a rule separated by the non-distinctive intervocalic glottal stop:maà-á-reʾwill be possible(áreʾpropertyreduplicated and with prefixma-).3531.The intervocalic glottal stop is rarely reduced, except in certain much-used combinations, the commonest being those with the prefixi-and with the prefixka-and the suffix-anin certain uses (see Morphology):iniútoswas commanded(útoscommandwith prefixesin-andi-), usuallyiniyútos; laruàn,toy(laròʾplay,40gamewith suffix-an), usuallylaruwàn, larwàn, but (with a differentuse of the suffix-an)làrúanplayground;kayibígan, kaybíganfriend(íbiglove,desire, with prefixka-and suffix-an), butkaìbígansweetheartandkaibigànaffection. For-íwanabandonwith prefixi-only the contracted formíwanbe abandonedis spoken. Cf. furtherikaápat, ikápatfourth(ápatfourwith prefixes5i-andka-).32.Conversely, an originalyorwis sometimes under emphasis replaced by glottal stop; thus, forpatayìnbe killed(patàydead person,killwith suffix-in), occasionallypataìn.33.When a word is doubled, when two words are united in10a compound word, and after the prefixes that end ing, the syllable-division is however made as though separate words were meeting in a sentence,—that is, according to the rules in the following paragraphs.c.In the phrase.1534.When words come together in the phrase, the word-division is maintained (as in English) as a syllable-division.In the case of initial consonants the division is thus like thatwithin a word:Sumúlat ka.Write (thou),Sumúlat siyà, Sumúlatsyà.He wrote,Sumáma ka.Go along,Sumáma siyà, Sumáma20syà.He went along.Before a vowel-initial the word-division is maintained as a syllable-division by the use of a non-distinctive glottal stop (as in German):Sumúlat akò.I wrote, i. e.sumú-lat-ʾakò; Sumáma akò.I went along, i. e.sumá-ma-ʾakò.25Doubled words, compound words, and forms with prefixes ending in g (namely,mag-, nag-, pag-, tag-) are similarly treated (§33):agàd-agàdimmediately(agàdat oncedoubled), i. e.agàd-ʾagàd; báhay-aklátanlibrary-building(compound ofbáhayhouseandaklátanplace for books), i. e.bá-hay-ʾak-lá-tan; pagsúlatan30act of writing(súlatwritingwith prefixpag-), i. e.pag-sú-lat;nagáralstudied(áralteachingwith prefixnag-), i. e.nag-ʾá-ral.Occasionally, in emphatic speech, the same division is made within other formations:umakiyàt, umakyàtclimbed(-akiyàtclimbwith prefixed-um-), occasionally, but rarely,um-ʾakiyàt,35usuallyumakiyàt, umakyàt(by §30).35.Reduction of the glottal stop and contraction of vowels occur only in a few much-used combinations of words:si Andrès(siis the article of proper names), alsosiy Andrès, sy Andrès; Ano iyàn?What’s that?, alsoAno yàn?and evenAn yàn?; na40itòthis(nais a particle expressing attribution), alsona yitò, na ytò.36.Occasionally such reductions go even farther, as inanòin the preceding paragraph, and occur where the glottal stop is not involved: as,sàforisàoneinsà m pùʾten, forisà ŋ pùʾ.37.The wordsat, ay, andnahave also a shorter form,t, y,5andŋ, respectively, which occurs only (but not always) after a final vowel, glottal stop, orn. When these forms are used, the final glottal stop ornis lost (§§15,20) and thet, y, orŋis treated in every way exactly as though it were part of the preceding word:butò at balàt, butò t balàtbone and skin, i. e.butòt-balàt; Iyòn10ay mabúti, Iyò y mabúti.That’s good, i. e.iyòy-mabú-ti; aŋ bátaʾ na mabaìt(clumsy, as in the speech of a child just learning to speak, for:)aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child, i. e.aŋ-bá-taŋ-mabaʾìt.3.Accentuation.15a.Word-accent.38.In a word of more than one syllable at least one syllable is normally spoken with a greater degree of stress than the others.The unstressed syllables have short vowels (about as long as the vowel in Englishpitorput) and close syllable-stress (§25).2039.A non-final syllable ending in a non-syllabic (i. e. a closed non-final syllable) never has the stress; such words asluk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,ak-làtbookare therefore always oxytone. The only exceptions are syllables ending inay; this combination seems to be felt as a unit capable of open syllable-stress:káy-lan,25ké-lanwhen; further, the wordsmín-sanonce,pín-sancousin, andnàn-don, by-form ofná-roònis there; and, finally, unassimilatedforeign words:bès-bol, sèr-mon, kwàr-ta, kwàl-tamoney(Spanishcuarto), but also Tagalizedkwaltà.Words likeká-pwàʾ(besideká-puwàʾ) are not exceptions, for30the first syllable is not closed (§27).40.The stressed syllables fall into two grammatical classes which are only in part phonetically distinct; we may call themprimaryandsecondaryword-accent.41.Theprimaryword-accent on a final syllable or (in the35cases mentioned in §39) on a closed non-final syllable, consists merely in greater stress than that of an unaccented syllable, accompanied by a pitch-rise of about half a note.1I use the graveaccent-sign:gabìnight,hindìʾnot,kamàyhand,buhòkhair,nàndonis there,sèrmonsermon.42.On a non-final open syllable the primary word-accent involves an increase of stress (less than in English), a pitch-rise5of two notes, lengthening of the vowel to about one and one-half times the duration of an unstressed vowel, and open syllable-stress (§25). I use the acute accent-mark:báhayhouse,báyantown.So also, irregularly, syllables inay:káylan, kélanwhen?, and even finally:káy, kéthan,máy, méhaving; alsomínsan, pínsan.10If an unaccented syllable precedes, the pitch-rise really begins on the latter: insumúlatwrote, for instance, the first syllable is spoken above the usual pitch, and the two-note pitch-rise is merely completed in the accented syllable.43.Thesecondaryword-accent on a final syllable has weaker15stress than the primary accent in the same place, and ordinarily lacks the pitch-rise. Grammatically, it is recognizable by the presence of the primary accent on another syllable; I use the grave accent-mark:áakiyàt, áakyàtwill climb,nárinìgwas heard.44.On a non-final open syllable the secondary accent differs20from the primary accent in similar position in two respects: its pitch-rise is less marked, varying from three-quarters to one and three-quarters notes, and its vowel-lengthening is greater, reaching twice the length of an unstressed vowel. I use the grave accent-mark:sùsúlatwill write.25When the primary accent is on the last syllable and therefore weak (§41), the secondary accent often approaches a non-final primary accent in character: the first syllable of a word likenàbuksàncame openis often phonetically the same as that of a word likenárinìgwas heard.30If an unaccented syllable precedes the secondary accent, the pitch-rise really begins in the former: in such a word assumùsúlatis writingthe first syllable is spoken with higher than normal pitch, in the second syllable the pitch is brought up to a note and three-fourths above normal, and in the third the two-note rise is35completed.Of two secondary accents following each other the preceding is the more marked:nàràramdamànis felt(nà-has more marked accent thanrà-). This helps to make the primary accent distinct, for it is stronger than a preceding secondary accent:sùsúlatwill40write(the secondsu-is stronger, not weaker, than the first);nàlàlámanis known(if the third syllable had a secondary accent,it would be less marked than the first and second, but its pitch and stress are actually higher).b.Sentence-accent.45.Certain words areatonic, i. e. are always spoken unstressed5in the phrase: e. g.aŋ ásotheora dog,sa ákinto me.The atonic words are:aŋ, at, ay, kayto(notkáy, kéthan),kuŋ, naattributive(notnàalready),naŋ, niof(notnìnor),oor(notòoh),pag, sa, si.The short variants ofat, ay, andna, namelyt, y, andŋ10(§37), having no vowel, cannot be stressed; they are treated in every way as though they formed part of the preceding word.46.In closely united phrases the last word keeps its accent, while the preceding ones often weaken theirs. Especially a final syllable often loses its accent before another word in the phrase:15dáhil dítoon account of this, often:dahil díto,aŋ maŋà báhaythe houses, often:aŋ maŋa báhay,aŋ kanyà ŋ báhayhisorher house,aŋ kanya ŋ báhay,aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe large house,aŋ malaki ŋ báhay.47.Opposed to the preceding rule is the treatment of certain20words which we may callenclitics. These very frequently, to be sure, receive the normal treatment: that is, they are stressed and the preceding word either keeps its stress or, if oxytone, often loses it; but frequently, instead, the enclitic loses its accent:Umakyàt siyà, Umakyat syà.He climbed, but alsoUmakyàt25sya.Áakyàt siyà, Áakyat syà.He will climb, but alsoÁakyàt sya.Gánu ka na bà kakínis?How clever are you now?(kà, nà, bàare all enclitic).Enclitics have the further (and more easily recognized) peculiarity30that they follow the first orthotonic (i. e. neither atonic nor pretonic, §48) word of the expression to which they belong (either as modifiers or as subject):aŋ mahahába nya ŋ paàhis(niyà, enclitic)long legs.When several enclitics come together the last one is often35stressed. Monosyllabic enclitics precede disyllabic:Nahánap na nyà aŋ sombréro.He has already looked for the hat.(nàandniyàare enclitics; the latter is treated as disyllabic even when in the contracted formnyà).The enclitics are:40(1) always: the monosyllabic forms of the personal pronouns, namelykà, kò, mò, and the words (particles)bà, bagà, dàw, dìn, màn, múna, nà, namàn,nawàʾ, ŋàʾ, pà, palà, pòʾ, sána, tulòy.(2) frequently or in certain senses: the disyllabic forms of the personal pronouns (includingsiyà, syàandniyà, nyà) exceptikàw(which is never enclitic), the demonstrative pronouns, and the wordsdíne, díto, diyàn, doòn, kayàʾ, lámaŋ, ulèʾ; occasionally5short phrases (§88).For details about these words see Syntax.48.Opposed to the rule in §46are also certain words (particles) which we may callpretonics. Their treatment is often regular: that is, the pretonic as well as the following word keeps10its accent, or the pretonic loses its accent before a following word; but sometimes the pretonic keeps its accent and the following word, if oxytone, is unaccented:máy sakìt, may sakìthaving sickness, i. e.sick, but alsomáy sakit. Onlymáyandnásaactually appear with this accentuation.15The other pretonics are so classed because they share with these two words the peculiarity that an enclitic belonging to the phrase follows not the pretonic word, but the first orthotonic word:Máy katawàn sya ŋ pára ŋ táo.He has a body like a human20being.(siyàhe, enclitic follows notmáy, which is pretonic, butkatawànbody, the first orthotonic word of the predicate).The pretonics are the particlesbáwat, káhit,kapàg,kinà,maŋà, máy, nagìŋ(together with its other forms, §250),nása(together with its other forms, §212),nìnor(notniof),ninà,25pagkà, sinà, tagà (tigà). See Syntax.49.A final syllable ending in glottal stop (§14) often receives a higher degree of stress than a corresponding syllable with a different final.If the syllable ending in glottal stop has not the word-accent,30it often receives an accent resembling the secondary accent on a non-final syllable; this is especially common if the glottal stop is lost before another word in the phrase:páreʾ, párèʾpriest,Párì HwànFather Juan.If the syllable has a word-accent and the glottal stop is lost35in the phrase, its accent is often spoken like a primary word-accent on an open syllable:Walá sya.He has none(walàʾ),Naglálarú sya.He is playing(naglálaròʾ).If, however, the glottal stop is lost beforet, y, orŋ,this heightening of accent does not take place, since the syllable is then40treated as ending int, y, orŋ:Syà y walà ŋ aklàt(i. e.walàŋ-ʾak-làt),Sya y wala ŋ aklàt.He has no bookorno books.50.In a succession of otherwise unstressed syllables a rhythmicalmovement is usually produced by means of grammatically insignificant stresses weaker than a secondary word-accent; the distribution, and, indeed, the occurrence of these is so variable that I have not tried to indicate them in transcription, especially5as they are never distinctive. Thus, in the phrases in §46an accent of this kind may fall on the next-to-last syllables of the words that lose their normal word-accent:aŋ màŋa báhay, aŋ kànya ŋ amàhis father,aŋ malàki ŋ báhay.51.The successive accents in a sentence bear a well-marked10relation to each other: the early and especially the middle ones have higher absolute pitch than the last; an accent on the last syllable of a sentence often entirely loses its pitch-rise. As a consequence of this rather fixed melody, the differences of pitch-movement between statements, questions, commands, and exclamations15of various kinds are not so marked as in English; the higher stress of emotionally dominant (emphatic) words, also, is less marked than in English.In exclamation or under emphasis the accent of a final syllable may be like that of a medial syllable, and may, in addition20take on a falling accent after the rise:Hwán!(with rising-falling stress and pitch)Juan!, for normalHuwàn, Hwàn. Other disturbances of accent also occur in exclamation.

