B.SYNTAX.1.Sentence and word.a.Syntactic relations.52.The sentence consists of one or more words:Aráy!5Ouch!Umúulàn.It’s raining.Ina kò!Mother of mine!(as exclamation).Sya y sumùsúlat.Heorshe isorwas writing.53.The relations between the words in a sentence are the usual ones: (1) Attribution:Ina kò!Mother (of) mine!(2) Predication:Sumùsúlat syà. Literally:Is-writing he. (3) The10serial relation:butò t balàtbone and skin.54.Some of the particles (§55)seem, however, to stand in none of these relations, but rather to express these relations themselves. Thus the particletandin the preceding example is expressive of the serial relation. So further:malakì ŋ báhay15large house; the particleŋexpresses the attributive relation;Sya y sumùsúlat. The particleyexpresses the predicative relation.It is to be remarked, further, that the sphere of attribution includes some cases in which the attribute markedly alters the sense:sakìtsickness:máy sakìt(máyis an attribute)having20sickness,sick.2b.Parts of speech.55.Tagalog distinguishes two parts of speech:full wordsandparticles.Theparticleseither express the syntactic relations between25full words (as illustrated in §54) or act as attributes of full words (somáyin the example in §54):Hindí sya sumùsúlat.He is not writing.The particlehindìʾnotis an attribute ofsumùsúlat.In contrast with the particles,full wordsact not only as attributes, but also as subject or predicate, and any full word may,30in principle, be used in any of these three functions:(1) Subject:Aŋ sumùsúlat ay si Pédro.The person writingis Pedro.Aŋ pulà naŋ panyò ay matiŋkàd.The red of the handkerchief is intense.(2) Predicate:Sya y sumùsúlat.He is writing.Pulà aŋ panyo ŋ itò.This handkerchief is red.5(3) Attribute:aŋ báta ŋ sumùsúlatthe writing child,the child who is writing;aŋ pulà ŋ panyòthe red handkerchief.56.Independent of this classification into parts of speech are certain less important groupings of words and certain phrase types, some of which will appear in the course of the analysis.10Others, however, demand mention at the outset.c.Static and transient words.57.Transientwords express an element of experience viewed as impermanent, i. e. belonging to some limited portion of time, sosumùsúlatabove, as opposed, e. g., tosiyà, pulà, panyò, bátaʾ,15Pédro. Words which are not transient may be calledstatic. Only a few particles are transient; among the full words the transient group is large and important.d.Personal names.58.Except in exclamations and in address,names of persons20(or animals) are distinguished from other words by being always (but see §78) preceded by the atonic particlesi:Hwàn!Juan!si HwànJuan,si SalamìnGlass,Mirror(as name of a dog).59.Many terms of relationship and titles may be used in place of the name of an individual and then belong to the personal25name class:aŋ amàthe father,aŋ ákiŋamàmy father, but:si AmàFather. Thus are used, further:si InàMother,si TátayPapa,si NánayMama,si Kúyaorsi KúyaŋOldest brother,si AtèOldest sister,si IŋkòŋGrandfather,si Indàʾorsi ImpòGrandmother,si Áliorsi TiyàAunt,si MámaʾUncle;si BathálaʾGod, but:aŋ30Dyòs.So also phrases in which these and other titles as attributes precede a name, see §256.60.The particlesinàorsilà, pretonic, in place ofsiforms an expression denoting the person named together with his family35or group of adherents:sina Hwànorsila HwànJuan and his familyorJuan and his crowd. With a series of namessinàimplies that those named form a group:si Hwàn, si Andrès, at si MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, Andrès, at Mariyánothe group consisting of Juan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, sinaAndrès, at sina MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano, each with his group.e.The object construction.61.When a word or phrase denotes an element of experience5viewed as anobject, it is, with certain exceptions, preceded by the atonic particleaŋ:aŋ bátaʾtheora child,boy,girl;children,aŋ báhaythe, a house;houses,aŋ báyanthe, a town,aŋ kabàítangoodness,kindness;an act of kindness,aŋ kataúhanmankind,aŋ pagsúlattheoran act of writing,aŋ mabútethat which10is good,the best thing.The following are the exceptions:62.Personal names preceded bysiorsinà(silà) do not takeaŋ; they always, of course, denote an object idea. See the examples in §58ff.1563.Thepersonal pronouns(which always express an object idea) do not takeaŋ. They are:akòI;kitàwe, i. e.thou and I, inclusive dual;táyowe, i. e.thou(orye)and I(orwe), inclusive dual and plural;kamìwe(but not you), exclusive dual and plural;ikàw, kàthou(singular);kayòye, you(dual, plural, and20polite singular);siyàhe,she;silàthey.All of these exceptikàware often enclitic;kàis always so:Ikàw ay talúnan.You are defeated.Sumúlat ka.Write (thou).Siyàis used only of living beings, except for a single peculiar construction to be described below (§106f.).25Kitàin the sense here given is not much used,táyobeing commoner:Palìt kità naŋ sombréro.Let’s trade hats.Kità ay pumaroònsa teyátro.Or, more commonly:Táyo ay pumaroòn sa teyátro.Let us go to the theatre.Kitàis more used in another meaning, as we shall see (§182).30Kamìdiffers from these two words in excluding the personor persons addressed:Kàkáin táyo.We shall eat.Nakitúluy kamì kina Pédro.We asked hospitality of Pedro’s.In both of these sentences (as also in that withtáyoalready given) two or more people may be meant. It will be seen, therefore, that the35distinction between dual and plural is not categoric (obligatory).That between singular and plural is categoric in these pronouns; everywhere else it is not obligatory; the idea of plurality is inherent in many words and forms, but these are used only where the idea of plurality is explicitly prominent.4064.Thedemonstrative pronounsas object expressions also rejectaŋ. They are:irèthis(on the person of the speaker orwithin his immediate reach);itòthis(more generally, of anything nearer to the speaker than to the person addressed);iyàn, yànthat(nearer to the person addressed);iyòn, yaòn, yoòn, yònthat(of things distant from both speaker and person addressed).5Itòandiyònare used also anaphorically:the former—the latter.The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitic.Aŋis omitted also before an object expression in which a demonstrative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §130.1065.Similarly before object expressions in which an interrogative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §§131.168.66.The use ofaŋis optional before thenumerative pronouns. The use ofaŋseems sometimes to lend these greater definiteness, sometimes to be indifferent.15The numerative pronouns used as object expressions are:ibàother,ilànfew,karamíhanmost,lahàtall. (The other numerative pronouns, namelyboòʾwholeand the particlesbálaanyandbáwateveryare not used as object expressions).ibàothers;ilàna few;Aŋ ilàn ay malalakàs at aŋ ibà ay20mahihínaʾ.Some are strong and others are weak.Lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay dápat umalìs.All people (who are) in this town ought to leave(naŋ táoof people,of the peopleis an attribute oflahàt).Aŋ lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay máy sakìt.All the people in this town are diseased.karamíhan sa kanilà25most of them;aŋ karamíhanthe majority.The use ofaŋis optional also before object expressions in which a numerative pronoun stands first as an attribute, see §132.67.The use ofaŋis optional before thecardinal numerals:isà sa kanilà, or:aŋ isà sa kanilàone of them.30The simple cardinal numerals are:isàone,dalawàtwo,tatlòthree,ápatfour,limàfive,ánimsix,pitòseven,walòeight,siyàm,syàmnine.Similarly, the use ofaŋis optional before an object expression in which a cardinal numeral stands first as a modifier, see35§133.In dates and for the hours of the day the Spanish numerals are commonly used; these demandaŋ:aŋ abéynte-kwátru naŋ Húnyothe twenty-fourth of June.68.Aŋis omitted, further, before object expressions beginning40with the particlenì(§253) and optionally before those beginning with the particlekáhit(§248). All object expressions lackaŋwhen forming an indefinite object predicate (§109), inexpressions of indefinite quantity (§69), when used indefinitely afterpára(§275),haŋgàŋ(§293),patì(§305), and in exclamation or address (§§75.78).3f.Expressions of indefinite quantity.569.Object expressions are used (withoutaŋ, §68) to express indefinite objects (roughly speaking such as would lack the articlethein English) or indefinite quantities of objects, when preceded by certain modifiers. These modifiers are the pretonic particlemáy, expressing existence or forthcomingness (§252), and10the full wordsmáy-roòn, equivalent withmáy; walàʾthe negative of these;malakìgreat;maláonlong;marámimuch,many(§138). The phrases so formed may be described asexpressions of indefinite quantity. Beside the omission ofaŋbefore the object expression, they have the peculiarity that in certain constructions15they express (without further accompaniments) thepossessorof that designated:may súŋaythere are hornsorhaving horns,horned;máy-roo ŋ aklàtthere are booksorhaving a book, books;wala ŋ aklàtthere are no booksorwithout a book,having no books;malakì ŋ kagamitàngreat usefulness,there is great use, orhaving20great usefulness;maláo ŋ panahònlong timeortaking a long time;marámi ŋ salapèʾmuch money,there is much moneyorhaving much money;marámi ŋ kaybíganmany friends,there are many friendsorhaving many friends.Máyexpresses also approximateness (where the object expression25is one of number):may ápat na pu ŋ paàabout forty feetorhaving, measuring about forty feet.70.An expression of indefinite quantity may, as a unit, stand in object construction; in this case the first three have possessive value, but not the others:aŋ máy sakìttheora person having30sickness,theora sick person;aŋ máy-roo ŋ aklàtthe (a) person who has a book or books;aŋ wala ŋ hiyàʾthe (a) shameless person; but:aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe, a large house;aŋ marámi ŋ bágaythe many things.71.Marámimay by itself stand in object construction; it35then has the meaning:aŋ marámithe many,the crowd,the people,hoi polloi.