A.PHONETICS.1.Distinctive sounds.1.The distinctive sounds are the following:LabialDentalPalatalVelarLaryngeal5Stops: unvoicedptkʾStops:,,voicedbdgSpirants (unvoiced)shNasals (voiced)mnŋTrill (voiced)r10Lateral (voiced)lHigh vowelsi(e,y)u(o,w)Low vowela2.ais a low unrounded vowel, as in Standard Englishfar, but more tense and with the corners of the mouth (lips) slightly15drawn back:hàlamanàngarden.3.iandu, in what may be regarded as the normal form, are about as high as the Standard (American) English vowels inpitandput, but more tense; moreover, the lips are well drawnback foriand well rounded foru:ínitheat,lutúinbe cooked.204.In the final syllable of a phrase (or of a word spoken alone) the tongue position ofianduis as a rule lowered, often all the way to mid position; the tenseness and lip position are, however, kept, so that the resulting sound often resembles Frenchèand lowero.255.uis nearly always so lowered:bágonew,buhòkhair. It is not lowered inpùʾten.6.iis not lowered before dentals:káhitthough,ákinmy,pígilcompulsion. It is usually kept high also before velars:sahìgflooring,siŋsìŋring. Some words ending in velars more or less30regularly have the lowering:pútik, pútekmud; so especially someproper names:IntsèkChinese,LóleŋLola.Even in other cases the higher variants ofiare commoner than the lower;hindìʾnot,kamìwe,gabìnight,mulìʾagainare commoner than these words withe; a very few words, such asulèʾagainhave oftenerethani; others, such asitèmblackare fairly regular in their variation.7.Within a closely unified phrase the lowering is as a rule omitted:ulí syaagain he(ulèʾ),Hintú na!Stop!(hintòʾ). In5this regard the habits are variable; the form chosen depends mostly on the speaker’s momentary attitude toward the closeness of joining of the words.A dissimilative factor also seems to be involved: a followingiorufavors the lowering:10Natùtúlug aŋ áso.The dog is sleeping.Natùtúlog si Hwàn.Juan is sleeping.8.ooccurs in a number of words as the vowel in the last two syllables: in all of them the intervening consonant is the glottal stop:óʾoyes,doʾònthere;boʾòʾwholehas occasionallybuʾòʾ.15The raised variant is not used within the phrase:Óʾo pòʾ.Yes, sir.Yes, ma’am.doʾòn syathere he.eoccurs in the same way inleʾègneck, besideliʾìg.9.In word-formation, when, by the addition of suffixes, theioruis no longer final, it is not lowered:lútoʾcook,lutúinbe20cooked;itèmblack,itimànbe made black. Occasionally, however,the lowered vowel is retained:táohuman being,ka-taó-hanmankind,besidekataúhan, tao-taó-hanmanikin,pupil of the eye, besidetautaúhan.The words withoʾo(§8) keep the lowered vowel when uncontracted:25pina-roʾon-ànwas gone to(doʾònthere); these words are also reduplicated witho:kinà-dò-roʾon-ànis been in.10.eandooccur also in unassimilated loan-words:bèsbolbaseball,Silà y nag-bè-bèsbol,They are playing baseball,estudiyànte, istudiyàntestudent,polìs, pulìspoliceman,sipérofootball30player,baŋkérocanoer(both with Spanish suffix-éroadded to Tagalog words:sípaʾfootball,baŋkàʾcanoe).Foresee also §29.11.As the variation betweeniandeand betweenoanduis thus never distinctive, there is no need of indicating it in transcription;35I have, however, used the characterseandowherever I heard markedly lowered variants.12.ianduoccur also as non-syllabics; I use, respectively, the charactersyandw:yaònthat,gáyalike,wíkaʾspeech,word,táwagcall. In final position they are always lowered: thus in40patàydead person,ikàwthou,yrepresents non-syllabice,wnon-syllabico.13.In word-formation before suffixes vowels are in certain cases lost, see Morphology:káninbe eaten,-káineatwith suffix-in.14.The laryngeal (glottal) stop occurs as a distinctive sound only after a vowel at the end of words:bátaʾchild,boy,girl,hindìʾnot,hintòʾstop.As a non-distinctive sound it is used as a vowel-separator5wherever syllabic vowels follow each other without an intervening distinctive non-syllabic. In this use I shall not indicate it in transcription, as it may be taken for granted wherever vowels are written together. Such words as those in §8will therefore from now on be transcribed without the sign for glottal stop:10doòn, óo, boòʾ. Sotáo(§9) meanstáʾo, etc. Cf. below.15.The distinctive final glottal stop is usually lost before a following word in the phrase:hindí syanot he,Hintú na!Stop!It is always lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child.1516.p,t,kare unvoiced fortis stops; they differ from the corresponding English sounds primarily in that they are only slightly aspirated. In sentence-final the implosion only is made.t(in contrast with the English sound) is postdental, often near to interdental.20kis always articulated in back velar position (as in Englishcoo), no matter what sound follows. The closure ofkis occasionally imperfect, so that a rather open velar spirant (resembling Slavicx) is heard:malaxàsformalakàsstrong; this variation has not been noted in transcription.25In word-formationp,t,kalternate, respectively, withm,n,ŋ; see Morphology.17.b,d,gcorrespond in position top,t,k. They are fully voiced lenis stops; in sentence-final often implosive only, and then weakly voiced.30The closure ofbis occasionally imperfect, so that a bilabial spirant is produced:túVigfortúbigwater; this variation has been ignored in transcription.In word-formationbalternates withm; see Morphology.Finaldin word-formation is always replaced byrbefore the35vowel of a suffix:lákadwalk,lakar-ànwalking-party.Initialdbecomesrin the sentence frequently after the final vowel of a preceding word and occasionally even after a final non-syllabic, in the wordsdaànhundred(not indaànroad),damò, dàw, dìn, díne, díto, diyàn, doòn; e. g.ako rìnI too.40In word-formation some words frequently changedtorafter the vowel of a prefix or a reduplication, and others do not:pa-raànmeans(daànroad,way), buti-pa-dalàbe sent(dalàbring,carry). The words (or roots) that have changeabled-are those mentioned in the preceding paragraph anddaàn, -dáka, damdàm, dámi, dámot, daŋàl, dapàʾ, dápat, dáti, -dátig, -datìŋ, dikìt, -dinìg, -díwaŋ, -dúkit, -dumè, dúnoŋ, dúsa.518.sis the normal unvoiced sibilant, spoken in postdental position. Beforeyandiyit is somewhat palatalized (more, for instance, than Russian palatalizeds),—a variation that is not distinctive and need not be noted in transcription:siyà, syàhe,she, pronounced with palatalizeds.10salternates in word-formation withn; see Morphology.In the affricate combinationts, which is felt and treated as a single sound, thesis always palatalized:IntsèkChinese.19.his the unvoiced glottal spirant; as in English, it occurs only in syllable-initial:hindìʾnot,báhayhouse,mukhàʾface.15In word-formationhis often spoken before the initial vowelof a suffix that is added to a final vowel:-básaread,basa-hànreading room. See Morphology.20.The nasalsm,n,ŋcorrespond in position to the stops. In word-formation they alternate, respectively, withp,t,k;m20also withb, andnalso withs;ŋis often prefixed to an initial vowel; see Morphology.Both in word-formation and in the phrase the nasals are occasionally assimilated in position to a following consonant:sà m pùʾten(m for ŋ),Saàŋ ka páparon?Where are you going?(for25saàn).In the sentence, finalnis lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ áki ŋ amàmy father(forákinmy).21.ris the voiced tongue-tip trill, postdental. It occurs between vowels within simple, underived words:árawsun,day,—no30doubt as a substitute ford, which never occurs in this position; everywhere elseris merely a variant ofd(§17).22.lis postdental; the timbre is much as in Standard French or German, the mid-tongue not lowered.23.fandv(both labiodental) occur in unassimilated foreign35words; they are occasionally replaced (especially in derivatives) bypandb.Filipínasthe Philippines,infiyèrno, impiyèrnoHell,fiyèsta, piyèstafiesta, but alwayska-piyestá-handay of a festival,sivìl, sibìlcivil,provìnsiyaprovince,bintánaʾwindow,básodrinking-glass.40roccurs freely in all positions in foreign words (cf. §21):trèntrain,trabáhowork,krùscross,relòswatch,sombrérohat,beside Tagalizedsambalílo.The occurrence ofts(§18) is probably limited to foreign words.24.When in word-formation a vowel is lost before a suffix (§13), the non-syllabics thereby brought together are subject to5various changes:sigl-ànbe filled,silìdwith suffix-an. See Morphology.2.Syllabication.a.In the word.25.If a single non-syllabic follows a stressed vowel, the latter10is spoken with open syllable accent, and the non-syllabic beginsthe following syllable:bá-hayhouse,sù-sú-latwill write.If a single non-syllabic follows an unstressed vowel, the latter has close syllable accent,—that is, no stress-division is made between the syllables (just as in English):itòthis,kasakimànselfishness,15sumú-latwrote.If two non-syllabics intervene between two syllabics, the syllable-division is made between the non-syllabics:luk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,In-tsèkChinese. Stressedayseems, however, to have open syllable accent:káy-lanwhen?20Syllabics never follow each other without an intervening non-syllabic. If no other non-syllabic intervenes, a non-distinctive glottal stop is spoken. I have not written the glottal stop in this position, as it may always be taken for granted (§14). Hencedaànroadis pronounceddaʾàn, siìkyoung pigsiʾìk, doònthere25doʾòn, táohuman beingtáʾo.Nor do more than two non-syllabics ever follow each other in a native word. The following are examples of unusual combinationsin foreign words:An-drès, Pé-dro, beside TagalizedPíro, ká-trebedstead,sèr-mon, trabá-howork, but in reduplicationmag-tà-trabá-ho30will work,krùscross, but in reduplicationnag-kú-kurùscrosses himself, cf.barásoarm,lóboballoon(Sp.globo).26.In frequently used words, especially in more rapid speech, the intervocalic glottal stop is often lost.If like vowels thus meet, they coalesce into a single vowel of35no more than normal length:pumarònwent therebesidepumaroòn. Whenoois thus contracted, the resultingomay be raisedtou(cf. §9):pinarunànwas gone to, besidepinaronànandpinaroonàn.If unlike vowels meet, the non-syllabic corresponding to the40higher vowel (i. e.ywithi,eandwwithu,o) takes the place of the glottal stop. Sotáwobesidetáo. The combinations soresulting are treated in every way like those discussed in the next §.27.If the non-syllabic intervening between two vowels isyorw, the combination involves no peculiarity, provided that neither5of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic:bá-yantown,pag-dirí-waŋcelebration,gayònthus.If, however, one of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic (i. e.i,ewithyandu,owithw) and is not stressed, it is spoken shorter than a normal unstressed vowel: in such words10asiyònthat,buwànmoon,monththei,uare spoken shorter than in other positions. So also intáwo(see preceding §) theo.After consonants these short vowels are often entirely omitted:bwànbesidebuwàn, syàhe,shebesidesiyà. The syllable-division remains, however, as in the longer form:kápwàʾfellow- beside15kápuwàʾis pronouncedká-pwàʾ(notkap-waʾ).Even in other positions these reduced vowels are often omitted, especially in frequently used combinations:Ano yòn?What’s that?besideAno iyòn?, occasionallytáwfortáwo, táo.28.Conversely, one hears now and then a superfluous short20i,ewith ay, and anu,owith aw:iyaònforyaònthat,máyeformáyhaving,uwalàʾforwalàʾwithout.29.The combinationsayandaiare occasionally replaced by a long opene:kélanbesidekáylanwhen?,mé báhaybesidemáy báhaywife,housewife,me áreʾbesidemay áreʾmaster,owner,25téŋabesidetaíŋacar.b.In word-formation.30.When in word-formation affixes or reduplicative syllables are added to a root, the syllabication is as in a simple word:sulá-tanbe written to(súlatwritingwith suffix-an),sumú-lat30wrote(same, with infix-um-),umuwèʾ, umwèʾ(§27)went home(-uwèʾgo home, with prefixed-um-).When vowels meet, they are as a rule separated by the non-distinctive intervocalic glottal stop:maà-á-reʾwill be possible(áreʾpropertyreduplicated and with prefixma-).3531.The intervocalic glottal stop is rarely reduced, except in certain much-used combinations, the commonest being those with the prefixi-and with the prefixka-and the suffix-anin certain uses (see Morphology):iniútoswas commanded(útoscommandwith prefixesin-andi-), usuallyiniyútos; laruàn,toy(laròʾplay,40gamewith suffix-an), usuallylaruwàn, larwàn, but (with a differentuse of the suffix-an)làrúanplayground;kayibígan, kaybíganfriend(íbiglove,desire, with prefixka-and suffix-an), butkaìbígansweetheartandkaibigànaffection. For-íwanabandonwith prefixi-only the contracted formíwanbe abandonedis spoken. Cf. furtherikaápat, ikápatfourth(ápatfourwith prefixes5i-andka-).32.Conversely, an originalyorwis sometimes under emphasis replaced by glottal stop; thus, forpatayìnbe killed(patàydead person,killwith suffix-in), occasionallypataìn.33.When a word is doubled, when two words are united in10a compound word, and after the prefixes that end ing, the syllable-division is however made as though separate words were meeting in a sentence,—that is, according to the rules in the following paragraphs.c.In the phrase.1534.When words come together in the phrase, the word-division is maintained (as in English) as a syllable-division.In the case of initial consonants the division is thus like thatwithin a word:Sumúlat ka.Write (thou),Sumúlat siyà, Sumúlatsyà.He wrote,Sumáma ka.Go along,Sumáma siyà, Sumáma20syà.He went along.Before a vowel-initial the word-division is maintained as a syllable-division by the use of a non-distinctive glottal stop (as in German):Sumúlat akò.I wrote, i. e.sumú-lat-ʾakò; Sumáma akò.I went along, i. e.sumá-ma-ʾakò.25Doubled words, compound words, and forms with prefixes ending in g (namely,mag-, nag-, pag-, tag-) are similarly treated (§33):agàd-agàdimmediately(agàdat oncedoubled), i. e.agàd-ʾagàd; báhay-aklátanlibrary-building(compound ofbáhayhouseandaklátanplace for books), i. e.bá-hay-ʾak-lá-tan; pagsúlatan30act of writing(súlatwritingwith prefixpag-), i. e.pag-sú-lat;nagáralstudied(áralteachingwith prefixnag-), i. e.nag-ʾá-ral.Occasionally, in emphatic speech, the same division is made within other formations:umakiyàt, umakyàtclimbed(-akiyàtclimbwith prefixed-um-), occasionally, but rarely,um-ʾakiyàt,35usuallyumakiyàt, umakyàt(by §30).35.Reduction of the glottal stop and contraction of vowels occur only in a few much-used combinations of words:si Andrès(siis the article of proper names), alsosiy Andrès, sy Andrès; Ano iyàn?What’s that?, alsoAno yàn?and evenAn yàn?; na40itòthis(nais a particle expressing attribution), alsona yitò, na ytò.36.Occasionally such reductions go even farther, as inanòin the preceding paragraph, and occur where the glottal stop is not involved: as,sàforisàoneinsà m pùʾten, forisà ŋ pùʾ.37.The wordsat, ay, andnahave also a shorter form,t, y,5andŋ, respectively, which occurs only (but not always) after a final vowel, glottal stop, orn. When these forms are used, the final glottal stop ornis lost (§§15,20) and thet, y, orŋis treated in every way exactly as though it were part of the preceding word:butò at balàt, butò t balàtbone and skin, i. e.butòt-balàt; Iyòn10ay mabúti, Iyò y mabúti.That’s good, i. e.iyòy-mabú-ti; aŋ bátaʾ na mabaìt(clumsy, as in the speech of a child just learning to speak, for:)aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child, i. e.aŋ-bá-taŋ-mabaʾìt.3.Accentuation.15a.Word-accent.38.In a word of more than one syllable at least one syllable is normally spoken with a greater degree of stress than the others.The unstressed syllables have short vowels (about as long as the vowel in Englishpitorput) and close syllable-stress (§25).2039.A non-final syllable ending in a non-syllabic (i. e. a closed non-final syllable) never has the stress; such words asluk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,ak-làtbookare therefore always oxytone. The only exceptions are syllables ending inay; this combination seems to be felt as a unit capable of open syllable-stress:káy-lan,25ké-lanwhen; further, the wordsmín-sanonce,pín-sancousin, andnàn-don, by-form ofná-roònis there; and, finally, unassimilatedforeign words:bès-bol, sèr-mon, kwàr-ta, kwàl-tamoney(Spanishcuarto), but also Tagalizedkwaltà.Words likeká-pwàʾ(besideká-puwàʾ) are not exceptions, for30the first syllable is not closed (§27).40.The stressed syllables fall into two grammatical classes which are only in part phonetically distinct; we may call themprimaryandsecondaryword-accent.41.Theprimaryword-accent on a final syllable or (in the35cases mentioned in §39) on a closed non-final syllable, consists merely in greater stress than that of an unaccented syllable, accompanied by a pitch-rise of about half a note.1I use the graveaccent-sign:gabìnight,hindìʾnot,kamàyhand,buhòkhair,nàndonis there,sèrmonsermon.42.On a non-final open syllable the primary word-accent involves an increase of stress (less than in English), a pitch-rise5of two notes, lengthening of the vowel to about one and one-half times the duration of an unstressed vowel, and open syllable-stress (§25). I use the acute accent-mark:báhayhouse,báyantown.So also, irregularly, syllables inay:káylan, kélanwhen?, and even finally:káy, kéthan,máy, méhaving; alsomínsan, pínsan.10If an unaccented syllable precedes, the pitch-rise really begins on the latter: insumúlatwrote, for instance, the first syllable is spoken above the usual pitch, and the two-note pitch-rise is merely completed in the accented syllable.43.Thesecondaryword-accent on a final syllable has weaker15stress than the primary accent in the same place, and ordinarily lacks the pitch-rise. Grammatically, it is recognizable by the presence of the primary accent on another syllable; I use the grave accent-mark:áakiyàt, áakyàtwill climb,nárinìgwas heard.44.On a non-final open syllable the secondary accent differs20from the primary accent in similar position in two respects: its pitch-rise is less marked, varying from three-quarters to one and three-quarters notes, and its vowel-lengthening is greater, reaching twice the length of an unstressed vowel. I use the grave accent-mark:sùsúlatwill write.25When the primary accent is on the last syllable and therefore weak (§41), the secondary accent often approaches a non-final primary accent in character: the first syllable of a word likenàbuksàncame openis often phonetically the same as that of a word likenárinìgwas heard.30If an unaccented syllable precedes the secondary accent, the pitch-rise really begins in the former: in such a word assumùsúlatis writingthe first syllable is spoken with higher than normal pitch, in the second syllable the pitch is brought up to a note and three-fourths above normal, and in the third the two-note rise is35completed.Of two secondary accents following each other the preceding is the more marked:nàràramdamànis felt(nà-has more marked accent thanrà-). This helps to make the primary accent distinct, for it is stronger than a preceding secondary accent:sùsúlatwill40write(the secondsu-is stronger, not weaker, than the first);nàlàlámanis known(if the third syllable had a secondary accent,it would be less marked than the first and second, but its pitch and stress are actually higher).b.Sentence-accent.45.Certain words areatonic, i. e. are always spoken unstressed5in the phrase: e. g.aŋ ásotheora dog,sa ákinto me.The atonic words are:aŋ, at, ay, kayto(notkáy, kéthan),kuŋ, naattributive(notnàalready),naŋ, niof(notnìnor),oor(notòoh),pag, sa, si.The short variants ofat, ay, andna, namelyt, y, andŋ10(§37), having no vowel, cannot be stressed; they are treated in every way as though they formed part of the preceding word.46.In closely united phrases the last word keeps its accent, while the preceding ones often weaken theirs. Especially a final syllable often loses its accent before another word in the phrase:15dáhil dítoon account of this, often:dahil díto,aŋ maŋà báhaythe houses, often:aŋ maŋa báhay,aŋ kanyà ŋ báhayhisorher house,aŋ kanya ŋ báhay,aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe large house,aŋ malaki ŋ báhay.47.Opposed to the preceding rule is the treatment of certain20words which we may callenclitics. These very frequently, to be sure, receive the normal treatment: that is, they are stressed and the preceding word either keeps its stress or, if oxytone, often loses it; but frequently, instead, the enclitic loses its accent:Umakyàt siyà, Umakyat syà.He climbed, but alsoUmakyàt25sya.Áakyàt siyà, Áakyat syà.He will climb, but alsoÁakyàt sya.Gánu ka na bà kakínis?How clever are you now?(kà, nà, bàare all enclitic).Enclitics have the further (and more easily recognized) peculiarity30that they follow the first orthotonic (i. e. neither atonic nor pretonic, §48) word of the expression to which they belong (either as modifiers or as subject):aŋ mahahába nya ŋ paàhis(niyà, enclitic)long legs.When several enclitics come together the last one is often35stressed. Monosyllabic enclitics precede disyllabic:Nahánap na nyà aŋ sombréro.He has already looked for the hat.(nàandniyàare enclitics; the latter is treated as disyllabic even when in the contracted formnyà).The enclitics are:40(1) always: the monosyllabic forms of the personal pronouns, namelykà, kò, mò, and the words (particles)bà, bagà, dàw, dìn, màn, múna, nà, namàn,nawàʾ, ŋàʾ, pà, palà, pòʾ, sána, tulòy.(2) frequently or in certain senses: the disyllabic forms of the personal pronouns (includingsiyà, syàandniyà, nyà) exceptikàw(which is never enclitic), the demonstrative pronouns, and the wordsdíne, díto, diyàn, doòn, kayàʾ, lámaŋ, ulèʾ; occasionally5short phrases (§88).For details about these words see Syntax.48.Opposed to the rule in §46are also certain words (particles) which we may callpretonics. Their treatment is often regular: that is, the pretonic as well as the following word keeps10its accent, or the pretonic loses its accent before a following word; but sometimes the pretonic keeps its accent and the following word, if oxytone, is unaccented:máy sakìt, may sakìthaving sickness, i. e.sick, but alsomáy sakit. Onlymáyandnásaactually appear with this accentuation.15The other pretonics are so classed because they share with these two words the peculiarity that an enclitic belonging to the phrase follows not the pretonic word, but the first orthotonic word:Máy katawàn sya ŋ pára ŋ táo.He has a body like a human20being.(siyàhe, enclitic follows notmáy, which is pretonic, butkatawànbody, the first orthotonic word of the predicate).The pretonics are the particlesbáwat, káhit,kapàg,kinà,maŋà, máy, nagìŋ(together with its other forms, §250),nása(together with its other forms, §212),nìnor(notniof),ninà,25pagkà, sinà, tagà (tigà). See Syntax.49.A final syllable ending in glottal stop (§14) often receives a higher degree of stress than a corresponding syllable with a different final.If the syllable ending in glottal stop has not the word-accent,30it often receives an accent resembling the secondary accent on a non-final syllable; this is especially common if the glottal stop is lost before another word in the phrase:páreʾ, párèʾpriest,Párì HwànFather Juan.If the syllable has a word-accent and the glottal stop is lost35in the phrase, its accent is often spoken like a primary word-accent on an open syllable:Walá sya.He has none(walàʾ),Naglálarú sya.He is playing(naglálaròʾ).If, however, the glottal stop is lost beforet, y, orŋ,this heightening of accent does not take place, since the syllable is then40treated as ending int, y, orŋ:Syà y walà ŋ aklàt(i. e.walàŋ-ʾak-làt),Sya y wala ŋ aklàt.He has no bookorno books.50.In a succession of otherwise unstressed syllables a rhythmicalmovement is usually produced by means of grammatically insignificant stresses weaker than a secondary word-accent; the distribution, and, indeed, the occurrence of these is so variable that I have not tried to indicate them in transcription, especially5as they are never distinctive. Thus, in the phrases in §46an accent of this kind may fall on the next-to-last syllables of the words that lose their normal word-accent:aŋ màŋa báhay, aŋ kànya ŋ amàhis father,aŋ malàki ŋ báhay.51.The successive accents in a sentence bear a well-marked10relation to each other: the early and especially the middle ones have higher absolute pitch than the last; an accent on the last syllable of a sentence often entirely loses its pitch-rise. As a consequence of this rather fixed melody, the differences of pitch-movement between statements, questions, commands, and exclamations15of various kinds are not so marked as in English; the higher stress of emotionally dominant (emphatic) words, also, is less marked than in English.In exclamation or under emphasis the accent of a final syllable may be like that of a medial syllable, and may, in addition20take on a falling accent after the rise:Hwán!(with rising-falling stress and pitch)Juan!, for normalHuwàn, Hwàn. Other disturbances of accent also occur in exclamation.

A.PHONETICS.1.Distinctive sounds.1.The distinctive sounds are the following:LabialDentalPalatalVelarLaryngeal5Stops: unvoicedptkʾStops:,,voicedbdgSpirants (unvoiced)shNasals (voiced)mnŋTrill (voiced)r10Lateral (voiced)lHigh vowelsi(e,y)u(o,w)Low vowela2.ais a low unrounded vowel, as in Standard Englishfar, but more tense and with the corners of the mouth (lips) slightly15drawn back:hàlamanàngarden.3.iandu, in what may be regarded as the normal form, are about as high as the Standard (American) English vowels inpitandput, but more tense; moreover, the lips are well drawnback foriand well rounded foru:ínitheat,lutúinbe cooked.204.In the final syllable of a phrase (or of a word spoken alone) the tongue position ofianduis as a rule lowered, often all the way to mid position; the tenseness and lip position are, however, kept, so that the resulting sound often resembles Frenchèand lowero.255.uis nearly always so lowered:bágonew,buhòkhair. It is not lowered inpùʾten.6.iis not lowered before dentals:káhitthough,ákinmy,pígilcompulsion. It is usually kept high also before velars:sahìgflooring,siŋsìŋring. Some words ending in velars more or less30regularly have the lowering:pútik, pútekmud; so especially someproper names:IntsèkChinese,LóleŋLola.Even in other cases the higher variants ofiare commoner than the lower;hindìʾnot,kamìwe,gabìnight,mulìʾagainare commoner than these words withe; a very few words, such asulèʾagainhave oftenerethani; others, such asitèmblackare fairly regular in their variation.7.Within a closely unified phrase the lowering is as a rule omitted:ulí syaagain he(ulèʾ),Hintú na!Stop!(hintòʾ). In5this regard the habits are variable; the form chosen depends mostly on the speaker’s momentary attitude toward the closeness of joining of the words.A dissimilative factor also seems to be involved: a followingiorufavors the lowering:10Natùtúlug aŋ áso.The dog is sleeping.Natùtúlog si Hwàn.Juan is sleeping.8.ooccurs in a number of words as the vowel in the last two syllables: in all of them the intervening consonant is the glottal stop:óʾoyes,doʾònthere;boʾòʾwholehas occasionallybuʾòʾ.15The raised variant is not used within the phrase:Óʾo pòʾ.Yes, sir.Yes, ma’am.doʾòn syathere he.eoccurs in the same way inleʾègneck, besideliʾìg.9.In word-formation, when, by the addition of suffixes, theioruis no longer final, it is not lowered:lútoʾcook,lutúinbe20cooked;itèmblack,itimànbe made black. Occasionally, however,the lowered vowel is retained:táohuman being,ka-taó-hanmankind,besidekataúhan, tao-taó-hanmanikin,pupil of the eye, besidetautaúhan.The words withoʾo(§8) keep the lowered vowel when uncontracted:25pina-roʾon-ànwas gone to(doʾònthere); these words are also reduplicated witho:kinà-dò-roʾon-ànis been in.10.eandooccur also in unassimilated loan-words:bèsbolbaseball,Silà y nag-bè-bèsbol,They are playing baseball,estudiyànte, istudiyàntestudent,polìs, pulìspoliceman,sipérofootball30player,baŋkérocanoer(both with Spanish suffix-éroadded to Tagalog words:sípaʾfootball,baŋkàʾcanoe).Foresee also §29.11.As the variation betweeniandeand betweenoanduis thus never distinctive, there is no need of indicating it in transcription;35I have, however, used the characterseandowherever I heard markedly lowered variants.12.ianduoccur also as non-syllabics; I use, respectively, the charactersyandw:yaònthat,gáyalike,wíkaʾspeech,word,táwagcall. In final position they are always lowered: thus in40patàydead person,ikàwthou,yrepresents non-syllabice,wnon-syllabico.13.In word-formation before suffixes vowels are in certain cases lost, see Morphology:káninbe eaten,-káineatwith suffix-in.14.The laryngeal (glottal) stop occurs as a distinctive sound only after a vowel at the end of words:bátaʾchild,boy,girl,hindìʾnot,hintòʾstop.As a non-distinctive sound it is used as a vowel-separator5wherever syllabic vowels follow each other without an intervening distinctive non-syllabic. In this use I shall not indicate it in transcription, as it may be taken for granted wherever vowels are written together. Such words as those in §8will therefore from now on be transcribed without the sign for glottal stop:10doòn, óo, boòʾ. Sotáo(§9) meanstáʾo, etc. Cf. below.15.The distinctive final glottal stop is usually lost before a following word in the phrase:hindí syanot he,Hintú na!Stop!It is always lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child.1516.p,t,kare unvoiced fortis stops; they differ from the corresponding English sounds primarily in that they are only slightly aspirated. In sentence-final the implosion only is made.t(in contrast with the English sound) is postdental, often near to interdental.20kis always articulated in back velar position (as in Englishcoo), no matter what sound follows. The closure ofkis occasionally imperfect, so that a rather open velar spirant (resembling Slavicx) is heard:malaxàsformalakàsstrong; this variation has not been noted in transcription.25In word-formationp,t,kalternate, respectively, withm,n,ŋ; see Morphology.17.b,d,gcorrespond in position top,t,k. They are fully voiced lenis stops; in sentence-final often implosive only, and then weakly voiced.30The closure ofbis occasionally imperfect, so that a bilabial spirant is produced:túVigfortúbigwater; this variation has been ignored in transcription.In word-formationbalternates withm; see Morphology.Finaldin word-formation is always replaced byrbefore the35vowel of a suffix:lákadwalk,lakar-ànwalking-party.Initialdbecomesrin the sentence frequently after the final vowel of a preceding word and occasionally even after a final non-syllabic, in the wordsdaànhundred(not indaànroad),damò, dàw, dìn, díne, díto, diyàn, doòn; e. g.ako rìnI too.40In word-formation some words frequently changedtorafter the vowel of a prefix or a reduplication, and others do not:pa-raànmeans(daànroad,way), buti-pa-dalàbe sent(dalàbring,carry). The words (or roots) that have changeabled-are those mentioned in the preceding paragraph anddaàn, -dáka, damdàm, dámi, dámot, daŋàl, dapàʾ, dápat, dáti, -dátig, -datìŋ, dikìt, -dinìg, -díwaŋ, -dúkit, -dumè, dúnoŋ, dúsa.518.sis the normal unvoiced sibilant, spoken in postdental position. Beforeyandiyit is somewhat palatalized (more, for instance, than Russian palatalizeds),—a variation that is not distinctive and need not be noted in transcription:siyà, syàhe,she, pronounced with palatalizeds.10salternates in word-formation withn; see Morphology.In the affricate combinationts, which is felt and treated as a single sound, thesis always palatalized:IntsèkChinese.19.his the unvoiced glottal spirant; as in English, it occurs only in syllable-initial:hindìʾnot,báhayhouse,mukhàʾface.15In word-formationhis often spoken before the initial vowelof a suffix that is added to a final vowel:-básaread,basa-hànreading room. See Morphology.20.The nasalsm,n,ŋcorrespond in position to the stops. In word-formation they alternate, respectively, withp,t,k;m20also withb, andnalso withs;ŋis often prefixed to an initial vowel; see Morphology.Both in word-formation and in the phrase the nasals are occasionally assimilated in position to a following consonant:sà m pùʾten(m for ŋ),Saàŋ ka páparon?Where are you going?(for25saàn).In the sentence, finalnis lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ áki ŋ amàmy father(forákinmy).21.ris the voiced tongue-tip trill, postdental. It occurs between vowels within simple, underived words:árawsun,day,—no30doubt as a substitute ford, which never occurs in this position; everywhere elseris merely a variant ofd(§17).22.lis postdental; the timbre is much as in Standard French or German, the mid-tongue not lowered.23.fandv(both labiodental) occur in unassimilated foreign35words; they are occasionally replaced (especially in derivatives) bypandb.Filipínasthe Philippines,infiyèrno, impiyèrnoHell,fiyèsta, piyèstafiesta, but alwayska-piyestá-handay of a festival,sivìl, sibìlcivil,provìnsiyaprovince,bintánaʾwindow,básodrinking-glass.40roccurs freely in all positions in foreign words (cf. §21):trèntrain,trabáhowork,krùscross,relòswatch,sombrérohat,beside Tagalizedsambalílo.The occurrence ofts(§18) is probably limited to foreign words.24.When in word-formation a vowel is lost before a suffix (§13), the non-syllabics thereby brought together are subject to5various changes:sigl-ànbe filled,silìdwith suffix-an. See Morphology.2.Syllabication.a.In the word.25.If a single non-syllabic follows a stressed vowel, the latter10is spoken with open syllable accent, and the non-syllabic beginsthe following syllable:bá-hayhouse,sù-sú-latwill write.If a single non-syllabic follows an unstressed vowel, the latter has close syllable accent,—that is, no stress-division is made between the syllables (just as in English):itòthis,kasakimànselfishness,15sumú-latwrote.If two non-syllabics intervene between two syllabics, the syllable-division is made between the non-syllabics:luk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,In-tsèkChinese. Stressedayseems, however, to have open syllable accent:káy-lanwhen?20Syllabics never follow each other without an intervening non-syllabic. If no other non-syllabic intervenes, a non-distinctive glottal stop is spoken. I have not written the glottal stop in this position, as it may always be taken for granted (§14). Hencedaànroadis pronounceddaʾàn, siìkyoung pigsiʾìk, doònthere25doʾòn, táohuman beingtáʾo.Nor do more than two non-syllabics ever follow each other in a native word. The following are examples of unusual combinationsin foreign words:An-drès, Pé-dro, beside TagalizedPíro, ká-trebedstead,sèr-mon, trabá-howork, but in reduplicationmag-tà-trabá-ho30will work,krùscross, but in reduplicationnag-kú-kurùscrosses himself, cf.barásoarm,lóboballoon(Sp.globo).26.In frequently used words, especially in more rapid speech, the intervocalic glottal stop is often lost.If like vowels thus meet, they coalesce into a single vowel of35no more than normal length:pumarònwent therebesidepumaroòn. Whenoois thus contracted, the resultingomay be raisedtou(cf. §9):pinarunànwas gone to, besidepinaronànandpinaroonàn.If unlike vowels meet, the non-syllabic corresponding to the40higher vowel (i. e.ywithi,eandwwithu,o) takes the place of the glottal stop. Sotáwobesidetáo. The combinations soresulting are treated in every way like those discussed in the next §.27.If the non-syllabic intervening between two vowels isyorw, the combination involves no peculiarity, provided that neither5of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic:bá-yantown,pag-dirí-waŋcelebration,gayònthus.If, however, one of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic (i. e.i,ewithyandu,owithw) and is not stressed, it is spoken shorter than a normal unstressed vowel: in such words10asiyònthat,buwànmoon,monththei,uare spoken shorter than in other positions. So also intáwo(see preceding §) theo.After consonants these short vowels are often entirely omitted:bwànbesidebuwàn, syàhe,shebesidesiyà. The syllable-division remains, however, as in the longer form:kápwàʾfellow- beside15kápuwàʾis pronouncedká-pwàʾ(notkap-waʾ).Even in other positions these reduced vowels are often omitted, especially in frequently used combinations:Ano yòn?What’s that?besideAno iyòn?, occasionallytáwfortáwo, táo.28.Conversely, one hears now and then a superfluous short20i,ewith ay, and anu,owith aw:iyaònforyaònthat,máyeformáyhaving,uwalàʾforwalàʾwithout.29.The combinationsayandaiare occasionally replaced by a long opene:kélanbesidekáylanwhen?,mé báhaybesidemáy báhaywife,housewife,me áreʾbesidemay áreʾmaster,owner,25téŋabesidetaíŋacar.b.In word-formation.30.When in word-formation affixes or reduplicative syllables are added to a root, the syllabication is as in a simple word:sulá-tanbe written to(súlatwritingwith suffix-an),sumú-lat30wrote(same, with infix-um-),umuwèʾ, umwèʾ(§27)went home(-uwèʾgo home, with prefixed-um-).When vowels meet, they are as a rule separated by the non-distinctive intervocalic glottal stop:maà-á-reʾwill be possible(áreʾpropertyreduplicated and with prefixma-).3531.The intervocalic glottal stop is rarely reduced, except in certain much-used combinations, the commonest being those with the prefixi-and with the prefixka-and the suffix-anin certain uses (see Morphology):iniútoswas commanded(útoscommandwith prefixesin-andi-), usuallyiniyútos; laruàn,toy(laròʾplay,40gamewith suffix-an), usuallylaruwàn, larwàn, but (with a differentuse of the suffix-an)làrúanplayground;kayibígan, kaybíganfriend(íbiglove,desire, with prefixka-and suffix-an), butkaìbígansweetheartandkaibigànaffection. For-íwanabandonwith prefixi-only the contracted formíwanbe abandonedis spoken. Cf. furtherikaápat, ikápatfourth(ápatfourwith prefixes5i-andka-).32.Conversely, an originalyorwis sometimes under emphasis replaced by glottal stop; thus, forpatayìnbe killed(patàydead person,killwith suffix-in), occasionallypataìn.33.When a word is doubled, when two words are united in10a compound word, and after the prefixes that end ing, the syllable-division is however made as though separate words were meeting in a sentence,—that is, according to the rules in the following paragraphs.c.In the phrase.1534.When words come together in the phrase, the word-division is maintained (as in English) as a syllable-division.In the case of initial consonants the division is thus like thatwithin a word:Sumúlat ka.Write (thou),Sumúlat siyà, Sumúlatsyà.He wrote,Sumáma ka.Go along,Sumáma siyà, Sumáma20syà.He went along.Before a vowel-initial the word-division is maintained as a syllable-division by the use of a non-distinctive glottal stop (as in German):Sumúlat akò.I wrote, i. e.sumú-lat-ʾakò; Sumáma akò.I went along, i. e.sumá-ma-ʾakò.25Doubled words, compound words, and forms with prefixes ending in g (namely,mag-, nag-, pag-, tag-) are similarly treated (§33):agàd-agàdimmediately(agàdat oncedoubled), i. e.agàd-ʾagàd; báhay-aklátanlibrary-building(compound ofbáhayhouseandaklátanplace for books), i. e.bá-hay-ʾak-lá-tan; pagsúlatan30act of writing(súlatwritingwith prefixpag-), i. e.pag-sú-lat;nagáralstudied(áralteachingwith prefixnag-), i. e.nag-ʾá-ral.Occasionally, in emphatic speech, the same division is made within other formations:umakiyàt, umakyàtclimbed(-akiyàtclimbwith prefixed-um-), occasionally, but rarely,um-ʾakiyàt,35usuallyumakiyàt, umakyàt(by §30).35.Reduction of the glottal stop and contraction of vowels occur only in a few much-used combinations of words:si Andrès(siis the article of proper names), alsosiy Andrès, sy Andrès; Ano iyàn?What’s that?, alsoAno yàn?and evenAn yàn?; na40itòthis(nais a particle expressing attribution), alsona yitò, na ytò.36.Occasionally such reductions go even farther, as inanòin the preceding paragraph, and occur where the glottal stop is not involved: as,sàforisàoneinsà m pùʾten, forisà ŋ pùʾ.37.The wordsat, ay, andnahave also a shorter form,t, y,5andŋ, respectively, which occurs only (but not always) after a final vowel, glottal stop, orn. When these forms are used, the final glottal stop ornis lost (§§15,20) and thet, y, orŋis treated in every way exactly as though it were part of the preceding word:butò at balàt, butò t balàtbone and skin, i. e.butòt-balàt; Iyòn10ay mabúti, Iyò y mabúti.That’s good, i. e.iyòy-mabú-ti; aŋ bátaʾ na mabaìt(clumsy, as in the speech of a child just learning to speak, for:)aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child, i. e.aŋ-bá-taŋ-mabaʾìt.3.Accentuation.15a.Word-accent.38.In a word of more than one syllable at least one syllable is normally spoken with a greater degree of stress than the others.The unstressed syllables have short vowels (about as long as the vowel in Englishpitorput) and close syllable-stress (§25).2039.A non-final syllable ending in a non-syllabic (i. e. a closed non-final syllable) never has the stress; such words asluk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,ak-làtbookare therefore always oxytone. The only exceptions are syllables ending inay; this combination seems to be felt as a unit capable of open syllable-stress:káy-lan,25ké-lanwhen; further, the wordsmín-sanonce,pín-sancousin, andnàn-don, by-form ofná-roònis there; and, finally, unassimilatedforeign words:bès-bol, sèr-mon, kwàr-ta, kwàl-tamoney(Spanishcuarto), but also Tagalizedkwaltà.Words likeká-pwàʾ(besideká-puwàʾ) are not exceptions, for30the first syllable is not closed (§27).40.The stressed syllables fall into two grammatical classes which are only in part phonetically distinct; we may call themprimaryandsecondaryword-accent.41.Theprimaryword-accent on a final syllable or (in the35cases mentioned in §39) on a closed non-final syllable, consists merely in greater stress than that of an unaccented syllable, accompanied by a pitch-rise of about half a note.1I use the graveaccent-sign:gabìnight,hindìʾnot,kamàyhand,buhòkhair,nàndonis there,sèrmonsermon.42.On a non-final open syllable the primary word-accent involves an increase of stress (less than in English), a pitch-rise5of two notes, lengthening of the vowel to about one and one-half times the duration of an unstressed vowel, and open syllable-stress (§25). I use the acute accent-mark:báhayhouse,báyantown.So also, irregularly, syllables inay:káylan, kélanwhen?, and even finally:káy, kéthan,máy, méhaving; alsomínsan, pínsan.10If an unaccented syllable precedes, the pitch-rise really begins on the latter: insumúlatwrote, for instance, the first syllable is spoken above the usual pitch, and the two-note pitch-rise is merely completed in the accented syllable.43.Thesecondaryword-accent on a final syllable has weaker15stress than the primary accent in the same place, and ordinarily lacks the pitch-rise. Grammatically, it is recognizable by the presence of the primary accent on another syllable; I use the grave accent-mark:áakiyàt, áakyàtwill climb,nárinìgwas heard.44.On a non-final open syllable the secondary accent differs20from the primary accent in similar position in two respects: its pitch-rise is less marked, varying from three-quarters to one and three-quarters notes, and its vowel-lengthening is greater, reaching twice the length of an unstressed vowel. I use the grave accent-mark:sùsúlatwill write.25When the primary accent is on the last syllable and therefore weak (§41), the secondary accent often approaches a non-final primary accent in character: the first syllable of a word likenàbuksàncame openis often phonetically the same as that of a word likenárinìgwas heard.30If an unaccented syllable precedes the secondary accent, the pitch-rise really begins in the former: in such a word assumùsúlatis writingthe first syllable is spoken with higher than normal pitch, in the second syllable the pitch is brought up to a note and three-fourths above normal, and in the third the two-note rise is35completed.Of two secondary accents following each other the preceding is the more marked:nàràramdamànis felt(nà-has more marked accent thanrà-). This helps to make the primary accent distinct, for it is stronger than a preceding secondary accent:sùsúlatwill40write(the secondsu-is stronger, not weaker, than the first);nàlàlámanis known(if the third syllable had a secondary accent,it would be less marked than the first and second, but its pitch and stress are actually higher).b.Sentence-accent.45.Certain words areatonic, i. e. are always spoken unstressed5in the phrase: e. g.aŋ ásotheora dog,sa ákinto me.The atonic words are:aŋ, at, ay, kayto(notkáy, kéthan),kuŋ, naattributive(notnàalready),naŋ, niof(notnìnor),oor(notòoh),pag, sa, si.The short variants ofat, ay, andna, namelyt, y, andŋ10(§37), having no vowel, cannot be stressed; they are treated in every way as though they formed part of the preceding word.46.In closely united phrases the last word keeps its accent, while the preceding ones often weaken theirs. Especially a final syllable often loses its accent before another word in the phrase:15dáhil dítoon account of this, often:dahil díto,aŋ maŋà báhaythe houses, often:aŋ maŋa báhay,aŋ kanyà ŋ báhayhisorher house,aŋ kanya ŋ báhay,aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe large house,aŋ malaki ŋ báhay.47.Opposed to the preceding rule is the treatment of certain20words which we may callenclitics. These very frequently, to be sure, receive the normal treatment: that is, they are stressed and the preceding word either keeps its stress or, if oxytone, often loses it; but frequently, instead, the enclitic loses its accent:Umakyàt siyà, Umakyat syà.He climbed, but alsoUmakyàt25sya.Áakyàt siyà, Áakyat syà.He will climb, but alsoÁakyàt sya.Gánu ka na bà kakínis?How clever are you now?(kà, nà, bàare all enclitic).Enclitics have the further (and more easily recognized) peculiarity30that they follow the first orthotonic (i. e. neither atonic nor pretonic, §48) word of the expression to which they belong (either as modifiers or as subject):aŋ mahahába nya ŋ paàhis(niyà, enclitic)long legs.When several enclitics come together the last one is often35stressed. Monosyllabic enclitics precede disyllabic:Nahánap na nyà aŋ sombréro.He has already looked for the hat.(nàandniyàare enclitics; the latter is treated as disyllabic even when in the contracted formnyà).The enclitics are:40(1) always: the monosyllabic forms of the personal pronouns, namelykà, kò, mò, and the words (particles)bà, bagà, dàw, dìn, màn, múna, nà, namàn,nawàʾ, ŋàʾ, pà, palà, pòʾ, sána, tulòy.(2) frequently or in certain senses: the disyllabic forms of the personal pronouns (includingsiyà, syàandniyà, nyà) exceptikàw(which is never enclitic), the demonstrative pronouns, and the wordsdíne, díto, diyàn, doòn, kayàʾ, lámaŋ, ulèʾ; occasionally5short phrases (§88).For details about these words see Syntax.48.Opposed to the rule in §46are also certain words (particles) which we may callpretonics. Their treatment is often regular: that is, the pretonic as well as the following word keeps10its accent, or the pretonic loses its accent before a following word; but sometimes the pretonic keeps its accent and the following word, if oxytone, is unaccented:máy sakìt, may sakìthaving sickness, i. e.sick, but alsomáy sakit. Onlymáyandnásaactually appear with this accentuation.15The other pretonics are so classed because they share with these two words the peculiarity that an enclitic belonging to the phrase follows not the pretonic word, but the first orthotonic word:Máy katawàn sya ŋ pára ŋ táo.He has a body like a human20being.(siyàhe, enclitic follows notmáy, which is pretonic, butkatawànbody, the first orthotonic word of the predicate).The pretonics are the particlesbáwat, káhit,kapàg,kinà,maŋà, máy, nagìŋ(together with its other forms, §250),nása(together with its other forms, §212),nìnor(notniof),ninà,25pagkà, sinà, tagà (tigà). See Syntax.49.A final syllable ending in glottal stop (§14) often receives a higher degree of stress than a corresponding syllable with a different final.If the syllable ending in glottal stop has not the word-accent,30it often receives an accent resembling the secondary accent on a non-final syllable; this is especially common if the glottal stop is lost before another word in the phrase:páreʾ, párèʾpriest,Párì HwànFather Juan.If the syllable has a word-accent and the glottal stop is lost35in the phrase, its accent is often spoken like a primary word-accent on an open syllable:Walá sya.He has none(walàʾ),Naglálarú sya.He is playing(naglálaròʾ).If, however, the glottal stop is lost beforet, y, orŋ,this heightening of accent does not take place, since the syllable is then40treated as ending int, y, orŋ:Syà y walà ŋ aklàt(i. e.walàŋ-ʾak-làt),Sya y wala ŋ aklàt.He has no bookorno books.50.In a succession of otherwise unstressed syllables a rhythmicalmovement is usually produced by means of grammatically insignificant stresses weaker than a secondary word-accent; the distribution, and, indeed, the occurrence of these is so variable that I have not tried to indicate them in transcription, especially5as they are never distinctive. Thus, in the phrases in §46an accent of this kind may fall on the next-to-last syllables of the words that lose their normal word-accent:aŋ màŋa báhay, aŋ kànya ŋ amàhis father,aŋ malàki ŋ báhay.51.The successive accents in a sentence bear a well-marked10relation to each other: the early and especially the middle ones have higher absolute pitch than the last; an accent on the last syllable of a sentence often entirely loses its pitch-rise. As a consequence of this rather fixed melody, the differences of pitch-movement between statements, questions, commands, and exclamations15of various kinds are not so marked as in English; the higher stress of emotionally dominant (emphatic) words, also, is less marked than in English.In exclamation or under emphasis the accent of a final syllable may be like that of a medial syllable, and may, in addition20take on a falling accent after the rise:Hwán!(with rising-falling stress and pitch)Juan!, for normalHuwàn, Hwàn. Other disturbances of accent also occur in exclamation.