B.SYNTAX.1.Sentence and word.a.Syntactic relations.52.The sentence consists of one or more words:Aráy!5Ouch!Umúulàn.It’s raining.Ina kò!Mother of mine!(as exclamation).Sya y sumùsúlat.Heorshe isorwas writing.53.The relations between the words in a sentence are the usual ones: (1) Attribution:Ina kò!Mother (of) mine!(2) Predication:Sumùsúlat syà. Literally:Is-writing he. (3) The10serial relation:butò t balàtbone and skin.54.Some of the particles (§55)seem, however, to stand in none of these relations, but rather to express these relations themselves. Thus the particletandin the preceding example is expressive of the serial relation. So further:malakì ŋ báhay15large house; the particleŋexpresses the attributive relation;Sya y sumùsúlat. The particleyexpresses the predicative relation.It is to be remarked, further, that the sphere of attribution includes some cases in which the attribute markedly alters the sense:sakìtsickness:máy sakìt(máyis an attribute)having20sickness,sick.2b.Parts of speech.55.Tagalog distinguishes two parts of speech:full wordsandparticles.Theparticleseither express the syntactic relations between25full words (as illustrated in §54) or act as attributes of full words (somáyin the example in §54):Hindí sya sumùsúlat.He is not writing.The particlehindìʾnotis an attribute ofsumùsúlat.In contrast with the particles,full wordsact not only as attributes, but also as subject or predicate, and any full word may,30in principle, be used in any of these three functions:(1) Subject:Aŋ sumùsúlat ay si Pédro.The person writingis Pedro.Aŋ pulà naŋ panyò ay matiŋkàd.The red of the handkerchief is intense.(2) Predicate:Sya y sumùsúlat.He is writing.Pulà aŋ panyo ŋ itò.This handkerchief is red.5(3) Attribute:aŋ báta ŋ sumùsúlatthe writing child,the child who is writing;aŋ pulà ŋ panyòthe red handkerchief.56.Independent of this classification into parts of speech are certain less important groupings of words and certain phrase types, some of which will appear in the course of the analysis.10Others, however, demand mention at the outset.c.Static and transient words.57.Transientwords express an element of experience viewed as impermanent, i. e. belonging to some limited portion of time, sosumùsúlatabove, as opposed, e. g., tosiyà, pulà, panyò, bátaʾ,15Pédro. Words which are not transient may be calledstatic. Only a few particles are transient; among the full words the transient group is large and important.d.Personal names.58.Except in exclamations and in address,names of persons20(or animals) are distinguished from other words by being always (but see §78) preceded by the atonic particlesi:Hwàn!Juan!si HwànJuan,si SalamìnGlass,Mirror(as name of a dog).59.Many terms of relationship and titles may be used in place of the name of an individual and then belong to the personal25name class:aŋ amàthe father,aŋ ákiŋamàmy father, but:si AmàFather. Thus are used, further:si InàMother,si TátayPapa,si NánayMama,si Kúyaorsi KúyaŋOldest brother,si AtèOldest sister,si IŋkòŋGrandfather,si Indàʾorsi ImpòGrandmother,si Áliorsi TiyàAunt,si MámaʾUncle;si BathálaʾGod, but:aŋ30Dyòs.So also phrases in which these and other titles as attributes precede a name, see §256.60.The particlesinàorsilà, pretonic, in place ofsiforms an expression denoting the person named together with his family35or group of adherents:sina Hwànorsila HwànJuan and his familyorJuan and his crowd. With a series of namessinàimplies that those named form a group:si Hwàn, si Andrès, at si MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, Andrès, at Mariyánothe group consisting of Juan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, sinaAndrès, at sina MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano, each with his group.e.The object construction.61.When a word or phrase denotes an element of experience5viewed as anobject, it is, with certain exceptions, preceded by the atonic particleaŋ:aŋ bátaʾtheora child,boy,girl;children,aŋ báhaythe, a house;houses,aŋ báyanthe, a town,aŋ kabàítangoodness,kindness;an act of kindness,aŋ kataúhanmankind,aŋ pagsúlattheoran act of writing,aŋ mabútethat which10is good,the best thing.The following are the exceptions:62.Personal names preceded bysiorsinà(silà) do not takeaŋ; they always, of course, denote an object idea. See the examples in §58ff.1563.Thepersonal pronouns(which always express an object idea) do not takeaŋ. They are:akòI;kitàwe, i. e.thou and I, inclusive dual;táyowe, i. e.thou(orye)and I(orwe), inclusive dual and plural;kamìwe(but not you), exclusive dual and plural;ikàw, kàthou(singular);kayòye, you(dual, plural, and20polite singular);siyàhe,she;silàthey.All of these exceptikàware often enclitic;kàis always so:Ikàw ay talúnan.You are defeated.Sumúlat ka.Write (thou).Siyàis used only of living beings, except for a single peculiar construction to be described below (§106f.).25Kitàin the sense here given is not much used,táyobeing commoner:Palìt kità naŋ sombréro.Let’s trade hats.Kità ay pumaroònsa teyátro.Or, more commonly:Táyo ay pumaroòn sa teyátro.Let us go to the theatre.Kitàis more used in another meaning, as we shall see (§182).30Kamìdiffers from these two words in excluding the personor persons addressed:Kàkáin táyo.We shall eat.Nakitúluy kamì kina Pédro.We asked hospitality of Pedro’s.In both of these sentences (as also in that withtáyoalready given) two or more people may be meant. It will be seen, therefore, that the35distinction between dual and plural is not categoric (obligatory).That between singular and plural is categoric in these pronouns; everywhere else it is not obligatory; the idea of plurality is inherent in many words and forms, but these are used only where the idea of plurality is explicitly prominent.4064.Thedemonstrative pronounsas object expressions also rejectaŋ. They are:irèthis(on the person of the speaker orwithin his immediate reach);itòthis(more generally, of anything nearer to the speaker than to the person addressed);iyàn, yànthat(nearer to the person addressed);iyòn, yaòn, yoòn, yònthat(of things distant from both speaker and person addressed).5Itòandiyònare used also anaphorically:the former—the latter.The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitic.Aŋis omitted also before an object expression in which a demonstrative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §130.1065.Similarly before object expressions in which an interrogative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §§131.168.66.The use ofaŋis optional before thenumerative pronouns. The use ofaŋseems sometimes to lend these greater definiteness, sometimes to be indifferent.15The numerative pronouns used as object expressions are:ibàother,ilànfew,karamíhanmost,lahàtall. (The other numerative pronouns, namelyboòʾwholeand the particlesbálaanyandbáwateveryare not used as object expressions).ibàothers;ilàna few;Aŋ ilàn ay malalakàs at aŋ ibà ay20mahihínaʾ.Some are strong and others are weak.Lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay dápat umalìs.All people (who are) in this town ought to leave(naŋ táoof people,of the peopleis an attribute oflahàt).Aŋ lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay máy sakìt.All the people in this town are diseased.karamíhan sa kanilà25most of them;aŋ karamíhanthe majority.The use ofaŋis optional also before object expressions in which a numerative pronoun stands first as an attribute, see §132.67.The use ofaŋis optional before thecardinal numerals:isà sa kanilà, or:aŋ isà sa kanilàone of them.30The simple cardinal numerals are:isàone,dalawàtwo,tatlòthree,ápatfour,limàfive,ánimsix,pitòseven,walòeight,siyàm,syàmnine.Similarly, the use ofaŋis optional before an object expression in which a cardinal numeral stands first as a modifier, see35§133.In dates and for the hours of the day the Spanish numerals are commonly used; these demandaŋ:aŋ abéynte-kwátru naŋ Húnyothe twenty-fourth of June.68.Aŋis omitted, further, before object expressions beginning40with the particlenì(§253) and optionally before those beginning with the particlekáhit(§248). All object expressions lackaŋwhen forming an indefinite object predicate (§109), inexpressions of indefinite quantity (§69), when used indefinitely afterpára(§275),haŋgàŋ(§293),patì(§305), and in exclamation or address (§§75.78).3f.Expressions of indefinite quantity.569.Object expressions are used (withoutaŋ, §68) to express indefinite objects (roughly speaking such as would lack the articlethein English) or indefinite quantities of objects, when preceded by certain modifiers. These modifiers are the pretonic particlemáy, expressing existence or forthcomingness (§252), and10the full wordsmáy-roòn, equivalent withmáy; walàʾthe negative of these;malakìgreat;maláonlong;marámimuch,many(§138). The phrases so formed may be described asexpressions of indefinite quantity. Beside the omission ofaŋbefore the object expression, they have the peculiarity that in certain constructions15they express (without further accompaniments) thepossessorof that designated:may súŋaythere are hornsorhaving horns,horned;máy-roo ŋ aklàtthere are booksorhaving a book, books;wala ŋ aklàtthere are no booksorwithout a book,having no books;malakì ŋ kagamitàngreat usefulness,there is great use, orhaving20great usefulness;maláo ŋ panahònlong timeortaking a long time;marámi ŋ salapèʾmuch money,there is much moneyorhaving much money;marámi ŋ kaybíganmany friends,there are many friendsorhaving many friends.Máyexpresses also approximateness (where the object expression25is one of number):may ápat na pu ŋ paàabout forty feetorhaving, measuring about forty feet.70.An expression of indefinite quantity may, as a unit, stand in object construction; in this case the first three have possessive value, but not the others:aŋ máy sakìttheora person having30sickness,theora sick person;aŋ máy-roo ŋ aklàtthe (a) person who has a book or books;aŋ wala ŋ hiyàʾthe (a) shameless person; but:aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe, a large house;aŋ marámi ŋ bágaythe many things.71.Marámimay by itself stand in object construction; it35then has the meaning:aŋ marámithe many,the crowd,the people,hoi polloi.