1.Distinctive sounds.1.The distinctive sounds are the following:LabialDentalPalatalVelarLaryngeal5Stops: unvoicedptkʾStops:,,voicedbdgSpirants (unvoiced)shNasals (voiced)mnŋTrill (voiced)r10Lateral (voiced)lHigh vowelsi(e,y)u(o,w)Low vowela2.ais a low unrounded vowel, as in Standard Englishfar, but more tense and with the corners of the mouth (lips) slightly15drawn back:hàlamanàngarden.3.iandu, in what may be regarded as the normal form, are about as high as the Standard (American) English vowels inpitandput, but more tense; moreover, the lips are well drawnback foriand well rounded foru:ínitheat,lutúinbe cooked.204.In the final syllable of a phrase (or of a word spoken alone) the tongue position ofianduis as a rule lowered, often all the way to mid position; the tenseness and lip position are, however, kept, so that the resulting sound often resembles Frenchèand lowero.255.uis nearly always so lowered:bágonew,buhòkhair. It is not lowered inpùʾten.6.iis not lowered before dentals:káhitthough,ákinmy,pígilcompulsion. It is usually kept high also before velars:sahìgflooring,siŋsìŋring. Some words ending in velars more or less30regularly have the lowering:pútik, pútekmud; so especially someproper names:IntsèkChinese,LóleŋLola.Even in other cases the higher variants ofiare commoner than the lower;hindìʾnot,kamìwe,gabìnight,mulìʾagainare commoner than these words withe; a very few words, such asulèʾagainhave oftenerethani; others, such asitèmblackare fairly regular in their variation.7.Within a closely unified phrase the lowering is as a rule omitted:ulí syaagain he(ulèʾ),Hintú na!Stop!(hintòʾ). In5this regard the habits are variable; the form chosen depends mostly on the speaker’s momentary attitude toward the closeness of joining of the words.A dissimilative factor also seems to be involved: a followingiorufavors the lowering:10Natùtúlug aŋ áso.The dog is sleeping.Natùtúlog si Hwàn.Juan is sleeping.8.ooccurs in a number of words as the vowel in the last two syllables: in all of them the intervening consonant is the glottal stop:óʾoyes,doʾònthere;boʾòʾwholehas occasionallybuʾòʾ.15The raised variant is not used within the phrase:Óʾo pòʾ.Yes, sir.Yes, ma’am.doʾòn syathere he.eoccurs in the same way inleʾègneck, besideliʾìg.9.In word-formation, when, by the addition of suffixes, theioruis no longer final, it is not lowered:lútoʾcook,lutúinbe20cooked;itèmblack,itimànbe made black. Occasionally, however,the lowered vowel is retained:táohuman being,ka-taó-hanmankind,besidekataúhan, tao-taó-hanmanikin,pupil of the eye, besidetautaúhan.The words withoʾo(§8) keep the lowered vowel when uncontracted:25pina-roʾon-ànwas gone to(doʾònthere); these words are also reduplicated witho:kinà-dò-roʾon-ànis been in.10.eandooccur also in unassimilated loan-words:bèsbolbaseball,Silà y nag-bè-bèsbol,They are playing baseball,estudiyànte, istudiyàntestudent,polìs, pulìspoliceman,sipérofootball30player,baŋkérocanoer(both with Spanish suffix-éroadded to Tagalog words:sípaʾfootball,baŋkàʾcanoe).Foresee also §29.11.As the variation betweeniandeand betweenoanduis thus never distinctive, there is no need of indicating it in transcription;35I have, however, used the characterseandowherever I heard markedly lowered variants.12.ianduoccur also as non-syllabics; I use, respectively, the charactersyandw:yaònthat,gáyalike,wíkaʾspeech,word,táwagcall. In final position they are always lowered: thus in40patàydead person,ikàwthou,yrepresents non-syllabice,wnon-syllabico.13.In word-formation before suffixes vowels are in certain cases lost, see Morphology:káninbe eaten,-káineatwith suffix-in.14.The laryngeal (glottal) stop occurs as a distinctive sound only after a vowel at the end of words:bátaʾchild,boy,girl,hindìʾnot,hintòʾstop.As a non-distinctive sound it is used as a vowel-separator5wherever syllabic vowels follow each other without an intervening distinctive non-syllabic. In this use I shall not indicate it in transcription, as it may be taken for granted wherever vowels are written together. Such words as those in §8will therefore from now on be transcribed without the sign for glottal stop:10doòn, óo, boòʾ. Sotáo(§9) meanstáʾo, etc. Cf. below.15.The distinctive final glottal stop is usually lost before a following word in the phrase:hindí syanot he,Hintú na!Stop!It is always lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child.1516.p,t,kare unvoiced fortis stops; they differ from the corresponding English sounds primarily in that they are only slightly aspirated. In sentence-final the implosion only is made.t(in contrast with the English sound) is postdental, often near to interdental.20kis always articulated in back velar position (as in Englishcoo), no matter what sound follows. The closure ofkis occasionally imperfect, so that a rather open velar spirant (resembling Slavicx) is heard:malaxàsformalakàsstrong; this variation has not been noted in transcription.25In word-formationp,t,kalternate, respectively, withm,n,ŋ; see Morphology.17.b,d,gcorrespond in position top,t,k. They are fully voiced lenis stops; in sentence-final often implosive only, and then weakly voiced.30The closure ofbis occasionally imperfect, so that a bilabial spirant is produced:túVigfortúbigwater; this variation has been ignored in transcription.In word-formationbalternates withm; see Morphology.Finaldin word-formation is always replaced byrbefore the35vowel of a suffix:lákadwalk,lakar-ànwalking-party.Initialdbecomesrin the sentence frequently after the final vowel of a preceding word and occasionally even after a final non-syllabic, in the wordsdaànhundred(not indaànroad),damò, dàw, dìn, díne, díto, diyàn, doòn; e. g.ako rìnI too.40In word-formation some words frequently changedtorafter the vowel of a prefix or a reduplication, and others do not:pa-raànmeans(daànroad,way), buti-pa-dalàbe sent(dalàbring,carry). The words (or roots) that have changeabled-are those mentioned in the preceding paragraph anddaàn, -dáka, damdàm, dámi, dámot, daŋàl, dapàʾ, dápat, dáti, -dátig, -datìŋ, dikìt, -dinìg, -díwaŋ, -dúkit, -dumè, dúnoŋ, dúsa.518.sis the normal unvoiced sibilant, spoken in postdental position. Beforeyandiyit is somewhat palatalized (more, for instance, than Russian palatalizeds),—a variation that is not distinctive and need not be noted in transcription:siyà, syàhe,she, pronounced with palatalizeds.10salternates in word-formation withn; see Morphology.In the affricate combinationts, which is felt and treated as a single sound, thesis always palatalized:IntsèkChinese.19.his the unvoiced glottal spirant; as in English, it occurs only in syllable-initial:hindìʾnot,báhayhouse,mukhàʾface.15In word-formationhis often spoken before the initial vowelof a suffix that is added to a final vowel:-básaread,basa-hànreading room. See Morphology.20.The nasalsm,n,ŋcorrespond in position to the stops. In word-formation they alternate, respectively, withp,t,k;m20also withb, andnalso withs;ŋis often prefixed to an initial vowel; see Morphology.Both in word-formation and in the phrase the nasals are occasionally assimilated in position to a following consonant:sà m pùʾten(m for ŋ),Saàŋ ka páparon?Where are you going?(for25saàn).In the sentence, finalnis lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ áki ŋ amàmy father(forákinmy).21.ris the voiced tongue-tip trill, postdental. It occurs between vowels within simple, underived words:árawsun,day,—no30doubt as a substitute ford, which never occurs in this position; everywhere elseris merely a variant ofd(§17).22.lis postdental; the timbre is much as in Standard French or German, the mid-tongue not lowered.23.fandv(both labiodental) occur in unassimilated foreign35words; they are occasionally replaced (especially in derivatives) bypandb.Filipínasthe Philippines,infiyèrno, impiyèrnoHell,fiyèsta, piyèstafiesta, but alwayska-piyestá-handay of a festival,sivìl, sibìlcivil,provìnsiyaprovince,bintánaʾwindow,básodrinking-glass.40roccurs freely in all positions in foreign words (cf. §21):trèntrain,trabáhowork,krùscross,relòswatch,sombrérohat,beside Tagalizedsambalílo.The occurrence ofts(§18) is probably limited to foreign words.24.When in word-formation a vowel is lost before a suffix (§13), the non-syllabics thereby brought together are subject to5various changes:sigl-ànbe filled,silìdwith suffix-an. See Morphology.

1.Distinctive sounds.

1.The distinctive sounds are the following:LabialDentalPalatalVelarLaryngeal5Stops: unvoicedptkʾStops:,,voicedbdgSpirants (unvoiced)shNasals (voiced)mnŋTrill (voiced)r10Lateral (voiced)lHigh vowelsi(e,y)u(o,w)Low vowela2.ais a low unrounded vowel, as in Standard Englishfar, but more tense and with the corners of the mouth (lips) slightly15drawn back:hàlamanàngarden.3.iandu, in what may be regarded as the normal form, are about as high as the Standard (American) English vowels inpitandput, but more tense; moreover, the lips are well drawnback foriand well rounded foru:ínitheat,lutúinbe cooked.204.In the final syllable of a phrase (or of a word spoken alone) the tongue position ofianduis as a rule lowered, often all the way to mid position; the tenseness and lip position are, however, kept, so that the resulting sound often resembles Frenchèand lowero.255.uis nearly always so lowered:bágonew,buhòkhair. It is not lowered inpùʾten.6.iis not lowered before dentals:káhitthough,ákinmy,pígilcompulsion. It is usually kept high also before velars:sahìgflooring,siŋsìŋring. Some words ending in velars more or less30regularly have the lowering:pútik, pútekmud; so especially someproper names:IntsèkChinese,LóleŋLola.Even in other cases the higher variants ofiare commoner than the lower;hindìʾnot,kamìwe,gabìnight,mulìʾagainare commoner than these words withe; a very few words, such asulèʾagainhave oftenerethani; others, such asitèmblackare fairly regular in their variation.7.Within a closely unified phrase the lowering is as a rule omitted:ulí syaagain he(ulèʾ),Hintú na!Stop!(hintòʾ). In5this regard the habits are variable; the form chosen depends mostly on the speaker’s momentary attitude toward the closeness of joining of the words.A dissimilative factor also seems to be involved: a followingiorufavors the lowering:10Natùtúlug aŋ áso.The dog is sleeping.Natùtúlog si Hwàn.Juan is sleeping.8.ooccurs in a number of words as the vowel in the last two syllables: in all of them the intervening consonant is the glottal stop:óʾoyes,doʾònthere;boʾòʾwholehas occasionallybuʾòʾ.15The raised variant is not used within the phrase:Óʾo pòʾ.Yes, sir.Yes, ma’am.doʾòn syathere he.eoccurs in the same way inleʾègneck, besideliʾìg.9.In word-formation, when, by the addition of suffixes, theioruis no longer final, it is not lowered:lútoʾcook,lutúinbe20cooked;itèmblack,itimànbe made black. Occasionally, however,the lowered vowel is retained:táohuman being,ka-taó-hanmankind,besidekataúhan, tao-taó-hanmanikin,pupil of the eye, besidetautaúhan.The words withoʾo(§8) keep the lowered vowel when uncontracted:25pina-roʾon-ànwas gone to(doʾònthere); these words are also reduplicated witho:kinà-dò-roʾon-ànis been in.10.eandooccur also in unassimilated loan-words:bèsbolbaseball,Silà y nag-bè-bèsbol,They are playing baseball,estudiyànte, istudiyàntestudent,polìs, pulìspoliceman,sipérofootball30player,baŋkérocanoer(both with Spanish suffix-éroadded to Tagalog words:sípaʾfootball,baŋkàʾcanoe).Foresee also §29.11.As the variation betweeniandeand betweenoanduis thus never distinctive, there is no need of indicating it in transcription;35I have, however, used the characterseandowherever I heard markedly lowered variants.12.ianduoccur also as non-syllabics; I use, respectively, the charactersyandw:yaònthat,gáyalike,wíkaʾspeech,word,táwagcall. In final position they are always lowered: thus in40patàydead person,ikàwthou,yrepresents non-syllabice,wnon-syllabico.13.In word-formation before suffixes vowels are in certain cases lost, see Morphology:káninbe eaten,-káineatwith suffix-in.14.The laryngeal (glottal) stop occurs as a distinctive sound only after a vowel at the end of words:bátaʾchild,boy,girl,hindìʾnot,hintòʾstop.As a non-distinctive sound it is used as a vowel-separator5wherever syllabic vowels follow each other without an intervening distinctive non-syllabic. In this use I shall not indicate it in transcription, as it may be taken for granted wherever vowels are written together. Such words as those in §8will therefore from now on be transcribed without the sign for glottal stop:10doòn, óo, boòʾ. Sotáo(§9) meanstáʾo, etc. Cf. below.15.The distinctive final glottal stop is usually lost before a following word in the phrase:hindí syanot he,Hintú na!Stop!It is always lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child.1516.p,t,kare unvoiced fortis stops; they differ from the corresponding English sounds primarily in that they are only slightly aspirated. In sentence-final the implosion only is made.t(in contrast with the English sound) is postdental, often near to interdental.20kis always articulated in back velar position (as in Englishcoo), no matter what sound follows. The closure ofkis occasionally imperfect, so that a rather open velar spirant (resembling Slavicx) is heard:malaxàsformalakàsstrong; this variation has not been noted in transcription.25In word-formationp,t,kalternate, respectively, withm,n,ŋ; see Morphology.17.b,d,gcorrespond in position top,t,k. They are fully voiced lenis stops; in sentence-final often implosive only, and then weakly voiced.30The closure ofbis occasionally imperfect, so that a bilabial spirant is produced:túVigfortúbigwater; this variation has been ignored in transcription.In word-formationbalternates withm; see Morphology.Finaldin word-formation is always replaced byrbefore the35vowel of a suffix:lákadwalk,lakar-ànwalking-party.Initialdbecomesrin the sentence frequently after the final vowel of a preceding word and occasionally even after a final non-syllabic, in the wordsdaànhundred(not indaànroad),damò, dàw, dìn, díne, díto, diyàn, doòn; e. g.ako rìnI too.40In word-formation some words frequently changedtorafter the vowel of a prefix or a reduplication, and others do not:pa-raànmeans(daànroad,way), buti-pa-dalàbe sent(dalàbring,carry). The words (or roots) that have changeabled-are those mentioned in the preceding paragraph anddaàn, -dáka, damdàm, dámi, dámot, daŋàl, dapàʾ, dápat, dáti, -dátig, -datìŋ, dikìt, -dinìg, -díwaŋ, -dúkit, -dumè, dúnoŋ, dúsa.518.sis the normal unvoiced sibilant, spoken in postdental position. Beforeyandiyit is somewhat palatalized (more, for instance, than Russian palatalizeds),—a variation that is not distinctive and need not be noted in transcription:siyà, syàhe,she, pronounced with palatalizeds.10salternates in word-formation withn; see Morphology.In the affricate combinationts, which is felt and treated as a single sound, thesis always palatalized:IntsèkChinese.19.his the unvoiced glottal spirant; as in English, it occurs only in syllable-initial:hindìʾnot,báhayhouse,mukhàʾface.15In word-formationhis often spoken before the initial vowelof a suffix that is added to a final vowel:-básaread,basa-hànreading room. See Morphology.20.The nasalsm,n,ŋcorrespond in position to the stops. In word-formation they alternate, respectively, withp,t,k;m20also withb, andnalso withs;ŋis often prefixed to an initial vowel; see Morphology.Both in word-formation and in the phrase the nasals are occasionally assimilated in position to a following consonant:sà m pùʾten(m for ŋ),Saàŋ ka páparon?Where are you going?(for25saàn).In the sentence, finalnis lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ áki ŋ amàmy father(forákinmy).21.ris the voiced tongue-tip trill, postdental. It occurs between vowels within simple, underived words:árawsun,day,—no30doubt as a substitute ford, which never occurs in this position; everywhere elseris merely a variant ofd(§17).22.lis postdental; the timbre is much as in Standard French or German, the mid-tongue not lowered.23.fandv(both labiodental) occur in unassimilated foreign35words; they are occasionally replaced (especially in derivatives) bypandb.Filipínasthe Philippines,infiyèrno, impiyèrnoHell,fiyèsta, piyèstafiesta, but alwayska-piyestá-handay of a festival,sivìl, sibìlcivil,provìnsiyaprovince,bintánaʾwindow,básodrinking-glass.40roccurs freely in all positions in foreign words (cf. §21):trèntrain,trabáhowork,krùscross,relòswatch,sombrérohat,beside Tagalizedsambalílo.The occurrence ofts(§18) is probably limited to foreign words.24.When in word-formation a vowel is lost before a suffix (§13), the non-syllabics thereby brought together are subject to5various changes:sigl-ànbe filled,silìdwith suffix-an. See Morphology.

1.The distinctive sounds are the following:LabialDentalPalatalVelarLaryngeal5Stops: unvoicedptkʾStops:,,voicedbdgSpirants (unvoiced)shNasals (voiced)mnŋTrill (voiced)r10Lateral (voiced)lHigh vowelsi(e,y)u(o,w)Low vowela

LabialDentalPalatalVelarLaryngeal5Stops: unvoicedptkʾStops:,,voicedbdgSpirants (unvoiced)shNasals (voiced)mnŋTrill (voiced)r10Lateral (voiced)lHigh vowelsi(e,y)u(o,w)Low vowela

2.ais a low unrounded vowel, as in Standard Englishfar, but more tense and with the corners of the mouth (lips) slightly15drawn back:hàlamanàngarden.

3.iandu, in what may be regarded as the normal form, are about as high as the Standard (American) English vowels inpitandput, but more tense; moreover, the lips are well drawnback foriand well rounded foru:ínitheat,lutúinbe cooked.

204.In the final syllable of a phrase (or of a word spoken alone) the tongue position ofianduis as a rule lowered, often all the way to mid position; the tenseness and lip position are, however, kept, so that the resulting sound often resembles Frenchèand lowero.

255.uis nearly always so lowered:bágonew,buhòkhair. It is not lowered inpùʾten.

6.iis not lowered before dentals:káhitthough,ákinmy,pígilcompulsion. It is usually kept high also before velars:sahìgflooring,siŋsìŋring. Some words ending in velars more or less30regularly have the lowering:pútik, pútekmud; so especially someproper names:IntsèkChinese,LóleŋLola.

Even in other cases the higher variants ofiare commoner than the lower;hindìʾnot,kamìwe,gabìnight,mulìʾagainare commoner than these words withe; a very few words, such asulèʾagainhave oftenerethani; others, such asitèmblackare fairly regular in their variation.

7.Within a closely unified phrase the lowering is as a rule omitted:ulí syaagain he(ulèʾ),Hintú na!Stop!(hintòʾ). In5this regard the habits are variable; the form chosen depends mostly on the speaker’s momentary attitude toward the closeness of joining of the words.

A dissimilative factor also seems to be involved: a followingiorufavors the lowering:

10Natùtúlug aŋ áso.The dog is sleeping.

Natùtúlog si Hwàn.Juan is sleeping.

8.ooccurs in a number of words as the vowel in the last two syllables: in all of them the intervening consonant is the glottal stop:óʾoyes,doʾònthere;boʾòʾwholehas occasionallybuʾòʾ.15The raised variant is not used within the phrase:Óʾo pòʾ.Yes, sir.Yes, ma’am.doʾòn syathere he.

eoccurs in the same way inleʾègneck, besideliʾìg.

9.In word-formation, when, by the addition of suffixes, theioruis no longer final, it is not lowered:lútoʾcook,lutúinbe20cooked;itèmblack,itimànbe made black. Occasionally, however,the lowered vowel is retained:táohuman being,ka-taó-hanmankind,besidekataúhan, tao-taó-hanmanikin,pupil of the eye, besidetautaúhan.

The words withoʾo(§8) keep the lowered vowel when uncontracted:25pina-roʾon-ànwas gone to(doʾònthere); these words are also reduplicated witho:kinà-dò-roʾon-ànis been in.

10.eandooccur also in unassimilated loan-words:bèsbolbaseball,Silà y nag-bè-bèsbol,They are playing baseball,estudiyànte, istudiyàntestudent,polìs, pulìspoliceman,sipérofootball30player,baŋkérocanoer(both with Spanish suffix-éroadded to Tagalog words:sípaʾfootball,baŋkàʾcanoe).

Foresee also §29.

11.As the variation betweeniandeand betweenoanduis thus never distinctive, there is no need of indicating it in transcription;35I have, however, used the characterseandowherever I heard markedly lowered variants.

12.ianduoccur also as non-syllabics; I use, respectively, the charactersyandw:yaònthat,gáyalike,wíkaʾspeech,word,táwagcall. In final position they are always lowered: thus in40patàydead person,ikàwthou,yrepresents non-syllabice,wnon-syllabico.

13.In word-formation before suffixes vowels are in certain cases lost, see Morphology:káninbe eaten,-káineatwith suffix-in.

14.The laryngeal (glottal) stop occurs as a distinctive sound only after a vowel at the end of words:bátaʾchild,boy,girl,hindìʾnot,hintòʾstop.

As a non-distinctive sound it is used as a vowel-separator5wherever syllabic vowels follow each other without an intervening distinctive non-syllabic. In this use I shall not indicate it in transcription, as it may be taken for granted wherever vowels are written together. Such words as those in §8will therefore from now on be transcribed without the sign for glottal stop:10doòn, óo, boòʾ. Sotáo(§9) meanstáʾo, etc. Cf. below.

15.The distinctive final glottal stop is usually lost before a following word in the phrase:hindí syanot he,Hintú na!Stop!

It is always lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child.

1516.p,t,kare unvoiced fortis stops; they differ from the corresponding English sounds primarily in that they are only slightly aspirated. In sentence-final the implosion only is made.

t(in contrast with the English sound) is postdental, often near to interdental.

20kis always articulated in back velar position (as in Englishcoo), no matter what sound follows. The closure ofkis occasionally imperfect, so that a rather open velar spirant (resembling Slavicx) is heard:malaxàsformalakàsstrong; this variation has not been noted in transcription.

25In word-formationp,t,kalternate, respectively, withm,n,ŋ; see Morphology.

17.b,d,gcorrespond in position top,t,k. They are fully voiced lenis stops; in sentence-final often implosive only, and then weakly voiced.

30The closure ofbis occasionally imperfect, so that a bilabial spirant is produced:túVigfortúbigwater; this variation has been ignored in transcription.

In word-formationbalternates withm; see Morphology.

Finaldin word-formation is always replaced byrbefore the35vowel of a suffix:lákadwalk,lakar-ànwalking-party.

Initialdbecomesrin the sentence frequently after the final vowel of a preceding word and occasionally even after a final non-syllabic, in the wordsdaànhundred(not indaànroad),damò, dàw, dìn, díne, díto, diyàn, doòn; e. g.ako rìnI too.

40In word-formation some words frequently changedtorafter the vowel of a prefix or a reduplication, and others do not:pa-raànmeans(daànroad,way), buti-pa-dalàbe sent(dalàbring,carry). The words (or roots) that have changeabled-are those mentioned in the preceding paragraph anddaàn, -dáka, damdàm, dámi, dámot, daŋàl, dapàʾ, dápat, dáti, -dátig, -datìŋ, dikìt, -dinìg, -díwaŋ, -dúkit, -dumè, dúnoŋ, dúsa.

518.sis the normal unvoiced sibilant, spoken in postdental position. Beforeyandiyit is somewhat palatalized (more, for instance, than Russian palatalizeds),—a variation that is not distinctive and need not be noted in transcription:siyà, syàhe,she, pronounced with palatalizeds.

10salternates in word-formation withn; see Morphology.

In the affricate combinationts, which is felt and treated as a single sound, thesis always palatalized:IntsèkChinese.

19.his the unvoiced glottal spirant; as in English, it occurs only in syllable-initial:hindìʾnot,báhayhouse,mukhàʾface.

15In word-formationhis often spoken before the initial vowelof a suffix that is added to a final vowel:-básaread,basa-hànreading room. See Morphology.

20.The nasalsm,n,ŋcorrespond in position to the stops. In word-formation they alternate, respectively, withp,t,k;m20also withb, andnalso withs;ŋis often prefixed to an initial vowel; see Morphology.

Both in word-formation and in the phrase the nasals are occasionally assimilated in position to a following consonant:sà m pùʾten(m for ŋ),Saàŋ ka páparon?Where are you going?(for25saàn).

In the sentence, finalnis lost before the words ŋ, t, and y:aŋ áki ŋ amàmy father(forákinmy).

21.ris the voiced tongue-tip trill, postdental. It occurs between vowels within simple, underived words:árawsun,day,—no30doubt as a substitute ford, which never occurs in this position; everywhere elseris merely a variant ofd(§17).

22.lis postdental; the timbre is much as in Standard French or German, the mid-tongue not lowered.

23.fandv(both labiodental) occur in unassimilated foreign35words; they are occasionally replaced (especially in derivatives) bypandb.Filipínasthe Philippines,infiyèrno, impiyèrnoHell,fiyèsta, piyèstafiesta, but alwayska-piyestá-handay of a festival,sivìl, sibìlcivil,provìnsiyaprovince,bintánaʾwindow,básodrinking-glass.

40roccurs freely in all positions in foreign words (cf. §21):trèntrain,trabáhowork,krùscross,relòswatch,sombrérohat,beside Tagalizedsambalílo.

The occurrence ofts(§18) is probably limited to foreign words.

24.When in word-formation a vowel is lost before a suffix (§13), the non-syllabics thereby brought together are subject to5various changes:sigl-ànbe filled,silìdwith suffix-an. See Morphology.

2.Syllabication.a.In the word.25.If a single non-syllabic follows a stressed vowel, the latter10is spoken with open syllable accent, and the non-syllabic beginsthe following syllable:bá-hayhouse,sù-sú-latwill write.If a single non-syllabic follows an unstressed vowel, the latter has close syllable accent,—that is, no stress-division is made between the syllables (just as in English):itòthis,kasakimànselfishness,15sumú-latwrote.If two non-syllabics intervene between two syllabics, the syllable-division is made between the non-syllabics:luk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,In-tsèkChinese. Stressedayseems, however, to have open syllable accent:káy-lanwhen?20Syllabics never follow each other without an intervening non-syllabic. If no other non-syllabic intervenes, a non-distinctive glottal stop is spoken. I have not written the glottal stop in this position, as it may always be taken for granted (§14). Hencedaànroadis pronounceddaʾàn, siìkyoung pigsiʾìk, doònthere25doʾòn, táohuman beingtáʾo.Nor do more than two non-syllabics ever follow each other in a native word. The following are examples of unusual combinationsin foreign words:An-drès, Pé-dro, beside TagalizedPíro, ká-trebedstead,sèr-mon, trabá-howork, but in reduplicationmag-tà-trabá-ho30will work,krùscross, but in reduplicationnag-kú-kurùscrosses himself, cf.barásoarm,lóboballoon(Sp.globo).26.In frequently used words, especially in more rapid speech, the intervocalic glottal stop is often lost.If like vowels thus meet, they coalesce into a single vowel of35no more than normal length:pumarònwent therebesidepumaroòn. Whenoois thus contracted, the resultingomay be raisedtou(cf. §9):pinarunànwas gone to, besidepinaronànandpinaroonàn.If unlike vowels meet, the non-syllabic corresponding to the40higher vowel (i. e.ywithi,eandwwithu,o) takes the place of the glottal stop. Sotáwobesidetáo. The combinations soresulting are treated in every way like those discussed in the next §.27.If the non-syllabic intervening between two vowels isyorw, the combination involves no peculiarity, provided that neither5of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic:bá-yantown,pag-dirí-waŋcelebration,gayònthus.If, however, one of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic (i. e.i,ewithyandu,owithw) and is not stressed, it is spoken shorter than a normal unstressed vowel: in such words10asiyònthat,buwànmoon,monththei,uare spoken shorter than in other positions. So also intáwo(see preceding §) theo.After consonants these short vowels are often entirely omitted:bwànbesidebuwàn, syàhe,shebesidesiyà. The syllable-division remains, however, as in the longer form:kápwàʾfellow- beside15kápuwàʾis pronouncedká-pwàʾ(notkap-waʾ).Even in other positions these reduced vowels are often omitted, especially in frequently used combinations:Ano yòn?What’s that?besideAno iyòn?, occasionallytáwfortáwo, táo.28.Conversely, one hears now and then a superfluous short20i,ewith ay, and anu,owith aw:iyaònforyaònthat,máyeformáyhaving,uwalàʾforwalàʾwithout.29.The combinationsayandaiare occasionally replaced by a long opene:kélanbesidekáylanwhen?,mé báhaybesidemáy báhaywife,housewife,me áreʾbesidemay áreʾmaster,owner,25téŋabesidetaíŋacar.b.In word-formation.30.When in word-formation affixes or reduplicative syllables are added to a root, the syllabication is as in a simple word:sulá-tanbe written to(súlatwritingwith suffix-an),sumú-lat30wrote(same, with infix-um-),umuwèʾ, umwèʾ(§27)went home(-uwèʾgo home, with prefixed-um-).When vowels meet, they are as a rule separated by the non-distinctive intervocalic glottal stop:maà-á-reʾwill be possible(áreʾpropertyreduplicated and with prefixma-).3531.The intervocalic glottal stop is rarely reduced, except in certain much-used combinations, the commonest being those with the prefixi-and with the prefixka-and the suffix-anin certain uses (see Morphology):iniútoswas commanded(útoscommandwith prefixesin-andi-), usuallyiniyútos; laruàn,toy(laròʾplay,40gamewith suffix-an), usuallylaruwàn, larwàn, but (with a differentuse of the suffix-an)làrúanplayground;kayibígan, kaybíganfriend(íbiglove,desire, with prefixka-and suffix-an), butkaìbígansweetheartandkaibigànaffection. For-íwanabandonwith prefixi-only the contracted formíwanbe abandonedis spoken. Cf. furtherikaápat, ikápatfourth(ápatfourwith prefixes5i-andka-).32.Conversely, an originalyorwis sometimes under emphasis replaced by glottal stop; thus, forpatayìnbe killed(patàydead person,killwith suffix-in), occasionallypataìn.33.When a word is doubled, when two words are united in10a compound word, and after the prefixes that end ing, the syllable-division is however made as though separate words were meeting in a sentence,—that is, according to the rules in the following paragraphs.c.In the phrase.1534.When words come together in the phrase, the word-division is maintained (as in English) as a syllable-division.In the case of initial consonants the division is thus like thatwithin a word:Sumúlat ka.Write (thou),Sumúlat siyà, Sumúlatsyà.He wrote,Sumáma ka.Go along,Sumáma siyà, Sumáma20syà.He went along.Before a vowel-initial the word-division is maintained as a syllable-division by the use of a non-distinctive glottal stop (as in German):Sumúlat akò.I wrote, i. e.sumú-lat-ʾakò; Sumáma akò.I went along, i. e.sumá-ma-ʾakò.25Doubled words, compound words, and forms with prefixes ending in g (namely,mag-, nag-, pag-, tag-) are similarly treated (§33):agàd-agàdimmediately(agàdat oncedoubled), i. e.agàd-ʾagàd; báhay-aklátanlibrary-building(compound ofbáhayhouseandaklátanplace for books), i. e.bá-hay-ʾak-lá-tan; pagsúlatan30act of writing(súlatwritingwith prefixpag-), i. e.pag-sú-lat;nagáralstudied(áralteachingwith prefixnag-), i. e.nag-ʾá-ral.Occasionally, in emphatic speech, the same division is made within other formations:umakiyàt, umakyàtclimbed(-akiyàtclimbwith prefixed-um-), occasionally, but rarely,um-ʾakiyàt,35usuallyumakiyàt, umakyàt(by §30).35.Reduction of the glottal stop and contraction of vowels occur only in a few much-used combinations of words:si Andrès(siis the article of proper names), alsosiy Andrès, sy Andrès; Ano iyàn?What’s that?, alsoAno yàn?and evenAn yàn?; na40itòthis(nais a particle expressing attribution), alsona yitò, na ytò.36.Occasionally such reductions go even farther, as inanòin the preceding paragraph, and occur where the glottal stop is not involved: as,sàforisàoneinsà m pùʾten, forisà ŋ pùʾ.37.The wordsat, ay, andnahave also a shorter form,t, y,5andŋ, respectively, which occurs only (but not always) after a final vowel, glottal stop, orn. When these forms are used, the final glottal stop ornis lost (§§15,20) and thet, y, orŋis treated in every way exactly as though it were part of the preceding word:butò at balàt, butò t balàtbone and skin, i. e.butòt-balàt; Iyòn10ay mabúti, Iyò y mabúti.That’s good, i. e.iyòy-mabú-ti; aŋ bátaʾ na mabaìt(clumsy, as in the speech of a child just learning to speak, for:)aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child, i. e.aŋ-bá-taŋ-mabaʾìt.

2.Syllabication.a.In the word.25.If a single non-syllabic follows a stressed vowel, the latter10is spoken with open syllable accent, and the non-syllabic beginsthe following syllable:bá-hayhouse,sù-sú-latwill write.If a single non-syllabic follows an unstressed vowel, the latter has close syllable accent,—that is, no stress-division is made between the syllables (just as in English):itòthis,kasakimànselfishness,15sumú-latwrote.If two non-syllabics intervene between two syllabics, the syllable-division is made between the non-syllabics:luk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,In-tsèkChinese. Stressedayseems, however, to have open syllable accent:káy-lanwhen?20Syllabics never follow each other without an intervening non-syllabic. If no other non-syllabic intervenes, a non-distinctive glottal stop is spoken. I have not written the glottal stop in this position, as it may always be taken for granted (§14). Hencedaànroadis pronounceddaʾàn, siìkyoung pigsiʾìk, doònthere25doʾòn, táohuman beingtáʾo.Nor do more than two non-syllabics ever follow each other in a native word. The following are examples of unusual combinationsin foreign words:An-drès, Pé-dro, beside TagalizedPíro, ká-trebedstead,sèr-mon, trabá-howork, but in reduplicationmag-tà-trabá-ho30will work,krùscross, but in reduplicationnag-kú-kurùscrosses himself, cf.barásoarm,lóboballoon(Sp.globo).26.In frequently used words, especially in more rapid speech, the intervocalic glottal stop is often lost.If like vowels thus meet, they coalesce into a single vowel of35no more than normal length:pumarònwent therebesidepumaroòn. Whenoois thus contracted, the resultingomay be raisedtou(cf. §9):pinarunànwas gone to, besidepinaronànandpinaroonàn.If unlike vowels meet, the non-syllabic corresponding to the40higher vowel (i. e.ywithi,eandwwithu,o) takes the place of the glottal stop. Sotáwobesidetáo. The combinations soresulting are treated in every way like those discussed in the next §.27.If the non-syllabic intervening between two vowels isyorw, the combination involves no peculiarity, provided that neither5of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic:bá-yantown,pag-dirí-waŋcelebration,gayònthus.If, however, one of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic (i. e.i,ewithyandu,owithw) and is not stressed, it is spoken shorter than a normal unstressed vowel: in such words10asiyònthat,buwànmoon,monththei,uare spoken shorter than in other positions. So also intáwo(see preceding §) theo.After consonants these short vowels are often entirely omitted:bwànbesidebuwàn, syàhe,shebesidesiyà. The syllable-division remains, however, as in the longer form:kápwàʾfellow- beside15kápuwàʾis pronouncedká-pwàʾ(notkap-waʾ).Even in other positions these reduced vowels are often omitted, especially in frequently used combinations:Ano yòn?What’s that?besideAno iyòn?, occasionallytáwfortáwo, táo.28.Conversely, one hears now and then a superfluous short20i,ewith ay, and anu,owith aw:iyaònforyaònthat,máyeformáyhaving,uwalàʾforwalàʾwithout.29.The combinationsayandaiare occasionally replaced by a long opene:kélanbesidekáylanwhen?,mé báhaybesidemáy báhaywife,housewife,me áreʾbesidemay áreʾmaster,owner,25téŋabesidetaíŋacar.b.In word-formation.30.When in word-formation affixes or reduplicative syllables are added to a root, the syllabication is as in a simple word:sulá-tanbe written to(súlatwritingwith suffix-an),sumú-lat30wrote(same, with infix-um-),umuwèʾ, umwèʾ(§27)went home(-uwèʾgo home, with prefixed-um-).When vowels meet, they are as a rule separated by the non-distinctive intervocalic glottal stop:maà-á-reʾwill be possible(áreʾpropertyreduplicated and with prefixma-).3531.The intervocalic glottal stop is rarely reduced, except in certain much-used combinations, the commonest being those with the prefixi-and with the prefixka-and the suffix-anin certain uses (see Morphology):iniútoswas commanded(útoscommandwith prefixesin-andi-), usuallyiniyútos; laruàn,toy(laròʾplay,40gamewith suffix-an), usuallylaruwàn, larwàn, but (with a differentuse of the suffix-an)làrúanplayground;kayibígan, kaybíganfriend(íbiglove,desire, with prefixka-and suffix-an), butkaìbígansweetheartandkaibigànaffection. For-íwanabandonwith prefixi-only the contracted formíwanbe abandonedis spoken. Cf. furtherikaápat, ikápatfourth(ápatfourwith prefixes5i-andka-).32.Conversely, an originalyorwis sometimes under emphasis replaced by glottal stop; thus, forpatayìnbe killed(patàydead person,killwith suffix-in), occasionallypataìn.33.When a word is doubled, when two words are united in10a compound word, and after the prefixes that end ing, the syllable-division is however made as though separate words were meeting in a sentence,—that is, according to the rules in the following paragraphs.c.In the phrase.1534.When words come together in the phrase, the word-division is maintained (as in English) as a syllable-division.In the case of initial consonants the division is thus like thatwithin a word:Sumúlat ka.Write (thou),Sumúlat siyà, Sumúlatsyà.He wrote,Sumáma ka.Go along,Sumáma siyà, Sumáma20syà.He went along.Before a vowel-initial the word-division is maintained as a syllable-division by the use of a non-distinctive glottal stop (as in German):Sumúlat akò.I wrote, i. e.sumú-lat-ʾakò; Sumáma akò.I went along, i. e.sumá-ma-ʾakò.25Doubled words, compound words, and forms with prefixes ending in g (namely,mag-, nag-, pag-, tag-) are similarly treated (§33):agàd-agàdimmediately(agàdat oncedoubled), i. e.agàd-ʾagàd; báhay-aklátanlibrary-building(compound ofbáhayhouseandaklátanplace for books), i. e.bá-hay-ʾak-lá-tan; pagsúlatan30act of writing(súlatwritingwith prefixpag-), i. e.pag-sú-lat;nagáralstudied(áralteachingwith prefixnag-), i. e.nag-ʾá-ral.Occasionally, in emphatic speech, the same division is made within other formations:umakiyàt, umakyàtclimbed(-akiyàtclimbwith prefixed-um-), occasionally, but rarely,um-ʾakiyàt,35usuallyumakiyàt, umakyàt(by §30).35.Reduction of the glottal stop and contraction of vowels occur only in a few much-used combinations of words:si Andrès(siis the article of proper names), alsosiy Andrès, sy Andrès; Ano iyàn?What’s that?, alsoAno yàn?and evenAn yàn?; na40itòthis(nais a particle expressing attribution), alsona yitò, na ytò.36.Occasionally such reductions go even farther, as inanòin the preceding paragraph, and occur where the glottal stop is not involved: as,sàforisàoneinsà m pùʾten, forisà ŋ pùʾ.37.The wordsat, ay, andnahave also a shorter form,t, y,5andŋ, respectively, which occurs only (but not always) after a final vowel, glottal stop, orn. When these forms are used, the final glottal stop ornis lost (§§15,20) and thet, y, orŋis treated in every way exactly as though it were part of the preceding word:butò at balàt, butò t balàtbone and skin, i. e.butòt-balàt; Iyòn10ay mabúti, Iyò y mabúti.That’s good, i. e.iyòy-mabú-ti; aŋ bátaʾ na mabaìt(clumsy, as in the speech of a child just learning to speak, for:)aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child, i. e.aŋ-bá-taŋ-mabaʾìt.

a.In the word.25.If a single non-syllabic follows a stressed vowel, the latter10is spoken with open syllable accent, and the non-syllabic beginsthe following syllable:bá-hayhouse,sù-sú-latwill write.If a single non-syllabic follows an unstressed vowel, the latter has close syllable accent,—that is, no stress-division is made between the syllables (just as in English):itòthis,kasakimànselfishness,15sumú-latwrote.If two non-syllabics intervene between two syllabics, the syllable-division is made between the non-syllabics:luk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,In-tsèkChinese. Stressedayseems, however, to have open syllable accent:káy-lanwhen?20Syllabics never follow each other without an intervening non-syllabic. If no other non-syllabic intervenes, a non-distinctive glottal stop is spoken. I have not written the glottal stop in this position, as it may always be taken for granted (§14). Hencedaànroadis pronounceddaʾàn, siìkyoung pigsiʾìk, doònthere25doʾòn, táohuman beingtáʾo.Nor do more than two non-syllabics ever follow each other in a native word. The following are examples of unusual combinationsin foreign words:An-drès, Pé-dro, beside TagalizedPíro, ká-trebedstead,sèr-mon, trabá-howork, but in reduplicationmag-tà-trabá-ho30will work,krùscross, but in reduplicationnag-kú-kurùscrosses himself, cf.barásoarm,lóboballoon(Sp.globo).26.In frequently used words, especially in more rapid speech, the intervocalic glottal stop is often lost.If like vowels thus meet, they coalesce into a single vowel of35no more than normal length:pumarònwent therebesidepumaroòn. Whenoois thus contracted, the resultingomay be raisedtou(cf. §9):pinarunànwas gone to, besidepinaronànandpinaroonàn.If unlike vowels meet, the non-syllabic corresponding to the40higher vowel (i. e.ywithi,eandwwithu,o) takes the place of the glottal stop. Sotáwobesidetáo. The combinations soresulting are treated in every way like those discussed in the next §.27.If the non-syllabic intervening between two vowels isyorw, the combination involves no peculiarity, provided that neither5of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic:bá-yantown,pag-dirí-waŋcelebration,gayònthus.If, however, one of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic (i. e.i,ewithyandu,owithw) and is not stressed, it is spoken shorter than a normal unstressed vowel: in such words10asiyònthat,buwànmoon,monththei,uare spoken shorter than in other positions. So also intáwo(see preceding §) theo.After consonants these short vowels are often entirely omitted:bwànbesidebuwàn, syàhe,shebesidesiyà. The syllable-division remains, however, as in the longer form:kápwàʾfellow- beside15kápuwàʾis pronouncedká-pwàʾ(notkap-waʾ).Even in other positions these reduced vowels are often omitted, especially in frequently used combinations:Ano yòn?What’s that?besideAno iyòn?, occasionallytáwfortáwo, táo.28.Conversely, one hears now and then a superfluous short20i,ewith ay, and anu,owith aw:iyaònforyaònthat,máyeformáyhaving,uwalàʾforwalàʾwithout.29.The combinationsayandaiare occasionally replaced by a long opene:kélanbesidekáylanwhen?,mé báhaybesidemáy báhaywife,housewife,me áreʾbesidemay áreʾmaster,owner,25téŋabesidetaíŋacar.

a.In the word.