B.SYNTAX.1.Sentence and word.a.Syntactic relations.52.The sentence consists of one or more words:Aráy!5Ouch!Umúulàn.It’s raining.Ina kò!Mother of mine!(as exclamation).Sya y sumùsúlat.Heorshe isorwas writing.53.The relations between the words in a sentence are the usual ones: (1) Attribution:Ina kò!Mother (of) mine!(2) Predication:Sumùsúlat syà. Literally:Is-writing he. (3) The10serial relation:butò t balàtbone and skin.54.Some of the particles (§55)seem, however, to stand in none of these relations, but rather to express these relations themselves. Thus the particletandin the preceding example is expressive of the serial relation. So further:malakì ŋ báhay15large house; the particleŋexpresses the attributive relation;Sya y sumùsúlat. The particleyexpresses the predicative relation.It is to be remarked, further, that the sphere of attribution includes some cases in which the attribute markedly alters the sense:sakìtsickness:máy sakìt(máyis an attribute)having20sickness,sick.2b.Parts of speech.55.Tagalog distinguishes two parts of speech:full wordsandparticles.Theparticleseither express the syntactic relations between25full words (as illustrated in §54) or act as attributes of full words (somáyin the example in §54):Hindí sya sumùsúlat.He is not writing.The particlehindìʾnotis an attribute ofsumùsúlat.In contrast with the particles,full wordsact not only as attributes, but also as subject or predicate, and any full word may,30in principle, be used in any of these three functions:(1) Subject:Aŋ sumùsúlat ay si Pédro.The person writingis Pedro.Aŋ pulà naŋ panyò ay matiŋkàd.The red of the handkerchief is intense.(2) Predicate:Sya y sumùsúlat.He is writing.Pulà aŋ panyo ŋ itò.This handkerchief is red.5(3) Attribute:aŋ báta ŋ sumùsúlatthe writing child,the child who is writing;aŋ pulà ŋ panyòthe red handkerchief.56.Independent of this classification into parts of speech are certain less important groupings of words and certain phrase types, some of which will appear in the course of the analysis.10Others, however, demand mention at the outset.c.Static and transient words.57.Transientwords express an element of experience viewed as impermanent, i. e. belonging to some limited portion of time, sosumùsúlatabove, as opposed, e. g., tosiyà, pulà, panyò, bátaʾ,15Pédro. Words which are not transient may be calledstatic. Only a few particles are transient; among the full words the transient group is large and important.d.Personal names.58.Except in exclamations and in address,names of persons20(or animals) are distinguished from other words by being always (but see §78) preceded by the atonic particlesi:Hwàn!Juan!si HwànJuan,si SalamìnGlass,Mirror(as name of a dog).59.Many terms of relationship and titles may be used in place of the name of an individual and then belong to the personal25name class:aŋ amàthe father,aŋ ákiŋamàmy father, but:si AmàFather. Thus are used, further:si InàMother,si TátayPapa,si NánayMama,si Kúyaorsi KúyaŋOldest brother,si AtèOldest sister,si IŋkòŋGrandfather,si Indàʾorsi ImpòGrandmother,si Áliorsi TiyàAunt,si MámaʾUncle;si BathálaʾGod, but:aŋ30Dyòs.So also phrases in which these and other titles as attributes precede a name, see §256.60.The particlesinàorsilà, pretonic, in place ofsiforms an expression denoting the person named together with his family35or group of adherents:sina Hwànorsila HwànJuan and his familyorJuan and his crowd. With a series of namessinàimplies that those named form a group:si Hwàn, si Andrès, at si MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, Andrès, at Mariyánothe group consisting of Juan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, sinaAndrès, at sina MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano, each with his group.e.The object construction.61.When a word or phrase denotes an element of experience5viewed as anobject, it is, with certain exceptions, preceded by the atonic particleaŋ:aŋ bátaʾtheora child,boy,girl;children,aŋ báhaythe, a house;houses,aŋ báyanthe, a town,aŋ kabàítangoodness,kindness;an act of kindness,aŋ kataúhanmankind,aŋ pagsúlattheoran act of writing,aŋ mabútethat which10is good,the best thing.The following are the exceptions:62.Personal names preceded bysiorsinà(silà) do not takeaŋ; they always, of course, denote an object idea. See the examples in §58ff.1563.Thepersonal pronouns(which always express an object idea) do not takeaŋ. They are:akòI;kitàwe, i. e.thou and I, inclusive dual;táyowe, i. e.thou(orye)and I(orwe), inclusive dual and plural;kamìwe(but not you), exclusive dual and plural;ikàw, kàthou(singular);kayòye, you(dual, plural, and20polite singular);siyàhe,she;silàthey.All of these exceptikàware often enclitic;kàis always so:Ikàw ay talúnan.You are defeated.Sumúlat ka.Write (thou).Siyàis used only of living beings, except for a single peculiar construction to be described below (§106f.).25Kitàin the sense here given is not much used,táyobeing commoner:Palìt kità naŋ sombréro.Let’s trade hats.Kità ay pumaroònsa teyátro.Or, more commonly:Táyo ay pumaroòn sa teyátro.Let us go to the theatre.Kitàis more used in another meaning, as we shall see (§182).30Kamìdiffers from these two words in excluding the personor persons addressed:Kàkáin táyo.We shall eat.Nakitúluy kamì kina Pédro.We asked hospitality of Pedro’s.In both of these sentences (as also in that withtáyoalready given) two or more people may be meant. It will be seen, therefore, that the35distinction between dual and plural is not categoric (obligatory).That between singular and plural is categoric in these pronouns; everywhere else it is not obligatory; the idea of plurality is inherent in many words and forms, but these are used only where the idea of plurality is explicitly prominent.4064.Thedemonstrative pronounsas object expressions also rejectaŋ. They are:irèthis(on the person of the speaker orwithin his immediate reach);itòthis(more generally, of anything nearer to the speaker than to the person addressed);iyàn, yànthat(nearer to the person addressed);iyòn, yaòn, yoòn, yònthat(of things distant from both speaker and person addressed).5Itòandiyònare used also anaphorically:the former—the latter.The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitic.Aŋis omitted also before an object expression in which a demonstrative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §130.1065.Similarly before object expressions in which an interrogative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §§131.168.66.The use ofaŋis optional before thenumerative pronouns. The use ofaŋseems sometimes to lend these greater definiteness, sometimes to be indifferent.15The numerative pronouns used as object expressions are:ibàother,ilànfew,karamíhanmost,lahàtall. (The other numerative pronouns, namelyboòʾwholeand the particlesbálaanyandbáwateveryare not used as object expressions).ibàothers;ilàna few;Aŋ ilàn ay malalakàs at aŋ ibà ay20mahihínaʾ.Some are strong and others are weak.Lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay dápat umalìs.All people (who are) in this town ought to leave(naŋ táoof people,of the peopleis an attribute oflahàt).Aŋ lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay máy sakìt.All the people in this town are diseased.karamíhan sa kanilà25most of them;aŋ karamíhanthe majority.The use ofaŋis optional also before object expressions in which a numerative pronoun stands first as an attribute, see §132.67.The use ofaŋis optional before thecardinal numerals:isà sa kanilà, or:aŋ isà sa kanilàone of them.30The simple cardinal numerals are:isàone,dalawàtwo,tatlòthree,ápatfour,limàfive,ánimsix,pitòseven,walòeight,siyàm,syàmnine.Similarly, the use ofaŋis optional before an object expression in which a cardinal numeral stands first as a modifier, see35§133.In dates and for the hours of the day the Spanish numerals are commonly used; these demandaŋ:aŋ abéynte-kwátru naŋ Húnyothe twenty-fourth of June.68.Aŋis omitted, further, before object expressions beginning40with the particlenì(§253) and optionally before those beginning with the particlekáhit(§248). All object expressions lackaŋwhen forming an indefinite object predicate (§109), inexpressions of indefinite quantity (§69), when used indefinitely afterpára(§275),haŋgàŋ(§293),patì(§305), and in exclamation or address (§§75.78).3f.Expressions of indefinite quantity.569.Object expressions are used (withoutaŋ, §68) to express indefinite objects (roughly speaking such as would lack the articlethein English) or indefinite quantities of objects, when preceded by certain modifiers. These modifiers are the pretonic particlemáy, expressing existence or forthcomingness (§252), and10the full wordsmáy-roòn, equivalent withmáy; walàʾthe negative of these;malakìgreat;maláonlong;marámimuch,many(§138). The phrases so formed may be described asexpressions of indefinite quantity. Beside the omission ofaŋbefore the object expression, they have the peculiarity that in certain constructions15they express (without further accompaniments) thepossessorof that designated:may súŋaythere are hornsorhaving horns,horned;máy-roo ŋ aklàtthere are booksorhaving a book, books;wala ŋ aklàtthere are no booksorwithout a book,having no books;malakì ŋ kagamitàngreat usefulness,there is great use, orhaving20great usefulness;maláo ŋ panahònlong timeortaking a long time;marámi ŋ salapèʾmuch money,there is much moneyorhaving much money;marámi ŋ kaybíganmany friends,there are many friendsorhaving many friends.Máyexpresses also approximateness (where the object expression25is one of number):may ápat na pu ŋ paàabout forty feetorhaving, measuring about forty feet.70.An expression of indefinite quantity may, as a unit, stand in object construction; in this case the first three have possessive value, but not the others:aŋ máy sakìttheora person having30sickness,theora sick person;aŋ máy-roo ŋ aklàtthe (a) person who has a book or books;aŋ wala ŋ hiyàʾthe (a) shameless person; but:aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe, a large house;aŋ marámi ŋ bágaythe many things.71.Marámimay by itself stand in object construction; it35then has the meaning:aŋ marámithe many,the crowd,the people,hoi polloi.
B.SYNTAX.1.Sentence and word.a.Syntactic relations.52.The sentence consists of one or more words:Aráy!5Ouch!Umúulàn.It’s raining.Ina kò!Mother of mine!(as exclamation).Sya y sumùsúlat.Heorshe isorwas writing.53.The relations between the words in a sentence are the usual ones: (1) Attribution:Ina kò!Mother (of) mine!(2) Predication:Sumùsúlat syà. Literally:Is-writing he. (3) The10serial relation:butò t balàtbone and skin.54.Some of the particles (§55)seem, however, to stand in none of these relations, but rather to express these relations themselves. Thus the particletandin the preceding example is expressive of the serial relation. So further:malakì ŋ báhay15large house; the particleŋexpresses the attributive relation;Sya y sumùsúlat. The particleyexpresses the predicative relation.It is to be remarked, further, that the sphere of attribution includes some cases in which the attribute markedly alters the sense:sakìtsickness:máy sakìt(máyis an attribute)having20sickness,sick.2b.Parts of speech.55.Tagalog distinguishes two parts of speech:full wordsandparticles.Theparticleseither express the syntactic relations between25full words (as illustrated in §54) or act as attributes of full words (somáyin the example in §54):Hindí sya sumùsúlat.He is not writing.The particlehindìʾnotis an attribute ofsumùsúlat.In contrast with the particles,full wordsact not only as attributes, but also as subject or predicate, and any full word may,30in principle, be used in any of these three functions:(1) Subject:Aŋ sumùsúlat ay si Pédro.The person writingis Pedro.Aŋ pulà naŋ panyò ay matiŋkàd.The red of the handkerchief is intense.(2) Predicate:Sya y sumùsúlat.He is writing.Pulà aŋ panyo ŋ itò.This handkerchief is red.5(3) Attribute:aŋ báta ŋ sumùsúlatthe writing child,the child who is writing;aŋ pulà ŋ panyòthe red handkerchief.56.Independent of this classification into parts of speech are certain less important groupings of words and certain phrase types, some of which will appear in the course of the analysis.10Others, however, demand mention at the outset.c.Static and transient words.57.Transientwords express an element of experience viewed as impermanent, i. e. belonging to some limited portion of time, sosumùsúlatabove, as opposed, e. g., tosiyà, pulà, panyò, bátaʾ,15Pédro. Words which are not transient may be calledstatic. Only a few particles are transient; among the full words the transient group is large and important.d.Personal names.58.Except in exclamations and in address,names of persons20(or animals) are distinguished from other words by being always (but see §78) preceded by the atonic particlesi:Hwàn!Juan!si HwànJuan,si SalamìnGlass,Mirror(as name of a dog).59.Many terms of relationship and titles may be used in place of the name of an individual and then belong to the personal25name class:aŋ amàthe father,aŋ ákiŋamàmy father, but:si AmàFather. Thus are used, further:si InàMother,si TátayPapa,si NánayMama,si Kúyaorsi KúyaŋOldest brother,si AtèOldest sister,si IŋkòŋGrandfather,si Indàʾorsi ImpòGrandmother,si Áliorsi TiyàAunt,si MámaʾUncle;si BathálaʾGod, but:aŋ30Dyòs.So also phrases in which these and other titles as attributes precede a name, see §256.60.The particlesinàorsilà, pretonic, in place ofsiforms an expression denoting the person named together with his family35or group of adherents:sina Hwànorsila HwànJuan and his familyorJuan and his crowd. With a series of namessinàimplies that those named form a group:si Hwàn, si Andrès, at si MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, Andrès, at Mariyánothe group consisting of Juan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, sinaAndrès, at sina MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano, each with his group.e.The object construction.61.When a word or phrase denotes an element of experience5viewed as anobject, it is, with certain exceptions, preceded by the atonic particleaŋ:aŋ bátaʾtheora child,boy,girl;children,aŋ báhaythe, a house;houses,aŋ báyanthe, a town,aŋ kabàítangoodness,kindness;an act of kindness,aŋ kataúhanmankind,aŋ pagsúlattheoran act of writing,aŋ mabútethat which10is good,the best thing.The following are the exceptions:62.Personal names preceded bysiorsinà(silà) do not takeaŋ; they always, of course, denote an object idea. See the examples in §58ff.1563.Thepersonal pronouns(which always express an object idea) do not takeaŋ. They are:akòI;kitàwe, i. e.thou and I, inclusive dual;táyowe, i. e.thou(orye)and I(orwe), inclusive dual and plural;kamìwe(but not you), exclusive dual and plural;ikàw, kàthou(singular);kayòye, you(dual, plural, and20polite singular);siyàhe,she;silàthey.All of these exceptikàware often enclitic;kàis always so:Ikàw ay talúnan.You are defeated.Sumúlat ka.Write (thou).Siyàis used only of living beings, except for a single peculiar construction to be described below (§106f.).25Kitàin the sense here given is not much used,táyobeing commoner:Palìt kità naŋ sombréro.Let’s trade hats.Kità ay pumaroònsa teyátro.Or, more commonly:Táyo ay pumaroòn sa teyátro.Let us go to the theatre.Kitàis more used in another meaning, as we shall see (§182).30Kamìdiffers from these two words in excluding the personor persons addressed:Kàkáin táyo.We shall eat.Nakitúluy kamì kina Pédro.We asked hospitality of Pedro’s.In both of these sentences (as also in that withtáyoalready given) two or more people may be meant. It will be seen, therefore, that the35distinction between dual and plural is not categoric (obligatory).That between singular and plural is categoric in these pronouns; everywhere else it is not obligatory; the idea of plurality is inherent in many words and forms, but these are used only where the idea of plurality is explicitly prominent.4064.Thedemonstrative pronounsas object expressions also rejectaŋ. They are:irèthis(on the person of the speaker orwithin his immediate reach);itòthis(more generally, of anything nearer to the speaker than to the person addressed);iyàn, yànthat(nearer to the person addressed);iyòn, yaòn, yoòn, yònthat(of things distant from both speaker and person addressed).5Itòandiyònare used also anaphorically:the former—the latter.The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitic.Aŋis omitted also before an object expression in which a demonstrative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §130.1065.Similarly before object expressions in which an interrogative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §§131.168.66.The use ofaŋis optional before thenumerative pronouns. The use ofaŋseems sometimes to lend these greater definiteness, sometimes to be indifferent.15The numerative pronouns used as object expressions are:ibàother,ilànfew,karamíhanmost,lahàtall. (The other numerative pronouns, namelyboòʾwholeand the particlesbálaanyandbáwateveryare not used as object expressions).ibàothers;ilàna few;Aŋ ilàn ay malalakàs at aŋ ibà ay20mahihínaʾ.Some are strong and others are weak.Lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay dápat umalìs.All people (who are) in this town ought to leave(naŋ táoof people,of the peopleis an attribute oflahàt).Aŋ lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay máy sakìt.All the people in this town are diseased.karamíhan sa kanilà25most of them;aŋ karamíhanthe majority.The use ofaŋis optional also before object expressions in which a numerative pronoun stands first as an attribute, see §132.67.The use ofaŋis optional before thecardinal numerals:isà sa kanilà, or:aŋ isà sa kanilàone of them.30The simple cardinal numerals are:isàone,dalawàtwo,tatlòthree,ápatfour,limàfive,ánimsix,pitòseven,walòeight,siyàm,syàmnine.Similarly, the use ofaŋis optional before an object expression in which a cardinal numeral stands first as a modifier, see35§133.In dates and for the hours of the day the Spanish numerals are commonly used; these demandaŋ:aŋ abéynte-kwátru naŋ Húnyothe twenty-fourth of June.68.Aŋis omitted, further, before object expressions beginning40with the particlenì(§253) and optionally before those beginning with the particlekáhit(§248). All object expressions lackaŋwhen forming an indefinite object predicate (§109), inexpressions of indefinite quantity (§69), when used indefinitely afterpára(§275),haŋgàŋ(§293),patì(§305), and in exclamation or address (§§75.78).3f.Expressions of indefinite quantity.569.Object expressions are used (withoutaŋ, §68) to express indefinite objects (roughly speaking such as would lack the articlethein English) or indefinite quantities of objects, when preceded by certain modifiers. These modifiers are the pretonic particlemáy, expressing existence or forthcomingness (§252), and10the full wordsmáy-roòn, equivalent withmáy; walàʾthe negative of these;malakìgreat;maláonlong;marámimuch,many(§138). The phrases so formed may be described asexpressions of indefinite quantity. Beside the omission ofaŋbefore the object expression, they have the peculiarity that in certain constructions15they express (without further accompaniments) thepossessorof that designated:may súŋaythere are hornsorhaving horns,horned;máy-roo ŋ aklàtthere are booksorhaving a book, books;wala ŋ aklàtthere are no booksorwithout a book,having no books;malakì ŋ kagamitàngreat usefulness,there is great use, orhaving20great usefulness;maláo ŋ panahònlong timeortaking a long time;marámi ŋ salapèʾmuch money,there is much moneyorhaving much money;marámi ŋ kaybíganmany friends,there are many friendsorhaving many friends.Máyexpresses also approximateness (where the object expression25is one of number):may ápat na pu ŋ paàabout forty feetorhaving, measuring about forty feet.70.An expression of indefinite quantity may, as a unit, stand in object construction; in this case the first three have possessive value, but not the others:aŋ máy sakìttheora person having30sickness,theora sick person;aŋ máy-roo ŋ aklàtthe (a) person who has a book or books;aŋ wala ŋ hiyàʾthe (a) shameless person; but:aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe, a large house;aŋ marámi ŋ bágaythe many things.71.Marámimay by itself stand in object construction; it35then has the meaning:aŋ marámithe many,the crowd,the people,hoi polloi.