25.If a single non-syllabic follows a stressed vowel, the latter10is spoken with open syllable accent, and the non-syllabic beginsthe following syllable:bá-hayhouse,sù-sú-latwill write.If a single non-syllabic follows an unstressed vowel, the latter has close syllable accent,—that is, no stress-division is made between the syllables (just as in English):itòthis,kasakimànselfishness,15sumú-latwrote.If two non-syllabics intervene between two syllabics, the syllable-division is made between the non-syllabics:luk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,In-tsèkChinese. Stressedayseems, however, to have open syllable accent:káy-lanwhen?20Syllabics never follow each other without an intervening non-syllabic. If no other non-syllabic intervenes, a non-distinctive glottal stop is spoken. I have not written the glottal stop in this position, as it may always be taken for granted (§14). Hencedaànroadis pronounceddaʾàn, siìkyoung pigsiʾìk, doònthere25doʾòn, táohuman beingtáʾo.Nor do more than two non-syllabics ever follow each other in a native word. The following are examples of unusual combinationsin foreign words:An-drès, Pé-dro, beside TagalizedPíro, ká-trebedstead,sèr-mon, trabá-howork, but in reduplicationmag-tà-trabá-ho30will work,krùscross, but in reduplicationnag-kú-kurùscrosses himself, cf.barásoarm,lóboballoon(Sp.globo).26.In frequently used words, especially in more rapid speech, the intervocalic glottal stop is often lost.If like vowels thus meet, they coalesce into a single vowel of35no more than normal length:pumarònwent therebesidepumaroòn. Whenoois thus contracted, the resultingomay be raisedtou(cf. §9):pinarunànwas gone to, besidepinaronànandpinaroonàn.If unlike vowels meet, the non-syllabic corresponding to the40higher vowel (i. e.ywithi,eandwwithu,o) takes the place of the glottal stop. Sotáwobesidetáo. The combinations soresulting are treated in every way like those discussed in the next §.27.If the non-syllabic intervening between two vowels isyorw, the combination involves no peculiarity, provided that neither5of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic:bá-yantown,pag-dirí-waŋcelebration,gayònthus.If, however, one of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic (i. e.i,ewithyandu,owithw) and is not stressed, it is spoken shorter than a normal unstressed vowel: in such words10asiyònthat,buwànmoon,monththei,uare spoken shorter than in other positions. So also intáwo(see preceding §) theo.After consonants these short vowels are often entirely omitted:bwànbesidebuwàn, syàhe,shebesidesiyà. The syllable-division remains, however, as in the longer form:kápwàʾfellow- beside15kápuwàʾis pronouncedká-pwàʾ(notkap-waʾ).Even in other positions these reduced vowels are often omitted, especially in frequently used combinations:Ano yòn?What’s that?besideAno iyòn?, occasionallytáwfortáwo, táo.28.Conversely, one hears now and then a superfluous short20i,ewith ay, and anu,owith aw:iyaònforyaònthat,máyeformáyhaving,uwalàʾforwalàʾwithout.29.The combinationsayandaiare occasionally replaced by a long opene:kélanbesidekáylanwhen?,mé báhaybesidemáy báhaywife,housewife,me áreʾbesidemay áreʾmaster,owner,25téŋabesidetaíŋacar.

25.If a single non-syllabic follows a stressed vowel, the latter10is spoken with open syllable accent, and the non-syllabic beginsthe following syllable:bá-hayhouse,sù-sú-latwill write.

If a single non-syllabic follows an unstressed vowel, the latter has close syllable accent,—that is, no stress-division is made between the syllables (just as in English):itòthis,kasakimànselfishness,15sumú-latwrote.

If two non-syllabics intervene between two syllabics, the syllable-division is made between the non-syllabics:luk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,In-tsèkChinese. Stressedayseems, however, to have open syllable accent:káy-lanwhen?

20Syllabics never follow each other without an intervening non-syllabic. If no other non-syllabic intervenes, a non-distinctive glottal stop is spoken. I have not written the glottal stop in this position, as it may always be taken for granted (§14). Hencedaànroadis pronounceddaʾàn, siìkyoung pigsiʾìk, doònthere25doʾòn, táohuman beingtáʾo.

Nor do more than two non-syllabics ever follow each other in a native word. The following are examples of unusual combinationsin foreign words:An-drès, Pé-dro, beside TagalizedPíro, ká-trebedstead,sèr-mon, trabá-howork, but in reduplicationmag-tà-trabá-ho30will work,krùscross, but in reduplicationnag-kú-kurùscrosses himself, cf.barásoarm,lóboballoon(Sp.globo).

26.In frequently used words, especially in more rapid speech, the intervocalic glottal stop is often lost.

If like vowels thus meet, they coalesce into a single vowel of35no more than normal length:pumarònwent therebesidepumaroòn. Whenoois thus contracted, the resultingomay be raisedtou(cf. §9):pinarunànwas gone to, besidepinaronànandpinaroonàn.

If unlike vowels meet, the non-syllabic corresponding to the40higher vowel (i. e.ywithi,eandwwithu,o) takes the place of the glottal stop. Sotáwobesidetáo. The combinations soresulting are treated in every way like those discussed in the next §.

27.If the non-syllabic intervening between two vowels isyorw, the combination involves no peculiarity, provided that neither5of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic:bá-yantown,pag-dirí-waŋcelebration,gayònthus.

If, however, one of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic (i. e.i,ewithyandu,owithw) and is not stressed, it is spoken shorter than a normal unstressed vowel: in such words10asiyònthat,buwànmoon,monththei,uare spoken shorter than in other positions. So also intáwo(see preceding §) theo.

After consonants these short vowels are often entirely omitted:bwànbesidebuwàn, syàhe,shebesidesiyà. The syllable-division remains, however, as in the longer form:kápwàʾfellow- beside15kápuwàʾis pronouncedká-pwàʾ(notkap-waʾ).

Even in other positions these reduced vowels are often omitted, especially in frequently used combinations:Ano yòn?What’s that?besideAno iyòn?, occasionallytáwfortáwo, táo.

28.Conversely, one hears now and then a superfluous short20i,ewith ay, and anu,owith aw:iyaònforyaònthat,máyeformáyhaving,uwalàʾforwalàʾwithout.

29.The combinationsayandaiare occasionally replaced by a long opene:kélanbesidekáylanwhen?,mé báhaybesidemáy báhaywife,housewife,me áreʾbesidemay áreʾmaster,owner,25téŋabesidetaíŋacar.

b.In word-formation.30.When in word-formation affixes or reduplicative syllables are added to a root, the syllabication is as in a simple word:sulá-tanbe written to(súlatwritingwith suffix-an),sumú-lat30wrote(same, with infix-um-),umuwèʾ, umwèʾ(§27)went home(-uwèʾgo home, with prefixed-um-).When vowels meet, they are as a rule separated by the non-distinctive intervocalic glottal stop:maà-á-reʾwill be possible(áreʾpropertyreduplicated and with prefixma-).3531.The intervocalic glottal stop is rarely reduced, except in certain much-used combinations, the commonest being those with the prefixi-and with the prefixka-and the suffix-anin certain uses (see Morphology):iniútoswas commanded(útoscommandwith prefixesin-andi-), usuallyiniyútos; laruàn,toy(laròʾplay,40gamewith suffix-an), usuallylaruwàn, larwàn, but (with a differentuse of the suffix-an)làrúanplayground;kayibígan, kaybíganfriend(íbiglove,desire, with prefixka-and suffix-an), butkaìbígansweetheartandkaibigànaffection. For-íwanabandonwith prefixi-only the contracted formíwanbe abandonedis spoken. Cf. furtherikaápat, ikápatfourth(ápatfourwith prefixes5i-andka-).32.Conversely, an originalyorwis sometimes under emphasis replaced by glottal stop; thus, forpatayìnbe killed(patàydead person,killwith suffix-in), occasionallypataìn.33.When a word is doubled, when two words are united in10a compound word, and after the prefixes that end ing, the syllable-division is however made as though separate words were meeting in a sentence,—that is, according to the rules in the following paragraphs.

b.In word-formation.

30.When in word-formation affixes or reduplicative syllables are added to a root, the syllabication is as in a simple word:sulá-tanbe written to(súlatwritingwith suffix-an),sumú-lat30wrote(same, with infix-um-),umuwèʾ, umwèʾ(§27)went home(-uwèʾgo home, with prefixed-um-).When vowels meet, they are as a rule separated by the non-distinctive intervocalic glottal stop:maà-á-reʾwill be possible(áreʾpropertyreduplicated and with prefixma-).3531.The intervocalic glottal stop is rarely reduced, except in certain much-used combinations, the commonest being those with the prefixi-and with the prefixka-and the suffix-anin certain uses (see Morphology):iniútoswas commanded(útoscommandwith prefixesin-andi-), usuallyiniyútos; laruàn,toy(laròʾplay,40gamewith suffix-an), usuallylaruwàn, larwàn, but (with a differentuse of the suffix-an)làrúanplayground;kayibígan, kaybíganfriend(íbiglove,desire, with prefixka-and suffix-an), butkaìbígansweetheartandkaibigànaffection. For-íwanabandonwith prefixi-only the contracted formíwanbe abandonedis spoken. Cf. furtherikaápat, ikápatfourth(ápatfourwith prefixes5i-andka-).32.Conversely, an originalyorwis sometimes under emphasis replaced by glottal stop; thus, forpatayìnbe killed(patàydead person,killwith suffix-in), occasionallypataìn.33.When a word is doubled, when two words are united in10a compound word, and after the prefixes that end ing, the syllable-division is however made as though separate words were meeting in a sentence,—that is, according to the rules in the following paragraphs.

30.When in word-formation affixes or reduplicative syllables are added to a root, the syllabication is as in a simple word:sulá-tanbe written to(súlatwritingwith suffix-an),sumú-lat30wrote(same, with infix-um-),umuwèʾ, umwèʾ(§27)went home(-uwèʾgo home, with prefixed-um-).

When vowels meet, they are as a rule separated by the non-distinctive intervocalic glottal stop:maà-á-reʾwill be possible(áreʾpropertyreduplicated and with prefixma-).

3531.The intervocalic glottal stop is rarely reduced, except in certain much-used combinations, the commonest being those with the prefixi-and with the prefixka-and the suffix-anin certain uses (see Morphology):iniútoswas commanded(útoscommandwith prefixesin-andi-), usuallyiniyútos; laruàn,toy(laròʾplay,40gamewith suffix-an), usuallylaruwàn, larwàn, but (with a differentuse of the suffix-an)làrúanplayground;kayibígan, kaybíganfriend(íbiglove,desire, with prefixka-and suffix-an), butkaìbígansweetheartandkaibigànaffection. For-íwanabandonwith prefixi-only the contracted formíwanbe abandonedis spoken. Cf. furtherikaápat, ikápatfourth(ápatfourwith prefixes5i-andka-).

32.Conversely, an originalyorwis sometimes under emphasis replaced by glottal stop; thus, forpatayìnbe killed(patàydead person,killwith suffix-in), occasionallypataìn.

33.When a word is doubled, when two words are united in10a compound word, and after the prefixes that end ing, the syllable-division is however made as though separate words were meeting in a sentence,—that is, according to the rules in the following paragraphs.

c.In the phrase.1534.When words come together in the phrase, the word-division is maintained (as in English) as a syllable-division.In the case of initial consonants the division is thus like thatwithin a word:Sumúlat ka.Write (thou),Sumúlat siyà, Sumúlatsyà.He wrote,Sumáma ka.Go along,Sumáma siyà, Sumáma20syà.He went along.Before a vowel-initial the word-division is maintained as a syllable-division by the use of a non-distinctive glottal stop (as in German):Sumúlat akò.I wrote, i. e.sumú-lat-ʾakò; Sumáma akò.I went along, i. e.sumá-ma-ʾakò.25Doubled words, compound words, and forms with prefixes ending in g (namely,mag-, nag-, pag-, tag-) are similarly treated (§33):agàd-agàdimmediately(agàdat oncedoubled), i. e.agàd-ʾagàd; báhay-aklátanlibrary-building(compound ofbáhayhouseandaklátanplace for books), i. e.bá-hay-ʾak-lá-tan; pagsúlatan30act of writing(súlatwritingwith prefixpag-), i. e.pag-sú-lat;nagáralstudied(áralteachingwith prefixnag-), i. e.nag-ʾá-ral.Occasionally, in emphatic speech, the same division is made within other formations:umakiyàt, umakyàtclimbed(-akiyàtclimbwith prefixed-um-), occasionally, but rarely,um-ʾakiyàt,35usuallyumakiyàt, umakyàt(by §30).35.Reduction of the glottal stop and contraction of vowels occur only in a few much-used combinations of words:si Andrès(siis the article of proper names), alsosiy Andrès, sy Andrès; Ano iyàn?What’s that?, alsoAno yàn?and evenAn yàn?; na40itòthis(nais a particle expressing attribution), alsona yitò, na ytò.36.Occasionally such reductions go even farther, as inanòin the preceding paragraph, and occur where the glottal stop is not involved: as,sàforisàoneinsà m pùʾten, forisà ŋ pùʾ.37.The wordsat, ay, andnahave also a shorter form,t, y,5andŋ, respectively, which occurs only (but not always) after a final vowel, glottal stop, orn. When these forms are used, the final glottal stop ornis lost (§§15,20) and thet, y, orŋis treated in every way exactly as though it were part of the preceding word:butò at balàt, butò t balàtbone and skin, i. e.butòt-balàt; Iyòn10ay mabúti, Iyò y mabúti.That’s good, i. e.iyòy-mabú-ti; aŋ bátaʾ na mabaìt(clumsy, as in the speech of a child just learning to speak, for:)aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child, i. e.aŋ-bá-taŋ-mabaʾìt.

c.In the phrase.

1534.When words come together in the phrase, the word-division is maintained (as in English) as a syllable-division.In the case of initial consonants the division is thus like thatwithin a word:Sumúlat ka.Write (thou),Sumúlat siyà, Sumúlatsyà.He wrote,Sumáma ka.Go along,Sumáma siyà, Sumáma20syà.He went along.Before a vowel-initial the word-division is maintained as a syllable-division by the use of a non-distinctive glottal stop (as in German):Sumúlat akò.I wrote, i. e.sumú-lat-ʾakò; Sumáma akò.I went along, i. e.sumá-ma-ʾakò.25Doubled words, compound words, and forms with prefixes ending in g (namely,mag-, nag-, pag-, tag-) are similarly treated (§33):agàd-agàdimmediately(agàdat oncedoubled), i. e.agàd-ʾagàd; báhay-aklátanlibrary-building(compound ofbáhayhouseandaklátanplace for books), i. e.bá-hay-ʾak-lá-tan; pagsúlatan30act of writing(súlatwritingwith prefixpag-), i. e.pag-sú-lat;nagáralstudied(áralteachingwith prefixnag-), i. e.nag-ʾá-ral.Occasionally, in emphatic speech, the same division is made within other formations:umakiyàt, umakyàtclimbed(-akiyàtclimbwith prefixed-um-), occasionally, but rarely,um-ʾakiyàt,35usuallyumakiyàt, umakyàt(by §30).35.Reduction of the glottal stop and contraction of vowels occur only in a few much-used combinations of words:si Andrès(siis the article of proper names), alsosiy Andrès, sy Andrès; Ano iyàn?What’s that?, alsoAno yàn?and evenAn yàn?; na40itòthis(nais a particle expressing attribution), alsona yitò, na ytò.36.Occasionally such reductions go even farther, as inanòin the preceding paragraph, and occur where the glottal stop is not involved: as,sàforisàoneinsà m pùʾten, forisà ŋ pùʾ.37.The wordsat, ay, andnahave also a shorter form,t, y,5andŋ, respectively, which occurs only (but not always) after a final vowel, glottal stop, orn. When these forms are used, the final glottal stop ornis lost (§§15,20) and thet, y, orŋis treated in every way exactly as though it were part of the preceding word:butò at balàt, butò t balàtbone and skin, i. e.butòt-balàt; Iyòn10ay mabúti, Iyò y mabúti.That’s good, i. e.iyòy-mabú-ti; aŋ bátaʾ na mabaìt(clumsy, as in the speech of a child just learning to speak, for:)aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child, i. e.aŋ-bá-taŋ-mabaʾìt.

1534.When words come together in the phrase, the word-division is maintained (as in English) as a syllable-division.

In the case of initial consonants the division is thus like thatwithin a word:Sumúlat ka.Write (thou),Sumúlat siyà, Sumúlatsyà.He wrote,Sumáma ka.Go along,Sumáma siyà, Sumáma20syà.He went along.

Before a vowel-initial the word-division is maintained as a syllable-division by the use of a non-distinctive glottal stop (as in German):Sumúlat akò.I wrote, i. e.sumú-lat-ʾakò; Sumáma akò.I went along, i. e.sumá-ma-ʾakò.

25Doubled words, compound words, and forms with prefixes ending in g (namely,mag-, nag-, pag-, tag-) are similarly treated (§33):agàd-agàdimmediately(agàdat oncedoubled), i. e.agàd-ʾagàd; báhay-aklátanlibrary-building(compound ofbáhayhouseandaklátanplace for books), i. e.bá-hay-ʾak-lá-tan; pagsúlatan30act of writing(súlatwritingwith prefixpag-), i. e.pag-sú-lat;nagáralstudied(áralteachingwith prefixnag-), i. e.nag-ʾá-ral.

Occasionally, in emphatic speech, the same division is made within other formations:umakiyàt, umakyàtclimbed(-akiyàtclimbwith prefixed-um-), occasionally, but rarely,um-ʾakiyàt,35usuallyumakiyàt, umakyàt(by §30).

35.Reduction of the glottal stop and contraction of vowels occur only in a few much-used combinations of words:si Andrès(siis the article of proper names), alsosiy Andrès, sy Andrès; Ano iyàn?What’s that?, alsoAno yàn?and evenAn yàn?; na40itòthis(nais a particle expressing attribution), alsona yitò, na ytò.

36.Occasionally such reductions go even farther, as inanòin the preceding paragraph, and occur where the glottal stop is not involved: as,sàforisàoneinsà m pùʾten, forisà ŋ pùʾ.

37.The wordsat, ay, andnahave also a shorter form,t, y,5andŋ, respectively, which occurs only (but not always) after a final vowel, glottal stop, orn. When these forms are used, the final glottal stop ornis lost (§§15,20) and thet, y, orŋis treated in every way exactly as though it were part of the preceding word:butò at balàt, butò t balàtbone and skin, i. e.butòt-balàt; Iyòn10ay mabúti, Iyò y mabúti.That’s good, i. e.iyòy-mabú-ti; aŋ bátaʾ na mabaìt(clumsy, as in the speech of a child just learning to speak, for:)aŋ báta ŋ mabaìtthe good child, i. e.aŋ-bá-taŋ-mabaʾìt.