B.SYNTAX.1.Sentence and word.a.Syntactic relations.52.The sentence consists of one or more words:Aráy!5Ouch!Umúulàn.It’s raining.Ina kò!Mother of mine!(as exclamation).Sya y sumùsúlat.Heorshe isorwas writing.53.The relations between the words in a sentence are the usual ones: (1) Attribution:Ina kò!Mother (of) mine!(2) Predication:Sumùsúlat syà. Literally:Is-writing he. (3) The10serial relation:butò t balàtbone and skin.54.Some of the particles (§55)seem, however, to stand in none of these relations, but rather to express these relations themselves. Thus the particletandin the preceding example is expressive of the serial relation. So further:malakì ŋ báhay15large house; the particleŋexpresses the attributive relation;Sya y sumùsúlat. The particleyexpresses the predicative relation.It is to be remarked, further, that the sphere of attribution includes some cases in which the attribute markedly alters the sense:sakìtsickness:máy sakìt(máyis an attribute)having20sickness,sick.2b.Parts of speech.55.Tagalog distinguishes two parts of speech:full wordsandparticles.Theparticleseither express the syntactic relations between25full words (as illustrated in §54) or act as attributes of full words (somáyin the example in §54):Hindí sya sumùsúlat.He is not writing.The particlehindìʾnotis an attribute ofsumùsúlat.In contrast with the particles,full wordsact not only as attributes, but also as subject or predicate, and any full word may,30in principle, be used in any of these three functions:(1) Subject:Aŋ sumùsúlat ay si Pédro.The person writingis Pedro.Aŋ pulà naŋ panyò ay matiŋkàd.The red of the handkerchief is intense.(2) Predicate:Sya y sumùsúlat.He is writing.Pulà aŋ panyo ŋ itò.This handkerchief is red.5(3) Attribute:aŋ báta ŋ sumùsúlatthe writing child,the child who is writing;aŋ pulà ŋ panyòthe red handkerchief.56.Independent of this classification into parts of speech are certain less important groupings of words and certain phrase types, some of which will appear in the course of the analysis.10Others, however, demand mention at the outset.c.Static and transient words.57.Transientwords express an element of experience viewed as impermanent, i. e. belonging to some limited portion of time, sosumùsúlatabove, as opposed, e. g., tosiyà, pulà, panyò, bátaʾ,15Pédro. Words which are not transient may be calledstatic. Only a few particles are transient; among the full words the transient group is large and important.d.Personal names.58.Except in exclamations and in address,names of persons20(or animals) are distinguished from other words by being always (but see §78) preceded by the atonic particlesi:Hwàn!Juan!si HwànJuan,si SalamìnGlass,Mirror(as name of a dog).59.Many terms of relationship and titles may be used in place of the name of an individual and then belong to the personal25name class:aŋ amàthe father,aŋ ákiŋamàmy father, but:si AmàFather. Thus are used, further:si InàMother,si TátayPapa,si NánayMama,si Kúyaorsi KúyaŋOldest brother,si AtèOldest sister,si IŋkòŋGrandfather,si Indàʾorsi ImpòGrandmother,si Áliorsi TiyàAunt,si MámaʾUncle;si BathálaʾGod, but:aŋ30Dyòs.So also phrases in which these and other titles as attributes precede a name, see §256.60.The particlesinàorsilà, pretonic, in place ofsiforms an expression denoting the person named together with his family35or group of adherents:sina Hwànorsila HwànJuan and his familyorJuan and his crowd. With a series of namessinàimplies that those named form a group:si Hwàn, si Andrès, at si MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, Andrès, at Mariyánothe group consisting of Juan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, sinaAndrès, at sina MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano, each with his group.e.The object construction.61.When a word or phrase denotes an element of experience5viewed as anobject, it is, with certain exceptions, preceded by the atonic particleaŋ:aŋ bátaʾtheora child,boy,girl;children,aŋ báhaythe, a house;houses,aŋ báyanthe, a town,aŋ kabàítangoodness,kindness;an act of kindness,aŋ kataúhanmankind,aŋ pagsúlattheoran act of writing,aŋ mabútethat which10is good,the best thing.The following are the exceptions:62.Personal names preceded bysiorsinà(silà) do not takeaŋ; they always, of course, denote an object idea. See the examples in §58ff.1563.Thepersonal pronouns(which always express an object idea) do not takeaŋ. They are:akòI;kitàwe, i. e.thou and I, inclusive dual;táyowe, i. e.thou(orye)and I(orwe), inclusive dual and plural;kamìwe(but not you), exclusive dual and plural;ikàw, kàthou(singular);kayòye, you(dual, plural, and20polite singular);siyàhe,she;silàthey.All of these exceptikàware often enclitic;kàis always so:Ikàw ay talúnan.You are defeated.Sumúlat ka.Write (thou).Siyàis used only of living beings, except for a single peculiar construction to be described below (§106f.).25Kitàin the sense here given is not much used,táyobeing commoner:Palìt kità naŋ sombréro.Let’s trade hats.Kità ay pumaroònsa teyátro.Or, more commonly:Táyo ay pumaroòn sa teyátro.Let us go to the theatre.Kitàis more used in another meaning, as we shall see (§182).30Kamìdiffers from these two words in excluding the personor persons addressed:Kàkáin táyo.We shall eat.Nakitúluy kamì kina Pédro.We asked hospitality of Pedro’s.In both of these sentences (as also in that withtáyoalready given) two or more people may be meant. It will be seen, therefore, that the35distinction between dual and plural is not categoric (obligatory).That between singular and plural is categoric in these pronouns; everywhere else it is not obligatory; the idea of plurality is inherent in many words and forms, but these are used only where the idea of plurality is explicitly prominent.4064.Thedemonstrative pronounsas object expressions also rejectaŋ. They are:irèthis(on the person of the speaker orwithin his immediate reach);itòthis(more generally, of anything nearer to the speaker than to the person addressed);iyàn, yànthat(nearer to the person addressed);iyòn, yaòn, yoòn, yònthat(of things distant from both speaker and person addressed).5Itòandiyònare used also anaphorically:the former—the latter.The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitic.Aŋis omitted also before an object expression in which a demonstrative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §130.1065.Similarly before object expressions in which an interrogative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §§131.168.66.The use ofaŋis optional before thenumerative pronouns. The use ofaŋseems sometimes to lend these greater definiteness, sometimes to be indifferent.15The numerative pronouns used as object expressions are:ibàother,ilànfew,karamíhanmost,lahàtall. (The other numerative pronouns, namelyboòʾwholeand the particlesbálaanyandbáwateveryare not used as object expressions).ibàothers;ilàna few;Aŋ ilàn ay malalakàs at aŋ ibà ay20mahihínaʾ.Some are strong and others are weak.Lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay dápat umalìs.All people (who are) in this town ought to leave(naŋ táoof people,of the peopleis an attribute oflahàt).Aŋ lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay máy sakìt.All the people in this town are diseased.karamíhan sa kanilà25most of them;aŋ karamíhanthe majority.The use ofaŋis optional also before object expressions in which a numerative pronoun stands first as an attribute, see §132.67.The use ofaŋis optional before thecardinal numerals:isà sa kanilà, or:aŋ isà sa kanilàone of them.30The simple cardinal numerals are:isàone,dalawàtwo,tatlòthree,ápatfour,limàfive,ánimsix,pitòseven,walòeight,siyàm,syàmnine.Similarly, the use ofaŋis optional before an object expression in which a cardinal numeral stands first as a modifier, see35§133.In dates and for the hours of the day the Spanish numerals are commonly used; these demandaŋ:aŋ abéynte-kwátru naŋ Húnyothe twenty-fourth of June.68.Aŋis omitted, further, before object expressions beginning40with the particlenì(§253) and optionally before those beginning with the particlekáhit(§248). All object expressions lackaŋwhen forming an indefinite object predicate (§109), inexpressions of indefinite quantity (§69), when used indefinitely afterpára(§275),haŋgàŋ(§293),patì(§305), and in exclamation or address (§§75.78).3f.Expressions of indefinite quantity.569.Object expressions are used (withoutaŋ, §68) to express indefinite objects (roughly speaking such as would lack the articlethein English) or indefinite quantities of objects, when preceded by certain modifiers. These modifiers are the pretonic particlemáy, expressing existence or forthcomingness (§252), and10the full wordsmáy-roòn, equivalent withmáy; walàʾthe negative of these;malakìgreat;maláonlong;marámimuch,many(§138). The phrases so formed may be described asexpressions of indefinite quantity. Beside the omission ofaŋbefore the object expression, they have the peculiarity that in certain constructions15they express (without further accompaniments) thepossessorof that designated:may súŋaythere are hornsorhaving horns,horned;máy-roo ŋ aklàtthere are booksorhaving a book, books;wala ŋ aklàtthere are no booksorwithout a book,having no books;malakì ŋ kagamitàngreat usefulness,there is great use, orhaving20great usefulness;maláo ŋ panahònlong timeortaking a long time;marámi ŋ salapèʾmuch money,there is much moneyorhaving much money;marámi ŋ kaybíganmany friends,there are many friendsorhaving many friends.Máyexpresses also approximateness (where the object expression25is one of number):may ápat na pu ŋ paàabout forty feetorhaving, measuring about forty feet.70.An expression of indefinite quantity may, as a unit, stand in object construction; in this case the first three have possessive value, but not the others:aŋ máy sakìttheora person having30sickness,theora sick person;aŋ máy-roo ŋ aklàtthe (a) person who has a book or books;aŋ wala ŋ hiyàʾthe (a) shameless person; but:aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe, a large house;aŋ marámi ŋ bágaythe many things.71.Marámimay by itself stand in object construction; it35then has the meaning:aŋ marámithe many,the crowd,the people,hoi polloi.
1.Sentence and word.a.Syntactic relations.52.The sentence consists of one or more words:Aráy!5Ouch!Umúulàn.It’s raining.Ina kò!Mother of mine!(as exclamation).Sya y sumùsúlat.Heorshe isorwas writing.53.The relations between the words in a sentence are the usual ones: (1) Attribution:Ina kò!Mother (of) mine!(2) Predication:Sumùsúlat syà. Literally:Is-writing he. (3) The10serial relation:butò t balàtbone and skin.54.Some of the particles (§55)seem, however, to stand in none of these relations, but rather to express these relations themselves. Thus the particletandin the preceding example is expressive of the serial relation. So further:malakì ŋ báhay15large house; the particleŋexpresses the attributive relation;Sya y sumùsúlat. The particleyexpresses the predicative relation.It is to be remarked, further, that the sphere of attribution includes some cases in which the attribute markedly alters the sense:sakìtsickness:máy sakìt(máyis an attribute)having20sickness,sick.2b.Parts of speech.55.Tagalog distinguishes two parts of speech:full wordsandparticles.Theparticleseither express the syntactic relations between25full words (as illustrated in §54) or act as attributes of full words (somáyin the example in §54):Hindí sya sumùsúlat.He is not writing.The particlehindìʾnotis an attribute ofsumùsúlat.In contrast with the particles,full wordsact not only as attributes, but also as subject or predicate, and any full word may,30in principle, be used in any of these three functions:(1) Subject:Aŋ sumùsúlat ay si Pédro.The person writingis Pedro.Aŋ pulà naŋ panyò ay matiŋkàd.The red of the handkerchief is intense.(2) Predicate:Sya y sumùsúlat.He is writing.Pulà aŋ panyo ŋ itò.This handkerchief is red.5(3) Attribute:aŋ báta ŋ sumùsúlatthe writing child,the child who is writing;aŋ pulà ŋ panyòthe red handkerchief.56.Independent of this classification into parts of speech are certain less important groupings of words and certain phrase types, some of which will appear in the course of the analysis.10Others, however, demand mention at the outset.c.Static and transient words.57.Transientwords express an element of experience viewed as impermanent, i. e. belonging to some limited portion of time, sosumùsúlatabove, as opposed, e. g., tosiyà, pulà, panyò, bátaʾ,15Pédro. Words which are not transient may be calledstatic. Only a few particles are transient; among the full words the transient group is large and important.d.Personal names.58.Except in exclamations and in address,names of persons20(or animals) are distinguished from other words by being always (but see §78) preceded by the atonic particlesi:Hwàn!Juan!si HwànJuan,si SalamìnGlass,Mirror(as name of a dog).59.Many terms of relationship and titles may be used in place of the name of an individual and then belong to the personal25name class:aŋ amàthe father,aŋ ákiŋamàmy father, but:si AmàFather. Thus are used, further:si InàMother,si TátayPapa,si NánayMama,si Kúyaorsi KúyaŋOldest brother,si AtèOldest sister,si IŋkòŋGrandfather,si Indàʾorsi ImpòGrandmother,si Áliorsi TiyàAunt,si MámaʾUncle;si BathálaʾGod, but:aŋ30Dyòs.So also phrases in which these and other titles as attributes precede a name, see §256.60.The particlesinàorsilà, pretonic, in place ofsiforms an expression denoting the person named together with his family35or group of adherents:sina Hwànorsila HwànJuan and his familyorJuan and his crowd. With a series of namessinàimplies that those named form a group:si Hwàn, si Andrès, at si MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, Andrès, at Mariyánothe group consisting of Juan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, sinaAndrès, at sina MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano, each with his group.e.The object construction.61.When a word or phrase denotes an element of experience5viewed as anobject, it is, with certain exceptions, preceded by the atonic particleaŋ:aŋ bátaʾtheora child,boy,girl;children,aŋ báhaythe, a house;houses,aŋ báyanthe, a town,aŋ kabàítangoodness,kindness;an act of kindness,aŋ kataúhanmankind,aŋ pagsúlattheoran act of writing,aŋ mabútethat which10is good,the best thing.The following are the exceptions:62.Personal names preceded bysiorsinà(silà) do not takeaŋ; they always, of course, denote an object idea. See the examples in §58ff.1563.Thepersonal pronouns(which always express an object idea) do not takeaŋ. They are:akòI;kitàwe, i. e.thou and I, inclusive dual;táyowe, i. e.thou(orye)and I(orwe), inclusive dual and plural;kamìwe(but not you), exclusive dual and plural;ikàw, kàthou(singular);kayòye, you(dual, plural, and20polite singular);siyàhe,she;silàthey.All of these exceptikàware often enclitic;kàis always so:Ikàw ay talúnan.You are defeated.Sumúlat ka.Write (thou).Siyàis used only of living beings, except for a single peculiar construction to be described below (§106f.).25Kitàin the sense here given is not much used,táyobeing commoner:Palìt kità naŋ sombréro.Let’s trade hats.Kità ay pumaroònsa teyátro.Or, more commonly:Táyo ay pumaroòn sa teyátro.Let us go to the theatre.Kitàis more used in another meaning, as we shall see (§182).30Kamìdiffers from these two words in excluding the personor persons addressed:Kàkáin táyo.We shall eat.Nakitúluy kamì kina Pédro.We asked hospitality of Pedro’s.In both of these sentences (as also in that withtáyoalready given) two or more people may be meant. It will be seen, therefore, that the35distinction between dual and plural is not categoric (obligatory).That between singular and plural is categoric in these pronouns; everywhere else it is not obligatory; the idea of plurality is inherent in many words and forms, but these are used only where the idea of plurality is explicitly prominent.4064.Thedemonstrative pronounsas object expressions also rejectaŋ. They are:irèthis(on the person of the speaker orwithin his immediate reach);itòthis(more generally, of anything nearer to the speaker than to the person addressed);iyàn, yànthat(nearer to the person addressed);iyòn, yaòn, yoòn, yònthat(of things distant from both speaker and person addressed).5Itòandiyònare used also anaphorically:the former—the latter.The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitic.Aŋis omitted also before an object expression in which a demonstrative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §130.1065.Similarly before object expressions in which an interrogative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §§131.168.66.The use ofaŋis optional before thenumerative pronouns. The use ofaŋseems sometimes to lend these greater definiteness, sometimes to be indifferent.15The numerative pronouns used as object expressions are:ibàother,ilànfew,karamíhanmost,lahàtall. (The other numerative pronouns, namelyboòʾwholeand the particlesbálaanyandbáwateveryare not used as object expressions).ibàothers;ilàna few;Aŋ ilàn ay malalakàs at aŋ ibà ay20mahihínaʾ.Some are strong and others are weak.Lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay dápat umalìs.All people (who are) in this town ought to leave(naŋ táoof people,of the peopleis an attribute oflahàt).Aŋ lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay máy sakìt.All the people in this town are diseased.karamíhan sa kanilà25most of them;aŋ karamíhanthe majority.The use ofaŋis optional also before object expressions in which a numerative pronoun stands first as an attribute, see §132.67.The use ofaŋis optional before thecardinal numerals:isà sa kanilà, or:aŋ isà sa kanilàone of them.30The simple cardinal numerals are:isàone,dalawàtwo,tatlòthree,ápatfour,limàfive,ánimsix,pitòseven,walòeight,siyàm,syàmnine.Similarly, the use ofaŋis optional before an object expression in which a cardinal numeral stands first as a modifier, see35§133.In dates and for the hours of the day the Spanish numerals are commonly used; these demandaŋ:aŋ abéynte-kwátru naŋ Húnyothe twenty-fourth of June.68.Aŋis omitted, further, before object expressions beginning40with the particlenì(§253) and optionally before those beginning with the particlekáhit(§248). All object expressions lackaŋwhen forming an indefinite object predicate (§109), inexpressions of indefinite quantity (§69), when used indefinitely afterpára(§275),haŋgàŋ(§293),patì(§305), and in exclamation or address (§§75.78).3f.Expressions of indefinite quantity.569.Object expressions are used (withoutaŋ, §68) to express indefinite objects (roughly speaking such as would lack the articlethein English) or indefinite quantities of objects, when preceded by certain modifiers. These modifiers are the pretonic particlemáy, expressing existence or forthcomingness (§252), and10the full wordsmáy-roòn, equivalent withmáy; walàʾthe negative of these;malakìgreat;maláonlong;marámimuch,many(§138). The phrases so formed may be described asexpressions of indefinite quantity. Beside the omission ofaŋbefore the object expression, they have the peculiarity that in certain constructions15they express (without further accompaniments) thepossessorof that designated:may súŋaythere are hornsorhaving horns,horned;máy-roo ŋ aklàtthere are booksorhaving a book, books;wala ŋ aklàtthere are no booksorwithout a book,having no books;malakì ŋ kagamitàngreat usefulness,there is great use, orhaving20great usefulness;maláo ŋ panahònlong timeortaking a long time;marámi ŋ salapèʾmuch money,there is much moneyorhaving much money;marámi ŋ kaybíganmany friends,there are many friendsorhaving many friends.Máyexpresses also approximateness (where the object expression25is one of number):may ápat na pu ŋ paàabout forty feetorhaving, measuring about forty feet.70.An expression of indefinite quantity may, as a unit, stand in object construction; in this case the first three have possessive value, but not the others:aŋ máy sakìttheora person having30sickness,theora sick person;aŋ máy-roo ŋ aklàtthe (a) person who has a book or books;aŋ wala ŋ hiyàʾthe (a) shameless person; but:aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe, a large house;aŋ marámi ŋ bágaythe many things.71.Marámimay by itself stand in object construction; it35then has the meaning:aŋ marámithe many,the crowd,the people,hoi polloi.
1.Sentence and word.a.Syntactic relations.52.The sentence consists of one or more words:Aráy!5Ouch!Umúulàn.It’s raining.Ina kò!Mother of mine!(as exclamation).Sya y sumùsúlat.Heorshe isorwas writing.53.The relations between the words in a sentence are the usual ones: (1) Attribution:Ina kò!Mother (of) mine!(2) Predication:Sumùsúlat syà. Literally:Is-writing he. (3) The10serial relation:butò t balàtbone and skin.54.Some of the particles (§55)seem, however, to stand in none of these relations, but rather to express these relations themselves. Thus the particletandin the preceding example is expressive of the serial relation. So further:malakì ŋ báhay15large house; the particleŋexpresses the attributive relation;Sya y sumùsúlat. The particleyexpresses the predicative relation.It is to be remarked, further, that the sphere of attribution includes some cases in which the attribute markedly alters the sense:sakìtsickness:máy sakìt(máyis an attribute)having20sickness,sick.2b.Parts of speech.55.Tagalog distinguishes two parts of speech:full wordsandparticles.Theparticleseither express the syntactic relations between25full words (as illustrated in §54) or act as attributes of full words (somáyin the example in §54):Hindí sya sumùsúlat.He is not writing.The particlehindìʾnotis an attribute ofsumùsúlat.In contrast with the particles,full wordsact not only as attributes, but also as subject or predicate, and any full word may,30in principle, be used in any of these three functions:(1) Subject:Aŋ sumùsúlat ay si Pédro.The person writingis Pedro.Aŋ pulà naŋ panyò ay matiŋkàd.The red of the handkerchief is intense.