3.Accentuation.15a.Word-accent.38.In a word of more than one syllable at least one syllable is normally spoken with a greater degree of stress than the others.The unstressed syllables have short vowels (about as long as the vowel in Englishpitorput) and close syllable-stress (§25).2039.A non-final syllable ending in a non-syllabic (i. e. a closed non-final syllable) never has the stress; such words asluk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,ak-làtbookare therefore always oxytone. The only exceptions are syllables ending inay; this combination seems to be felt as a unit capable of open syllable-stress:káy-lan,25ké-lanwhen; further, the wordsmín-sanonce,pín-sancousin, andnàn-don, by-form ofná-roònis there; and, finally, unassimilatedforeign words:bès-bol, sèr-mon, kwàr-ta, kwàl-tamoney(Spanishcuarto), but also Tagalizedkwaltà.Words likeká-pwàʾ(besideká-puwàʾ) are not exceptions, for30the first syllable is not closed (§27).40.The stressed syllables fall into two grammatical classes which are only in part phonetically distinct; we may call themprimaryandsecondaryword-accent.41.Theprimaryword-accent on a final syllable or (in the35cases mentioned in §39) on a closed non-final syllable, consists merely in greater stress than that of an unaccented syllable, accompanied by a pitch-rise of about half a note.1I use the graveaccent-sign:gabìnight,hindìʾnot,kamàyhand,buhòkhair,nàndonis there,sèrmonsermon.42.On a non-final open syllable the primary word-accent involves an increase of stress (less than in English), a pitch-rise5of two notes, lengthening of the vowel to about one and one-half times the duration of an unstressed vowel, and open syllable-stress (§25). I use the acute accent-mark:báhayhouse,báyantown.So also, irregularly, syllables inay:káylan, kélanwhen?, and even finally:káy, kéthan,máy, méhaving; alsomínsan, pínsan.10If an unaccented syllable precedes, the pitch-rise really begins on the latter: insumúlatwrote, for instance, the first syllable is spoken above the usual pitch, and the two-note pitch-rise is merely completed in the accented syllable.43.Thesecondaryword-accent on a final syllable has weaker15stress than the primary accent in the same place, and ordinarily lacks the pitch-rise. Grammatically, it is recognizable by the presence of the primary accent on another syllable; I use the grave accent-mark:áakiyàt, áakyàtwill climb,nárinìgwas heard.44.On a non-final open syllable the secondary accent differs20from the primary accent in similar position in two respects: its pitch-rise is less marked, varying from three-quarters to one and three-quarters notes, and its vowel-lengthening is greater, reaching twice the length of an unstressed vowel. I use the grave accent-mark:sùsúlatwill write.25When the primary accent is on the last syllable and therefore weak (§41), the secondary accent often approaches a non-final primary accent in character: the first syllable of a word likenàbuksàncame openis often phonetically the same as that of a word likenárinìgwas heard.30If an unaccented syllable precedes the secondary accent, the pitch-rise really begins in the former: in such a word assumùsúlatis writingthe first syllable is spoken with higher than normal pitch, in the second syllable the pitch is brought up to a note and three-fourths above normal, and in the third the two-note rise is35completed.Of two secondary accents following each other the preceding is the more marked:nàràramdamànis felt(nà-has more marked accent thanrà-). This helps to make the primary accent distinct, for it is stronger than a preceding secondary accent:sùsúlatwill40write(the secondsu-is stronger, not weaker, than the first);nàlàlámanis known(if the third syllable had a secondary accent,it would be less marked than the first and second, but its pitch and stress are actually higher).b.Sentence-accent.45.Certain words areatonic, i. e. are always spoken unstressed5in the phrase: e. g.aŋ ásotheora dog,sa ákinto me.The atonic words are:aŋ, at, ay, kayto(notkáy, kéthan),kuŋ, naattributive(notnàalready),naŋ, niof(notnìnor),oor(notòoh),pag, sa, si.The short variants ofat, ay, andna, namelyt, y, andŋ10(§37), having no vowel, cannot be stressed; they are treated in every way as though they formed part of the preceding word.46.In closely united phrases the last word keeps its accent, while the preceding ones often weaken theirs. Especially a final syllable often loses its accent before another word in the phrase:15dáhil dítoon account of this, often:dahil díto,aŋ maŋà báhaythe houses, often:aŋ maŋa báhay,aŋ kanyà ŋ báhayhisorher house,aŋ kanya ŋ báhay,aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe large house,aŋ malaki ŋ báhay.47.Opposed to the preceding rule is the treatment of certain20words which we may callenclitics. These very frequently, to be sure, receive the normal treatment: that is, they are stressed and the preceding word either keeps its stress or, if oxytone, often loses it; but frequently, instead, the enclitic loses its accent:Umakyàt siyà, Umakyat syà.He climbed, but alsoUmakyàt25sya.Áakyàt siyà, Áakyat syà.He will climb, but alsoÁakyàt sya.Gánu ka na bà kakínis?How clever are you now?(kà, nà, bàare all enclitic).Enclitics have the further (and more easily recognized) peculiarity30that they follow the first orthotonic (i. e. neither atonic nor pretonic, §48) word of the expression to which they belong (either as modifiers or as subject):aŋ mahahába nya ŋ paàhis(niyà, enclitic)long legs.When several enclitics come together the last one is often35stressed. Monosyllabic enclitics precede disyllabic:Nahánap na nyà aŋ sombréro.He has already looked for the hat.(nàandniyàare enclitics; the latter is treated as disyllabic even when in the contracted formnyà).The enclitics are:40(1) always: the monosyllabic forms of the personal pronouns, namelykà, kò, mò, and the words (particles)bà, bagà, dàw, dìn, màn, múna, nà, namàn,nawàʾ, ŋàʾ, pà, palà, pòʾ, sána, tulòy.(2) frequently or in certain senses: the disyllabic forms of the personal pronouns (includingsiyà, syàandniyà, nyà) exceptikàw(which is never enclitic), the demonstrative pronouns, and the wordsdíne, díto, diyàn, doòn, kayàʾ, lámaŋ, ulèʾ; occasionally5short phrases (§88).For details about these words see Syntax.48.Opposed to the rule in §46are also certain words (particles) which we may callpretonics. Their treatment is often regular: that is, the pretonic as well as the following word keeps10its accent, or the pretonic loses its accent before a following word; but sometimes the pretonic keeps its accent and the following word, if oxytone, is unaccented:máy sakìt, may sakìthaving sickness, i. e.sick, but alsomáy sakit. Onlymáyandnásaactually appear with this accentuation.15The other pretonics are so classed because they share with these two words the peculiarity that an enclitic belonging to the phrase follows not the pretonic word, but the first orthotonic word:Máy katawàn sya ŋ pára ŋ táo.He has a body like a human20being.(siyàhe, enclitic follows notmáy, which is pretonic, butkatawànbody, the first orthotonic word of the predicate).The pretonics are the particlesbáwat, káhit,kapàg,kinà,maŋà, máy, nagìŋ(together with its other forms, §250),nása(together with its other forms, §212),nìnor(notniof),ninà,25pagkà, sinà, tagà (tigà). See Syntax.49.A final syllable ending in glottal stop (§14) often receives a higher degree of stress than a corresponding syllable with a different final.If the syllable ending in glottal stop has not the word-accent,30it often receives an accent resembling the secondary accent on a non-final syllable; this is especially common if the glottal stop is lost before another word in the phrase:páreʾ, párèʾpriest,Párì HwànFather Juan.If the syllable has a word-accent and the glottal stop is lost35in the phrase, its accent is often spoken like a primary word-accent on an open syllable:Walá sya.He has none(walàʾ),Naglálarú sya.He is playing(naglálaròʾ).If, however, the glottal stop is lost beforet, y, orŋ,this heightening of accent does not take place, since the syllable is then40treated as ending int, y, orŋ:Syà y walà ŋ aklàt(i. e.walàŋ-ʾak-làt),Sya y wala ŋ aklàt.He has no bookorno books.50.In a succession of otherwise unstressed syllables a rhythmicalmovement is usually produced by means of grammatically insignificant stresses weaker than a secondary word-accent; the distribution, and, indeed, the occurrence of these is so variable that I have not tried to indicate them in transcription, especially5as they are never distinctive. Thus, in the phrases in §46an accent of this kind may fall on the next-to-last syllables of the words that lose their normal word-accent:aŋ màŋa báhay, aŋ kànya ŋ amàhis father,aŋ malàki ŋ báhay.51.The successive accents in a sentence bear a well-marked10relation to each other: the early and especially the middle ones have higher absolute pitch than the last; an accent on the last syllable of a sentence often entirely loses its pitch-rise. As a consequence of this rather fixed melody, the differences of pitch-movement between statements, questions, commands, and exclamations15of various kinds are not so marked as in English; the higher stress of emotionally dominant (emphatic) words, also, is less marked than in English.In exclamation or under emphasis the accent of a final syllable may be like that of a medial syllable, and may, in addition20take on a falling accent after the rise:Hwán!(with rising-falling stress and pitch)Juan!, for normalHuwàn, Hwàn. Other disturbances of accent also occur in exclamation.

3.Accentuation.15a.Word-accent.38.In a word of more than one syllable at least one syllable is normally spoken with a greater degree of stress than the others.The unstressed syllables have short vowels (about as long as the vowel in Englishpitorput) and close syllable-stress (§25).2039.A non-final syllable ending in a non-syllabic (i. e. a closed non-final syllable) never has the stress; such words asluk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,ak-làtbookare therefore always oxytone. The only exceptions are syllables ending inay; this combination seems to be felt as a unit capable of open syllable-stress:káy-lan,25ké-lanwhen; further, the wordsmín-sanonce,pín-sancousin, andnàn-don, by-form ofná-roònis there; and, finally, unassimilatedforeign words:bès-bol, sèr-mon, kwàr-ta, kwàl-tamoney(Spanishcuarto), but also Tagalizedkwaltà.Words likeká-pwàʾ(besideká-puwàʾ) are not exceptions, for30the first syllable is not closed (§27).40.The stressed syllables fall into two grammatical classes which are only in part phonetically distinct; we may call themprimaryandsecondaryword-accent.41.Theprimaryword-accent on a final syllable or (in the35cases mentioned in §39) on a closed non-final syllable, consists merely in greater stress than that of an unaccented syllable, accompanied by a pitch-rise of about half a note.1I use the graveaccent-sign:gabìnight,hindìʾnot,kamàyhand,buhòkhair,nàndonis there,sèrmonsermon.42.On a non-final open syllable the primary word-accent involves an increase of stress (less than in English), a pitch-rise5of two notes, lengthening of the vowel to about one and one-half times the duration of an unstressed vowel, and open syllable-stress (§25). I use the acute accent-mark:báhayhouse,báyantown.So also, irregularly, syllables inay:káylan, kélanwhen?, and even finally:káy, kéthan,máy, méhaving; alsomínsan, pínsan.10If an unaccented syllable precedes, the pitch-rise really begins on the latter: insumúlatwrote, for instance, the first syllable is spoken above the usual pitch, and the two-note pitch-rise is merely completed in the accented syllable.43.Thesecondaryword-accent on a final syllable has weaker15stress than the primary accent in the same place, and ordinarily lacks the pitch-rise. Grammatically, it is recognizable by the presence of the primary accent on another syllable; I use the grave accent-mark:áakiyàt, áakyàtwill climb,nárinìgwas heard.44.On a non-final open syllable the secondary accent differs20from the primary accent in similar position in two respects: its pitch-rise is less marked, varying from three-quarters to one and three-quarters notes, and its vowel-lengthening is greater, reaching twice the length of an unstressed vowel. I use the grave accent-mark:sùsúlatwill write.25When the primary accent is on the last syllable and therefore weak (§41), the secondary accent often approaches a non-final primary accent in character: the first syllable of a word likenàbuksàncame openis often phonetically the same as that of a word likenárinìgwas heard.30If an unaccented syllable precedes the secondary accent, the pitch-rise really begins in the former: in such a word assumùsúlatis writingthe first syllable is spoken with higher than normal pitch, in the second syllable the pitch is brought up to a note and three-fourths above normal, and in the third the two-note rise is35completed.Of two secondary accents following each other the preceding is the more marked:nàràramdamànis felt(nà-has more marked accent thanrà-). This helps to make the primary accent distinct, for it is stronger than a preceding secondary accent:sùsúlatwill40write(the secondsu-is stronger, not weaker, than the first);nàlàlámanis known(if the third syllable had a secondary accent,it would be less marked than the first and second, but its pitch and stress are actually higher).b.Sentence-accent.45.Certain words areatonic, i. e. are always spoken unstressed5in the phrase: e. g.aŋ ásotheora dog,sa ákinto me.The atonic words are:aŋ, at, ay, kayto(notkáy, kéthan),kuŋ, naattributive(notnàalready),naŋ, niof(notnìnor),oor(notòoh),pag, sa, si.The short variants ofat, ay, andna, namelyt, y, andŋ10(§37), having no vowel, cannot be stressed; they are treated in every way as though they formed part of the preceding word.46.In closely united phrases the last word keeps its accent, while the preceding ones often weaken theirs. Especially a final syllable often loses its accent before another word in the phrase:15dáhil dítoon account of this, often:dahil díto,aŋ maŋà báhaythe houses, often:aŋ maŋa báhay,aŋ kanyà ŋ báhayhisorher house,aŋ kanya ŋ báhay,aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe large house,aŋ malaki ŋ báhay.47.Opposed to the preceding rule is the treatment of certain20words which we may callenclitics. These very frequently, to be sure, receive the normal treatment: that is, they are stressed and the preceding word either keeps its stress or, if oxytone, often loses it; but frequently, instead, the enclitic loses its accent:Umakyàt siyà, Umakyat syà.He climbed, but alsoUmakyàt25sya.Áakyàt siyà, Áakyat syà.He will climb, but alsoÁakyàt sya.Gánu ka na bà kakínis?How clever are you now?(kà, nà, bàare all enclitic).Enclitics have the further (and more easily recognized) peculiarity30that they follow the first orthotonic (i. e. neither atonic nor pretonic, §48) word of the expression to which they belong (either as modifiers or as subject):aŋ mahahába nya ŋ paàhis(niyà, enclitic)long legs.When several enclitics come together the last one is often35stressed. Monosyllabic enclitics precede disyllabic:Nahánap na nyà aŋ sombréro.He has already looked for the hat.(nàandniyàare enclitics; the latter is treated as disyllabic even when in the contracted formnyà).The enclitics are:40(1) always: the monosyllabic forms of the personal pronouns, namelykà, kò, mò, and the words (particles)bà, bagà, dàw, dìn, màn, múna, nà, namàn,nawàʾ, ŋàʾ, pà, palà, pòʾ, sána, tulòy.(2) frequently or in certain senses: the disyllabic forms of the personal pronouns (includingsiyà, syàandniyà, nyà) exceptikàw(which is never enclitic), the demonstrative pronouns, and the wordsdíne, díto, diyàn, doòn, kayàʾ, lámaŋ, ulèʾ; occasionally5short phrases (§88).For details about these words see Syntax.48.Opposed to the rule in §46are also certain words (particles) which we may callpretonics. Their treatment is often regular: that is, the pretonic as well as the following word keeps10its accent, or the pretonic loses its accent before a following word; but sometimes the pretonic keeps its accent and the following word, if oxytone, is unaccented:máy sakìt, may sakìthaving sickness, i. e.sick, but alsomáy sakit. Onlymáyandnásaactually appear with this accentuation.15The other pretonics are so classed because they share with these two words the peculiarity that an enclitic belonging to the phrase follows not the pretonic word, but the first orthotonic word:Máy katawàn sya ŋ pára ŋ táo.He has a body like a human20being.(siyàhe, enclitic follows notmáy, which is pretonic, butkatawànbody, the first orthotonic word of the predicate).The pretonics are the particlesbáwat, káhit,kapàg,kinà,maŋà, máy, nagìŋ(together with its other forms, §250),nása(together with its other forms, §212),nìnor(notniof),ninà,25pagkà, sinà, tagà (tigà). See Syntax.49.A final syllable ending in glottal stop (§14) often receives a higher degree of stress than a corresponding syllable with a different final.If the syllable ending in glottal stop has not the word-accent,30it often receives an accent resembling the secondary accent on a non-final syllable; this is especially common if the glottal stop is lost before another word in the phrase:páreʾ, párèʾpriest,Párì HwànFather Juan.If the syllable has a word-accent and the glottal stop is lost35in the phrase, its accent is often spoken like a primary word-accent on an open syllable:Walá sya.He has none(walàʾ),Naglálarú sya.He is playing(naglálaròʾ).If, however, the glottal stop is lost beforet, y, orŋ,this heightening of accent does not take place, since the syllable is then40treated as ending int, y, orŋ:Syà y walà ŋ aklàt(i. e.walàŋ-ʾak-làt),Sya y wala ŋ aklàt.He has no bookorno books.50.In a succession of otherwise unstressed syllables a rhythmicalmovement is usually produced by means of grammatically insignificant stresses weaker than a secondary word-accent; the distribution, and, indeed, the occurrence of these is so variable that I have not tried to indicate them in transcription, especially5as they are never distinctive. Thus, in the phrases in §46an accent of this kind may fall on the next-to-last syllables of the words that lose their normal word-accent:aŋ màŋa báhay, aŋ kànya ŋ amàhis father,aŋ malàki ŋ báhay.51.The successive accents in a sentence bear a well-marked10relation to each other: the early and especially the middle ones have higher absolute pitch than the last; an accent on the last syllable of a sentence often entirely loses its pitch-rise. As a consequence of this rather fixed melody, the differences of pitch-movement between statements, questions, commands, and exclamations15of various kinds are not so marked as in English; the higher stress of emotionally dominant (emphatic) words, also, is less marked than in English.In exclamation or under emphasis the accent of a final syllable may be like that of a medial syllable, and may, in addition20take on a falling accent after the rise:Hwán!(with rising-falling stress and pitch)Juan!, for normalHuwàn, Hwàn. Other disturbances of accent also occur in exclamation.

15a.Word-accent.38.In a word of more than one syllable at least one syllable is normally spoken with a greater degree of stress than the others.The unstressed syllables have short vowels (about as long as the vowel in Englishpitorput) and close syllable-stress (§25).2039.A non-final syllable ending in a non-syllabic (i. e. a closed non-final syllable) never has the stress; such words asluk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,ak-làtbookare therefore always oxytone. The only exceptions are syllables ending inay; this combination seems to be felt as a unit capable of open syllable-stress:káy-lan,25ké-lanwhen; further, the wordsmín-sanonce,pín-sancousin, andnàn-don, by-form ofná-roònis there; and, finally, unassimilatedforeign words:bès-bol, sèr-mon, kwàr-ta, kwàl-tamoney(Spanishcuarto), but also Tagalizedkwaltà.Words likeká-pwàʾ(besideká-puwàʾ) are not exceptions, for30the first syllable is not closed (§27).40.The stressed syllables fall into two grammatical classes which are only in part phonetically distinct; we may call themprimaryandsecondaryword-accent.41.Theprimaryword-accent on a final syllable or (in the35cases mentioned in §39) on a closed non-final syllable, consists merely in greater stress than that of an unaccented syllable, accompanied by a pitch-rise of about half a note.1I use the graveaccent-sign:gabìnight,hindìʾnot,kamàyhand,buhòkhair,nàndonis there,sèrmonsermon.42.On a non-final open syllable the primary word-accent involves an increase of stress (less than in English), a pitch-rise5of two notes, lengthening of the vowel to about one and one-half times the duration of an unstressed vowel, and open syllable-stress (§25). I use the acute accent-mark:báhayhouse,báyantown.So also, irregularly, syllables inay:káylan, kélanwhen?, and even finally:káy, kéthan,máy, méhaving; alsomínsan, pínsan.10If an unaccented syllable precedes, the pitch-rise really begins on the latter: insumúlatwrote, for instance, the first syllable is spoken above the usual pitch, and the two-note pitch-rise is merely completed in the accented syllable.43.Thesecondaryword-accent on a final syllable has weaker15stress than the primary accent in the same place, and ordinarily lacks the pitch-rise. Grammatically, it is recognizable by the presence of the primary accent on another syllable; I use the grave accent-mark:áakiyàt, áakyàtwill climb,nárinìgwas heard.44.On a non-final open syllable the secondary accent differs20from the primary accent in similar position in two respects: its pitch-rise is less marked, varying from three-quarters to one and three-quarters notes, and its vowel-lengthening is greater, reaching twice the length of an unstressed vowel. I use the grave accent-mark:sùsúlatwill write.25When the primary accent is on the last syllable and therefore weak (§41), the secondary accent often approaches a non-final primary accent in character: the first syllable of a word likenàbuksàncame openis often phonetically the same as that of a word likenárinìgwas heard.30If an unaccented syllable precedes the secondary accent, the pitch-rise really begins in the former: in such a word assumùsúlatis writingthe first syllable is spoken with higher than normal pitch, in the second syllable the pitch is brought up to a note and three-fourths above normal, and in the third the two-note rise is35completed.Of two secondary accents following each other the preceding is the more marked:nàràramdamànis felt(nà-has more marked accent thanrà-). This helps to make the primary accent distinct, for it is stronger than a preceding secondary accent:sùsúlatwill40write(the secondsu-is stronger, not weaker, than the first);nàlàlámanis known(if the third syllable had a secondary accent,it would be less marked than the first and second, but its pitch and stress are actually higher).

15a.Word-accent.

38.In a word of more than one syllable at least one syllable is normally spoken with a greater degree of stress than the others.The unstressed syllables have short vowels (about as long as the vowel in Englishpitorput) and close syllable-stress (§25).2039.A non-final syllable ending in a non-syllabic (i. e. a closed non-final syllable) never has the stress; such words asluk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,ak-làtbookare therefore always oxytone. The only exceptions are syllables ending inay; this combination seems to be felt as a unit capable of open syllable-stress:káy-lan,25ké-lanwhen; further, the wordsmín-sanonce,pín-sancousin, andnàn-don, by-form ofná-roònis there; and, finally, unassimilatedforeign words:bès-bol, sèr-mon, kwàr-ta, kwàl-tamoney(Spanishcuarto), but also Tagalizedkwaltà.Words likeká-pwàʾ(besideká-puwàʾ) are not exceptions, for30the first syllable is not closed (§27).40.The stressed syllables fall into two grammatical classes which are only in part phonetically distinct; we may call themprimaryandsecondaryword-accent.41.Theprimaryword-accent on a final syllable or (in the35cases mentioned in §39) on a closed non-final syllable, consists merely in greater stress than that of an unaccented syllable, accompanied by a pitch-rise of about half a note.1I use the graveaccent-sign:gabìnight,hindìʾnot,kamàyhand,buhòkhair,nàndonis there,sèrmonsermon.42.On a non-final open syllable the primary word-accent involves an increase of stress (less than in English), a pitch-rise5of two notes, lengthening of the vowel to about one and one-half times the duration of an unstressed vowel, and open syllable-stress (§25). I use the acute accent-mark:báhayhouse,báyantown.So also, irregularly, syllables inay:káylan, kélanwhen?, and even finally:káy, kéthan,máy, méhaving; alsomínsan, pínsan.10If an unaccented syllable precedes, the pitch-rise really begins on the latter: insumúlatwrote, for instance, the first syllable is spoken above the usual pitch, and the two-note pitch-rise is merely completed in the accented syllable.43.Thesecondaryword-accent on a final syllable has weaker15stress than the primary accent in the same place, and ordinarily lacks the pitch-rise. Grammatically, it is recognizable by the presence of the primary accent on another syllable; I use the grave accent-mark:áakiyàt, áakyàtwill climb,nárinìgwas heard.44.On a non-final open syllable the secondary accent differs20from the primary accent in similar position in two respects: its pitch-rise is less marked, varying from three-quarters to one and three-quarters notes, and its vowel-lengthening is greater, reaching twice the length of an unstressed vowel. I use the grave accent-mark:sùsúlatwill write.25When the primary accent is on the last syllable and therefore weak (§41), the secondary accent often approaches a non-final primary accent in character: the first syllable of a word likenàbuksàncame openis often phonetically the same as that of a word likenárinìgwas heard.30If an unaccented syllable precedes the secondary accent, the pitch-rise really begins in the former: in such a word assumùsúlatis writingthe first syllable is spoken with higher than normal pitch, in the second syllable the pitch is brought up to a note and three-fourths above normal, and in the third the two-note rise is35completed.Of two secondary accents following each other the preceding is the more marked:nàràramdamànis felt(nà-has more marked accent thanrà-). This helps to make the primary accent distinct, for it is stronger than a preceding secondary accent:sùsúlatwill40write(the secondsu-is stronger, not weaker, than the first);nàlàlámanis known(if the third syllable had a secondary accent,it would be less marked than the first and second, but its pitch and stress are actually higher).