(2) Predicate:Sya y sumùsúlat.He is writing.Pulà aŋ panyo ŋ itò.This handkerchief is red.5(3) Attribute:aŋ báta ŋ sumùsúlatthe writing child,the child who is writing;aŋ pulà ŋ panyòthe red handkerchief.56.Independent of this classification into parts of speech are certain less important groupings of words and certain phrase types, some of which will appear in the course of the analysis.10Others, however, demand mention at the outset.c.Static and transient words.57.Transientwords express an element of experience viewed as impermanent, i. e. belonging to some limited portion of time, sosumùsúlatabove, as opposed, e. g., tosiyà, pulà, panyò, bátaʾ,15Pédro. Words which are not transient may be calledstatic. Only a few particles are transient; among the full words the transient group is large and important.d.Personal names.58.Except in exclamations and in address,names of persons20(or animals) are distinguished from other words by being always (but see §78) preceded by the atonic particlesi:Hwàn!Juan!si HwànJuan,si SalamìnGlass,Mirror(as name of a dog).59.Many terms of relationship and titles may be used in place of the name of an individual and then belong to the personal25name class:aŋ amàthe father,aŋ ákiŋamàmy father, but:si AmàFather. Thus are used, further:si InàMother,si TátayPapa,si NánayMama,si Kúyaorsi KúyaŋOldest brother,si AtèOldest sister,si IŋkòŋGrandfather,si Indàʾorsi ImpòGrandmother,si Áliorsi TiyàAunt,si MámaʾUncle;si BathálaʾGod, but:aŋ30Dyòs.So also phrases in which these and other titles as attributes precede a name, see §256.60.The particlesinàorsilà, pretonic, in place ofsiforms an expression denoting the person named together with his family35or group of adherents:sina Hwànorsila HwànJuan and his familyorJuan and his crowd. With a series of namessinàimplies that those named form a group:si Hwàn, si Andrès, at si MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, Andrès, at Mariyánothe group consisting of Juan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, sinaAndrès, at sina MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano, each with his group.e.The object construction.61.When a word or phrase denotes an element of experience5viewed as anobject, it is, with certain exceptions, preceded by the atonic particleaŋ:aŋ bátaʾtheora child,boy,girl;children,aŋ báhaythe, a house;houses,aŋ báyanthe, a town,aŋ kabàítangoodness,kindness;an act of kindness,aŋ kataúhanmankind,aŋ pagsúlattheoran act of writing,aŋ mabútethat which10is good,the best thing.The following are the exceptions:62.Personal names preceded bysiorsinà(silà) do not takeaŋ; they always, of course, denote an object idea. See the examples in §58ff.1563.Thepersonal pronouns(which always express an object idea) do not takeaŋ. They are:akòI;kitàwe, i. e.thou and I, inclusive dual;táyowe, i. e.thou(orye)and I(orwe), inclusive dual and plural;kamìwe(but not you), exclusive dual and plural;ikàw, kàthou(singular);kayòye, you(dual, plural, and20polite singular);siyàhe,she;silàthey.All of these exceptikàware often enclitic;kàis always so:Ikàw ay talúnan.You are defeated.Sumúlat ka.Write (thou).Siyàis used only of living beings, except for a single peculiar construction to be described below (§106f.).25Kitàin the sense here given is not much used,táyobeing commoner:Palìt kità naŋ sombréro.Let’s trade hats.Kità ay pumaroònsa teyátro.Or, more commonly:Táyo ay pumaroòn sa teyátro.Let us go to the theatre.Kitàis more used in another meaning, as we shall see (§182).30Kamìdiffers from these two words in excluding the personor persons addressed:Kàkáin táyo.We shall eat.Nakitúluy kamì kina Pédro.We asked hospitality of Pedro’s.In both of these sentences (as also in that withtáyoalready given) two or more people may be meant. It will be seen, therefore, that the35distinction between dual and plural is not categoric (obligatory).That between singular and plural is categoric in these pronouns; everywhere else it is not obligatory; the idea of plurality is inherent in many words and forms, but these are used only where the idea of plurality is explicitly prominent.4064.Thedemonstrative pronounsas object expressions also rejectaŋ. They are:irèthis(on the person of the speaker orwithin his immediate reach);itòthis(more generally, of anything nearer to the speaker than to the person addressed);iyàn, yànthat(nearer to the person addressed);iyòn, yaòn, yoòn, yònthat(of things distant from both speaker and person addressed).5Itòandiyònare used also anaphorically:the former—the latter.The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitic.Aŋis omitted also before an object expression in which a demonstrative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §130.1065.Similarly before object expressions in which an interrogative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §§131.168.66.The use ofaŋis optional before thenumerative pronouns. The use ofaŋseems sometimes to lend these greater definiteness, sometimes to be indifferent.15The numerative pronouns used as object expressions are:ibàother,ilànfew,karamíhanmost,lahàtall. (The other numerative pronouns, namelyboòʾwholeand the particlesbálaanyandbáwateveryare not used as object expressions).ibàothers;ilàna few;Aŋ ilàn ay malalakàs at aŋ ibà ay20mahihínaʾ.Some are strong and others are weak.Lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay dápat umalìs.All people (who are) in this town ought to leave(naŋ táoof people,of the peopleis an attribute oflahàt).Aŋ lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay máy sakìt.All the people in this town are diseased.karamíhan sa kanilà25most of them;aŋ karamíhanthe majority.The use ofaŋis optional also before object expressions in which a numerative pronoun stands first as an attribute, see §132.67.The use ofaŋis optional before thecardinal numerals:isà sa kanilà, or:aŋ isà sa kanilàone of them.30The simple cardinal numerals are:isàone,dalawàtwo,tatlòthree,ápatfour,limàfive,ánimsix,pitòseven,walòeight,siyàm,syàmnine.Similarly, the use ofaŋis optional before an object expression in which a cardinal numeral stands first as a modifier, see35§133.In dates and for the hours of the day the Spanish numerals are commonly used; these demandaŋ:aŋ abéynte-kwátru naŋ Húnyothe twenty-fourth of June.68.Aŋis omitted, further, before object expressions beginning40with the particlenì(§253) and optionally before those beginning with the particlekáhit(§248). All object expressions lackaŋwhen forming an indefinite object predicate (§109), inexpressions of indefinite quantity (§69), when used indefinitely afterpára(§275),haŋgàŋ(§293),patì(§305), and in exclamation or address (§§75.78).3f.Expressions of indefinite quantity.569.Object expressions are used (withoutaŋ, §68) to express indefinite objects (roughly speaking such as would lack the articlethein English) or indefinite quantities of objects, when preceded by certain modifiers. These modifiers are the pretonic particlemáy, expressing existence or forthcomingness (§252), and10the full wordsmáy-roòn, equivalent withmáy; walàʾthe negative of these;malakìgreat;maláonlong;marámimuch,many(§138). The phrases so formed may be described asexpressions of indefinite quantity. Beside the omission ofaŋbefore the object expression, they have the peculiarity that in certain constructions15they express (without further accompaniments) thepossessorof that designated:may súŋaythere are hornsorhaving horns,horned;máy-roo ŋ aklàtthere are booksorhaving a book, books;wala ŋ aklàtthere are no booksorwithout a book,having no books;malakì ŋ kagamitàngreat usefulness,there is great use, orhaving20great usefulness;maláo ŋ panahònlong timeortaking a long time;marámi ŋ salapèʾmuch money,there is much moneyorhaving much money;marámi ŋ kaybíganmany friends,there are many friendsorhaving many friends.Máyexpresses also approximateness (where the object expression25is one of number):may ápat na pu ŋ paàabout forty feetorhaving, measuring about forty feet.70.An expression of indefinite quantity may, as a unit, stand in object construction; in this case the first three have possessive value, but not the others:aŋ máy sakìttheora person having30sickness,theora sick person;aŋ máy-roo ŋ aklàtthe (a) person who has a book or books;aŋ wala ŋ hiyàʾthe (a) shameless person; but:aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe, a large house;aŋ marámi ŋ bágaythe many things.71.Marámimay by itself stand in object construction; it35then has the meaning:aŋ marámithe many,the crowd,the people,hoi polloi.
a.Syntactic relations.52.The sentence consists of one or more words:Aráy!5Ouch!Umúulàn.It’s raining.Ina kò!Mother of mine!(as exclamation).Sya y sumùsúlat.Heorshe isorwas writing.53.The relations between the words in a sentence are the usual ones: (1) Attribution:Ina kò!Mother (of) mine!(2) Predication:Sumùsúlat syà. Literally:Is-writing he. (3) The10serial relation:butò t balàtbone and skin.54.Some of the particles (§55)seem, however, to stand in none of these relations, but rather to express these relations themselves. Thus the particletandin the preceding example is expressive of the serial relation. So further:malakì ŋ báhay15large house; the particleŋexpresses the attributive relation;Sya y sumùsúlat. The particleyexpresses the predicative relation.It is to be remarked, further, that the sphere of attribution includes some cases in which the attribute markedly alters the sense:sakìtsickness:máy sakìt(máyis an attribute)having20sickness,sick.2
a.Syntactic relations.
52.The sentence consists of one or more words:Aráy!5Ouch!Umúulàn.It’s raining.Ina kò!Mother of mine!(as exclamation).Sya y sumùsúlat.Heorshe isorwas writing.53.The relations between the words in a sentence are the usual ones: (1) Attribution:Ina kò!Mother (of) mine!(2) Predication:Sumùsúlat syà. Literally:Is-writing he. (3) The10serial relation:butò t balàtbone and skin.54.Some of the particles (§55)seem, however, to stand in none of these relations, but rather to express these relations themselves. Thus the particletandin the preceding example is expressive of the serial relation. So further:malakì ŋ báhay15large house; the particleŋexpresses the attributive relation;Sya y sumùsúlat. The particleyexpresses the predicative relation.It is to be remarked, further, that the sphere of attribution includes some cases in which the attribute markedly alters the sense:sakìtsickness:máy sakìt(máyis an attribute)having20sickness,sick.2
52.The sentence consists of one or more words:Aráy!5Ouch!Umúulàn.It’s raining.Ina kò!Mother of mine!(as exclamation).Sya y sumùsúlat.Heorshe isorwas writing.
53.The relations between the words in a sentence are the usual ones: (1) Attribution:Ina kò!Mother (of) mine!(2) Predication:Sumùsúlat syà. Literally:Is-writing he. (3) The10serial relation:butò t balàtbone and skin.
54.Some of the particles (§55)seem, however, to stand in none of these relations, but rather to express these relations themselves. Thus the particletandin the preceding example is expressive of the serial relation. So further:malakì ŋ báhay15large house; the particleŋexpresses the attributive relation;Sya y sumùsúlat. The particleyexpresses the predicative relation.
It is to be remarked, further, that the sphere of attribution includes some cases in which the attribute markedly alters the sense:sakìtsickness:máy sakìt(máyis an attribute)having20sickness,sick.2
b.Parts of speech.55.Tagalog distinguishes two parts of speech:full wordsandparticles.Theparticleseither express the syntactic relations between25full words (as illustrated in §54) or act as attributes of full words (somáyin the example in §54):Hindí sya sumùsúlat.He is not writing.The particlehindìʾnotis an attribute ofsumùsúlat.In contrast with the particles,full wordsact not only as attributes, but also as subject or predicate, and any full word may,30in principle, be used in any of these three functions:(1) Subject:Aŋ sumùsúlat ay si Pédro.The person writingis Pedro.Aŋ pulà naŋ panyò ay matiŋkàd.The red of the handkerchief is intense.(2) Predicate:Sya y sumùsúlat.He is writing.Pulà aŋ panyo ŋ itò.This handkerchief is red.5(3) Attribute:aŋ báta ŋ sumùsúlatthe writing child,the child who is writing;aŋ pulà ŋ panyòthe red handkerchief.56.Independent of this classification into parts of speech are certain less important groupings of words and certain phrase types, some of which will appear in the course of the analysis.10Others, however, demand mention at the outset.
b.Parts of speech.
55.Tagalog distinguishes two parts of speech:full wordsandparticles.Theparticleseither express the syntactic relations between25full words (as illustrated in §54) or act as attributes of full words (somáyin the example in §54):Hindí sya sumùsúlat.He is not writing.The particlehindìʾnotis an attribute ofsumùsúlat.In contrast with the particles,full wordsact not only as attributes, but also as subject or predicate, and any full word may,30in principle, be used in any of these three functions:(1) Subject:Aŋ sumùsúlat ay si Pédro.The person writingis Pedro.Aŋ pulà naŋ panyò ay matiŋkàd.The red of the handkerchief is intense.(2) Predicate:Sya y sumùsúlat.He is writing.Pulà aŋ panyo ŋ itò.This handkerchief is red.5(3) Attribute:aŋ báta ŋ sumùsúlatthe writing child,the child who is writing;aŋ pulà ŋ panyòthe red handkerchief.56.Independent of this classification into parts of speech are certain less important groupings of words and certain phrase types, some of which will appear in the course of the analysis.10Others, however, demand mention at the outset.