38.In a word of more than one syllable at least one syllable is normally spoken with a greater degree of stress than the others.

The unstressed syllables have short vowels (about as long as the vowel in Englishpitorput) and close syllable-stress (§25).

2039.A non-final syllable ending in a non-syllabic (i. e. a closed non-final syllable) never has the stress; such words asluk-sòjump,muk-hàʾface,ak-làtbookare therefore always oxytone. The only exceptions are syllables ending inay; this combination seems to be felt as a unit capable of open syllable-stress:káy-lan,25ké-lanwhen; further, the wordsmín-sanonce,pín-sancousin, andnàn-don, by-form ofná-roònis there; and, finally, unassimilatedforeign words:bès-bol, sèr-mon, kwàr-ta, kwàl-tamoney(Spanishcuarto), but also Tagalizedkwaltà.

Words likeká-pwàʾ(besideká-puwàʾ) are not exceptions, for30the first syllable is not closed (§27).

40.The stressed syllables fall into two grammatical classes which are only in part phonetically distinct; we may call themprimaryandsecondaryword-accent.

41.Theprimaryword-accent on a final syllable or (in the35cases mentioned in §39) on a closed non-final syllable, consists merely in greater stress than that of an unaccented syllable, accompanied by a pitch-rise of about half a note.1I use the graveaccent-sign:gabìnight,hindìʾnot,kamàyhand,buhòkhair,nàndonis there,sèrmonsermon.

42.On a non-final open syllable the primary word-accent involves an increase of stress (less than in English), a pitch-rise5of two notes, lengthening of the vowel to about one and one-half times the duration of an unstressed vowel, and open syllable-stress (§25). I use the acute accent-mark:báhayhouse,báyantown.

So also, irregularly, syllables inay:káylan, kélanwhen?, and even finally:káy, kéthan,máy, méhaving; alsomínsan, pínsan.

10If an unaccented syllable precedes, the pitch-rise really begins on the latter: insumúlatwrote, for instance, the first syllable is spoken above the usual pitch, and the two-note pitch-rise is merely completed in the accented syllable.

43.Thesecondaryword-accent on a final syllable has weaker15stress than the primary accent in the same place, and ordinarily lacks the pitch-rise. Grammatically, it is recognizable by the presence of the primary accent on another syllable; I use the grave accent-mark:áakiyàt, áakyàtwill climb,nárinìgwas heard.

44.On a non-final open syllable the secondary accent differs20from the primary accent in similar position in two respects: its pitch-rise is less marked, varying from three-quarters to one and three-quarters notes, and its vowel-lengthening is greater, reaching twice the length of an unstressed vowel. I use the grave accent-mark:sùsúlatwill write.

25When the primary accent is on the last syllable and therefore weak (§41), the secondary accent often approaches a non-final primary accent in character: the first syllable of a word likenàbuksàncame openis often phonetically the same as that of a word likenárinìgwas heard.

30If an unaccented syllable precedes the secondary accent, the pitch-rise really begins in the former: in such a word assumùsúlatis writingthe first syllable is spoken with higher than normal pitch, in the second syllable the pitch is brought up to a note and three-fourths above normal, and in the third the two-note rise is35completed.

Of two secondary accents following each other the preceding is the more marked:nàràramdamànis felt(nà-has more marked accent thanrà-). This helps to make the primary accent distinct, for it is stronger than a preceding secondary accent:sùsúlatwill40write(the secondsu-is stronger, not weaker, than the first);nàlàlámanis known(if the third syllable had a secondary accent,it would be less marked than the first and second, but its pitch and stress are actually higher).

b.Sentence-accent.45.Certain words areatonic, i. e. are always spoken unstressed5in the phrase: e. g.aŋ ásotheora dog,sa ákinto me.The atonic words are:aŋ, at, ay, kayto(notkáy, kéthan),kuŋ, naattributive(notnàalready),naŋ, niof(notnìnor),oor(notòoh),pag, sa, si.The short variants ofat, ay, andna, namelyt, y, andŋ10(§37), having no vowel, cannot be stressed; they are treated in every way as though they formed part of the preceding word.46.In closely united phrases the last word keeps its accent, while the preceding ones often weaken theirs. Especially a final syllable often loses its accent before another word in the phrase:15dáhil dítoon account of this, often:dahil díto,aŋ maŋà báhaythe houses, often:aŋ maŋa báhay,aŋ kanyà ŋ báhayhisorher house,aŋ kanya ŋ báhay,aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe large house,aŋ malaki ŋ báhay.47.Opposed to the preceding rule is the treatment of certain20words which we may callenclitics. These very frequently, to be sure, receive the normal treatment: that is, they are stressed and the preceding word either keeps its stress or, if oxytone, often loses it; but frequently, instead, the enclitic loses its accent:Umakyàt siyà, Umakyat syà.He climbed, but alsoUmakyàt25sya.Áakyàt siyà, Áakyat syà.He will climb, but alsoÁakyàt sya.Gánu ka na bà kakínis?How clever are you now?(kà, nà, bàare all enclitic).Enclitics have the further (and more easily recognized) peculiarity30that they follow the first orthotonic (i. e. neither atonic nor pretonic, §48) word of the expression to which they belong (either as modifiers or as subject):aŋ mahahába nya ŋ paàhis(niyà, enclitic)long legs.When several enclitics come together the last one is often35stressed. Monosyllabic enclitics precede disyllabic:Nahánap na nyà aŋ sombréro.He has already looked for the hat.(nàandniyàare enclitics; the latter is treated as disyllabic even when in the contracted formnyà).The enclitics are:40(1) always: the monosyllabic forms of the personal pronouns, namelykà, kò, mò, and the words (particles)bà, bagà, dàw, dìn, màn, múna, nà, namàn,nawàʾ, ŋàʾ, pà, palà, pòʾ, sána, tulòy.(2) frequently or in certain senses: the disyllabic forms of the personal pronouns (includingsiyà, syàandniyà, nyà) exceptikàw(which is never enclitic), the demonstrative pronouns, and the wordsdíne, díto, diyàn, doòn, kayàʾ, lámaŋ, ulèʾ; occasionally5short phrases (§88).For details about these words see Syntax.48.Opposed to the rule in §46are also certain words (particles) which we may callpretonics. Their treatment is often regular: that is, the pretonic as well as the following word keeps10its accent, or the pretonic loses its accent before a following word; but sometimes the pretonic keeps its accent and the following word, if oxytone, is unaccented:máy sakìt, may sakìthaving sickness, i. e.sick, but alsomáy sakit. Onlymáyandnásaactually appear with this accentuation.15The other pretonics are so classed because they share with these two words the peculiarity that an enclitic belonging to the phrase follows not the pretonic word, but the first orthotonic word:Máy katawàn sya ŋ pára ŋ táo.He has a body like a human20being.(siyàhe, enclitic follows notmáy, which is pretonic, butkatawànbody, the first orthotonic word of the predicate).The pretonics are the particlesbáwat, káhit,kapàg,kinà,maŋà, máy, nagìŋ(together with its other forms, §250),nása(together with its other forms, §212),nìnor(notniof),ninà,25pagkà, sinà, tagà (tigà). See Syntax.49.A final syllable ending in glottal stop (§14) often receives a higher degree of stress than a corresponding syllable with a different final.If the syllable ending in glottal stop has not the word-accent,30it often receives an accent resembling the secondary accent on a non-final syllable; this is especially common if the glottal stop is lost before another word in the phrase:páreʾ, párèʾpriest,Párì HwànFather Juan.If the syllable has a word-accent and the glottal stop is lost35in the phrase, its accent is often spoken like a primary word-accent on an open syllable:Walá sya.He has none(walàʾ),Naglálarú sya.He is playing(naglálaròʾ).If, however, the glottal stop is lost beforet, y, orŋ,this heightening of accent does not take place, since the syllable is then40treated as ending int, y, orŋ:Syà y walà ŋ aklàt(i. e.walàŋ-ʾak-làt),Sya y wala ŋ aklàt.He has no bookorno books.50.In a succession of otherwise unstressed syllables a rhythmicalmovement is usually produced by means of grammatically insignificant stresses weaker than a secondary word-accent; the distribution, and, indeed, the occurrence of these is so variable that I have not tried to indicate them in transcription, especially5as they are never distinctive. Thus, in the phrases in §46an accent of this kind may fall on the next-to-last syllables of the words that lose their normal word-accent:aŋ màŋa báhay, aŋ kànya ŋ amàhis father,aŋ malàki ŋ báhay.51.The successive accents in a sentence bear a well-marked10relation to each other: the early and especially the middle ones have higher absolute pitch than the last; an accent on the last syllable of a sentence often entirely loses its pitch-rise. As a consequence of this rather fixed melody, the differences of pitch-movement between statements, questions, commands, and exclamations15of various kinds are not so marked as in English; the higher stress of emotionally dominant (emphatic) words, also, is less marked than in English.In exclamation or under emphasis the accent of a final syllable may be like that of a medial syllable, and may, in addition20take on a falling accent after the rise:Hwán!(with rising-falling stress and pitch)Juan!, for normalHuwàn, Hwàn. Other disturbances of accent also occur in exclamation.

b.Sentence-accent.

45.Certain words areatonic, i. e. are always spoken unstressed5in the phrase: e. g.aŋ ásotheora dog,sa ákinto me.The atonic words are:aŋ, at, ay, kayto(notkáy, kéthan),kuŋ, naattributive(notnàalready),naŋ, niof(notnìnor),oor(notòoh),pag, sa, si.The short variants ofat, ay, andna, namelyt, y, andŋ10(§37), having no vowel, cannot be stressed; they are treated in every way as though they formed part of the preceding word.46.In closely united phrases the last word keeps its accent, while the preceding ones often weaken theirs. Especially a final syllable often loses its accent before another word in the phrase:15dáhil dítoon account of this, often:dahil díto,aŋ maŋà báhaythe houses, often:aŋ maŋa báhay,aŋ kanyà ŋ báhayhisorher house,aŋ kanya ŋ báhay,aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe large house,aŋ malaki ŋ báhay.47.Opposed to the preceding rule is the treatment of certain20words which we may callenclitics. These very frequently, to be sure, receive the normal treatment: that is, they are stressed and the preceding word either keeps its stress or, if oxytone, often loses it; but frequently, instead, the enclitic loses its accent:Umakyàt siyà, Umakyat syà.He climbed, but alsoUmakyàt25sya.Áakyàt siyà, Áakyat syà.He will climb, but alsoÁakyàt sya.Gánu ka na bà kakínis?How clever are you now?(kà, nà, bàare all enclitic).Enclitics have the further (and more easily recognized) peculiarity30that they follow the first orthotonic (i. e. neither atonic nor pretonic, §48) word of the expression to which they belong (either as modifiers or as subject):aŋ mahahába nya ŋ paàhis(niyà, enclitic)long legs.When several enclitics come together the last one is often35stressed. Monosyllabic enclitics precede disyllabic:Nahánap na nyà aŋ sombréro.He has already looked for the hat.(nàandniyàare enclitics; the latter is treated as disyllabic even when in the contracted formnyà).The enclitics are:40(1) always: the monosyllabic forms of the personal pronouns, namelykà, kò, mò, and the words (particles)bà, bagà, dàw, dìn, màn, múna, nà, namàn,nawàʾ, ŋàʾ, pà, palà, pòʾ, sána, tulòy.(2) frequently or in certain senses: the disyllabic forms of the personal pronouns (includingsiyà, syàandniyà, nyà) exceptikàw(which is never enclitic), the demonstrative pronouns, and the wordsdíne, díto, diyàn, doòn, kayàʾ, lámaŋ, ulèʾ; occasionally5short phrases (§88).For details about these words see Syntax.48.Opposed to the rule in §46are also certain words (particles) which we may callpretonics. Their treatment is often regular: that is, the pretonic as well as the following word keeps10its accent, or the pretonic loses its accent before a following word; but sometimes the pretonic keeps its accent and the following word, if oxytone, is unaccented:máy sakìt, may sakìthaving sickness, i. e.sick, but alsomáy sakit. Onlymáyandnásaactually appear with this accentuation.15The other pretonics are so classed because they share with these two words the peculiarity that an enclitic belonging to the phrase follows not the pretonic word, but the first orthotonic word:Máy katawàn sya ŋ pára ŋ táo.He has a body like a human20being.(siyàhe, enclitic follows notmáy, which is pretonic, butkatawànbody, the first orthotonic word of the predicate).The pretonics are the particlesbáwat, káhit,kapàg,kinà,maŋà, máy, nagìŋ(together with its other forms, §250),nása(together with its other forms, §212),nìnor(notniof),ninà,25pagkà, sinà, tagà (tigà). See Syntax.49.A final syllable ending in glottal stop (§14) often receives a higher degree of stress than a corresponding syllable with a different final.If the syllable ending in glottal stop has not the word-accent,30it often receives an accent resembling the secondary accent on a non-final syllable; this is especially common if the glottal stop is lost before another word in the phrase:páreʾ, párèʾpriest,Párì HwànFather Juan.If the syllable has a word-accent and the glottal stop is lost35in the phrase, its accent is often spoken like a primary word-accent on an open syllable:Walá sya.He has none(walàʾ),Naglálarú sya.He is playing(naglálaròʾ).If, however, the glottal stop is lost beforet, y, orŋ,this heightening of accent does not take place, since the syllable is then40treated as ending int, y, orŋ:Syà y walà ŋ aklàt(i. e.walàŋ-ʾak-làt),Sya y wala ŋ aklàt.He has no bookorno books.50.In a succession of otherwise unstressed syllables a rhythmicalmovement is usually produced by means of grammatically insignificant stresses weaker than a secondary word-accent; the distribution, and, indeed, the occurrence of these is so variable that I have not tried to indicate them in transcription, especially5as they are never distinctive. Thus, in the phrases in §46an accent of this kind may fall on the next-to-last syllables of the words that lose their normal word-accent:aŋ màŋa báhay, aŋ kànya ŋ amàhis father,aŋ malàki ŋ báhay.51.The successive accents in a sentence bear a well-marked10relation to each other: the early and especially the middle ones have higher absolute pitch than the last; an accent on the last syllable of a sentence often entirely loses its pitch-rise. As a consequence of this rather fixed melody, the differences of pitch-movement between statements, questions, commands, and exclamations15of various kinds are not so marked as in English; the higher stress of emotionally dominant (emphatic) words, also, is less marked than in English.In exclamation or under emphasis the accent of a final syllable may be like that of a medial syllable, and may, in addition20take on a falling accent after the rise:Hwán!(with rising-falling stress and pitch)Juan!, for normalHuwàn, Hwàn. Other disturbances of accent also occur in exclamation.

45.Certain words areatonic, i. e. are always spoken unstressed5in the phrase: e. g.aŋ ásotheora dog,sa ákinto me.

The atonic words are:aŋ, at, ay, kayto(notkáy, kéthan),kuŋ, naattributive(notnàalready),naŋ, niof(notnìnor),oor(notòoh),pag, sa, si.

The short variants ofat, ay, andna, namelyt, y, andŋ10(§37), having no vowel, cannot be stressed; they are treated in every way as though they formed part of the preceding word.

46.In closely united phrases the last word keeps its accent, while the preceding ones often weaken theirs. Especially a final syllable often loses its accent before another word in the phrase:

15dáhil dítoon account of this, often:dahil díto,

aŋ maŋà báhaythe houses, often:aŋ maŋa báhay,

aŋ kanyà ŋ báhayhisorher house,aŋ kanya ŋ báhay,

aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe large house,aŋ malaki ŋ báhay.

47.Opposed to the preceding rule is the treatment of certain20words which we may callenclitics. These very frequently, to be sure, receive the normal treatment: that is, they are stressed and the preceding word either keeps its stress or, if oxytone, often loses it; but frequently, instead, the enclitic loses its accent:

Umakyàt siyà, Umakyat syà.He climbed, but alsoUmakyàt25sya.

Áakyàt siyà, Áakyat syà.He will climb, but alsoÁakyàt sya.

Gánu ka na bà kakínis?How clever are you now?(kà, nà, bàare all enclitic).

Enclitics have the further (and more easily recognized) peculiarity30that they follow the first orthotonic (i. e. neither atonic nor pretonic, §48) word of the expression to which they belong (either as modifiers or as subject):

aŋ mahahába nya ŋ paàhis(niyà, enclitic)long legs.

When several enclitics come together the last one is often35stressed. Monosyllabic enclitics precede disyllabic:

Nahánap na nyà aŋ sombréro.He has already looked for the hat.(nàandniyàare enclitics; the latter is treated as disyllabic even when in the contracted formnyà).

The enclitics are:

40(1) always: the monosyllabic forms of the personal pronouns, namelykà, kò, mò, and the words (particles)bà, bagà, dàw, dìn, màn, múna, nà, namàn,nawàʾ, ŋàʾ, pà, palà, pòʾ, sána, tulòy.

(2) frequently or in certain senses: the disyllabic forms of the personal pronouns (includingsiyà, syàandniyà, nyà) exceptikàw(which is never enclitic), the demonstrative pronouns, and the wordsdíne, díto, diyàn, doòn, kayàʾ, lámaŋ, ulèʾ; occasionally5short phrases (§88).

For details about these words see Syntax.

48.Opposed to the rule in §46are also certain words (particles) which we may callpretonics. Their treatment is often regular: that is, the pretonic as well as the following word keeps10its accent, or the pretonic loses its accent before a following word; but sometimes the pretonic keeps its accent and the following word, if oxytone, is unaccented:

máy sakìt, may sakìthaving sickness, i. e.sick, but alsomáy sakit. Onlymáyandnásaactually appear with this accentuation.

15The other pretonics are so classed because they share with these two words the peculiarity that an enclitic belonging to the phrase follows not the pretonic word, but the first orthotonic word:

Máy katawàn sya ŋ pára ŋ táo.He has a body like a human20being.(siyàhe, enclitic follows notmáy, which is pretonic, butkatawànbody, the first orthotonic word of the predicate).

The pretonics are the particlesbáwat, káhit,kapàg,kinà,maŋà, máy, nagìŋ(together with its other forms, §250),nása(together with its other forms, §212),nìnor(notniof),ninà,25pagkà, sinà, tagà (tigà). See Syntax.

49.A final syllable ending in glottal stop (§14) often receives a higher degree of stress than a corresponding syllable with a different final.

If the syllable ending in glottal stop has not the word-accent,30it often receives an accent resembling the secondary accent on a non-final syllable; this is especially common if the glottal stop is lost before another word in the phrase:páreʾ, párèʾpriest,Párì HwànFather Juan.

If the syllable has a word-accent and the glottal stop is lost35in the phrase, its accent is often spoken like a primary word-accent on an open syllable:Walá sya.He has none(walàʾ),Naglálarú sya.He is playing(naglálaròʾ).

If, however, the glottal stop is lost beforet, y, orŋ,this heightening of accent does not take place, since the syllable is then40treated as ending int, y, orŋ:Syà y walà ŋ aklàt(i. e.walàŋ-ʾak-làt),Sya y wala ŋ aklàt.He has no bookorno books.

50.In a succession of otherwise unstressed syllables a rhythmicalmovement is usually produced by means of grammatically insignificant stresses weaker than a secondary word-accent; the distribution, and, indeed, the occurrence of these is so variable that I have not tried to indicate them in transcription, especially5as they are never distinctive. Thus, in the phrases in §46an accent of this kind may fall on the next-to-last syllables of the words that lose their normal word-accent:aŋ màŋa báhay, aŋ kànya ŋ amàhis father,aŋ malàki ŋ báhay.

51.The successive accents in a sentence bear a well-marked10relation to each other: the early and especially the middle ones have higher absolute pitch than the last; an accent on the last syllable of a sentence often entirely loses its pitch-rise. As a consequence of this rather fixed melody, the differences of pitch-movement between statements, questions, commands, and exclamations15of various kinds are not so marked as in English; the higher stress of emotionally dominant (emphatic) words, also, is less marked than in English.

In exclamation or under emphasis the accent of a final syllable may be like that of a medial syllable, and may, in addition20take on a falling accent after the rise:Hwán!(with rising-falling stress and pitch)Juan!, for normalHuwàn, Hwàn. Other disturbances of accent also occur in exclamation.

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