55.Tagalog distinguishes two parts of speech:full wordsandparticles.
Theparticleseither express the syntactic relations between25full words (as illustrated in §54) or act as attributes of full words (somáyin the example in §54):Hindí sya sumùsúlat.He is not writing.The particlehindìʾnotis an attribute ofsumùsúlat.
In contrast with the particles,full wordsact not only as attributes, but also as subject or predicate, and any full word may,30in principle, be used in any of these three functions:
(1) Subject:Aŋ sumùsúlat ay si Pédro.The person writingis Pedro.Aŋ pulà naŋ panyò ay matiŋkàd.The red of the handkerchief is intense.
(2) Predicate:Sya y sumùsúlat.He is writing.Pulà aŋ panyo ŋ itò.This handkerchief is red.
5(3) Attribute:aŋ báta ŋ sumùsúlatthe writing child,the child who is writing;aŋ pulà ŋ panyòthe red handkerchief.
56.Independent of this classification into parts of speech are certain less important groupings of words and certain phrase types, some of which will appear in the course of the analysis.10Others, however, demand mention at the outset.
c.Static and transient words.57.Transientwords express an element of experience viewed as impermanent, i. e. belonging to some limited portion of time, sosumùsúlatabove, as opposed, e. g., tosiyà, pulà, panyò, bátaʾ,15Pédro. Words which are not transient may be calledstatic. Only a few particles are transient; among the full words the transient group is large and important.
c.Static and transient words.
57.Transientwords express an element of experience viewed as impermanent, i. e. belonging to some limited portion of time, sosumùsúlatabove, as opposed, e. g., tosiyà, pulà, panyò, bátaʾ,15Pédro. Words which are not transient may be calledstatic. Only a few particles are transient; among the full words the transient group is large and important.
57.Transientwords express an element of experience viewed as impermanent, i. e. belonging to some limited portion of time, sosumùsúlatabove, as opposed, e. g., tosiyà, pulà, panyò, bátaʾ,15Pédro. Words which are not transient may be calledstatic. Only a few particles are transient; among the full words the transient group is large and important.
d.Personal names.58.Except in exclamations and in address,names of persons20(or animals) are distinguished from other words by being always (but see §78) preceded by the atonic particlesi:Hwàn!Juan!si HwànJuan,si SalamìnGlass,Mirror(as name of a dog).59.Many terms of relationship and titles may be used in place of the name of an individual and then belong to the personal25name class:aŋ amàthe father,aŋ ákiŋamàmy father, but:si AmàFather. Thus are used, further:si InàMother,si TátayPapa,si NánayMama,si Kúyaorsi KúyaŋOldest brother,si AtèOldest sister,si IŋkòŋGrandfather,si Indàʾorsi ImpòGrandmother,si Áliorsi TiyàAunt,si MámaʾUncle;si BathálaʾGod, but:aŋ30Dyòs.So also phrases in which these and other titles as attributes precede a name, see §256.60.The particlesinàorsilà, pretonic, in place ofsiforms an expression denoting the person named together with his family35or group of adherents:sina Hwànorsila HwànJuan and his familyorJuan and his crowd. With a series of namessinàimplies that those named form a group:si Hwàn, si Andrès, at si MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, Andrès, at Mariyánothe group consisting of Juan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, sinaAndrès, at sina MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano, each with his group.
d.Personal names.
58.Except in exclamations and in address,names of persons20(or animals) are distinguished from other words by being always (but see §78) preceded by the atonic particlesi:Hwàn!Juan!si HwànJuan,si SalamìnGlass,Mirror(as name of a dog).59.Many terms of relationship and titles may be used in place of the name of an individual and then belong to the personal25name class:aŋ amàthe father,aŋ ákiŋamàmy father, but:si AmàFather. Thus are used, further:si InàMother,si TátayPapa,si NánayMama,si Kúyaorsi KúyaŋOldest brother,si AtèOldest sister,si IŋkòŋGrandfather,si Indàʾorsi ImpòGrandmother,si Áliorsi TiyàAunt,si MámaʾUncle;si BathálaʾGod, but:aŋ30Dyòs.So also phrases in which these and other titles as attributes precede a name, see §256.60.The particlesinàorsilà, pretonic, in place ofsiforms an expression denoting the person named together with his family35or group of adherents:sina Hwànorsila HwànJuan and his familyorJuan and his crowd. With a series of namessinàimplies that those named form a group:si Hwàn, si Andrès, at si MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, Andrès, at Mariyánothe group consisting of Juan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, sinaAndrès, at sina MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano, each with his group.
58.Except in exclamations and in address,names of persons20(or animals) are distinguished from other words by being always (but see §78) preceded by the atonic particlesi:Hwàn!Juan!si HwànJuan,si SalamìnGlass,Mirror(as name of a dog).
59.Many terms of relationship and titles may be used in place of the name of an individual and then belong to the personal25name class:aŋ amàthe father,aŋ ákiŋamàmy father, but:si AmàFather. Thus are used, further:si InàMother,si TátayPapa,si NánayMama,si Kúyaorsi KúyaŋOldest brother,si AtèOldest sister,si IŋkòŋGrandfather,si Indàʾorsi ImpòGrandmother,si Áliorsi TiyàAunt,si MámaʾUncle;si BathálaʾGod, but:aŋ30Dyòs.
So also phrases in which these and other titles as attributes precede a name, see §256.
60.The particlesinàorsilà, pretonic, in place ofsiforms an expression denoting the person named together with his family35or group of adherents:sina Hwànorsila HwànJuan and his familyorJuan and his crowd. With a series of namessinàimplies that those named form a group:si Hwàn, si Andrès, at si MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, Andrès, at Mariyánothe group consisting of Juan, Andrés, and Mariano;sina Hwàn, sinaAndrès, at sina MariyánoJuan, Andrés, and Mariano, each with his group.
e.The object construction.61.When a word or phrase denotes an element of experience5viewed as anobject, it is, with certain exceptions, preceded by the atonic particleaŋ:aŋ bátaʾtheora child,boy,girl;children,aŋ báhaythe, a house;houses,aŋ báyanthe, a town,aŋ kabàítangoodness,kindness;an act of kindness,aŋ kataúhanmankind,aŋ pagsúlattheoran act of writing,aŋ mabútethat which10is good,the best thing.The following are the exceptions:62.Personal names preceded bysiorsinà(silà) do not takeaŋ; they always, of course, denote an object idea. See the examples in §58ff.1563.Thepersonal pronouns(which always express an object idea) do not takeaŋ. They are:akòI;kitàwe, i. e.thou and I, inclusive dual;táyowe, i. e.thou(orye)and I(orwe), inclusive dual and plural;kamìwe(but not you), exclusive dual and plural;ikàw, kàthou(singular);kayòye, you(dual, plural, and20polite singular);siyàhe,she;silàthey.All of these exceptikàware often enclitic;kàis always so:Ikàw ay talúnan.You are defeated.Sumúlat ka.Write (thou).Siyàis used only of living beings, except for a single peculiar construction to be described below (§106f.).25Kitàin the sense here given is not much used,táyobeing commoner:Palìt kità naŋ sombréro.Let’s trade hats.Kità ay pumaroònsa teyátro.Or, more commonly:Táyo ay pumaroòn sa teyátro.Let us go to the theatre.Kitàis more used in another meaning, as we shall see (§182).30Kamìdiffers from these two words in excluding the personor persons addressed:Kàkáin táyo.We shall eat.Nakitúluy kamì kina Pédro.We asked hospitality of Pedro’s.In both of these sentences (as also in that withtáyoalready given) two or more people may be meant. It will be seen, therefore, that the35distinction between dual and plural is not categoric (obligatory).That between singular and plural is categoric in these pronouns; everywhere else it is not obligatory; the idea of plurality is inherent in many words and forms, but these are used only where the idea of plurality is explicitly prominent.4064.Thedemonstrative pronounsas object expressions also rejectaŋ. They are:irèthis(on the person of the speaker orwithin his immediate reach);itòthis(more generally, of anything nearer to the speaker than to the person addressed);iyàn, yànthat(nearer to the person addressed);iyòn, yaòn, yoòn, yònthat(of things distant from both speaker and person addressed).5Itòandiyònare used also anaphorically:the former—the latter.The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitic.Aŋis omitted also before an object expression in which a demonstrative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §130.1065.Similarly before object expressions in which an interrogative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §§131.168.66.The use ofaŋis optional before thenumerative pronouns. The use ofaŋseems sometimes to lend these greater definiteness, sometimes to be indifferent.15The numerative pronouns used as object expressions are:ibàother,ilànfew,karamíhanmost,lahàtall. (The other numerative pronouns, namelyboòʾwholeand the particlesbálaanyandbáwateveryare not used as object expressions).ibàothers;ilàna few;Aŋ ilàn ay malalakàs at aŋ ibà ay20mahihínaʾ.Some are strong and others are weak.Lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay dápat umalìs.All people (who are) in this town ought to leave(naŋ táoof people,of the peopleis an attribute oflahàt).Aŋ lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay máy sakìt.All the people in this town are diseased.karamíhan sa kanilà25most of them;aŋ karamíhanthe majority.The use ofaŋis optional also before object expressions in which a numerative pronoun stands first as an attribute, see §132.67.The use ofaŋis optional before thecardinal numerals:isà sa kanilà, or:aŋ isà sa kanilàone of them.30The simple cardinal numerals are:isàone,dalawàtwo,tatlòthree,ápatfour,limàfive,ánimsix,pitòseven,walòeight,siyàm,syàmnine.Similarly, the use ofaŋis optional before an object expression in which a cardinal numeral stands first as a modifier, see35§133.In dates and for the hours of the day the Spanish numerals are commonly used; these demandaŋ:aŋ abéynte-kwátru naŋ Húnyothe twenty-fourth of June.68.Aŋis omitted, further, before object expressions beginning40with the particlenì(§253) and optionally before those beginning with the particlekáhit(§248). All object expressions lackaŋwhen forming an indefinite object predicate (§109), inexpressions of indefinite quantity (§69), when used indefinitely afterpára(§275),haŋgàŋ(§293),patì(§305), and in exclamation or address (§§75.78).3
e.The object construction.
61.When a word or phrase denotes an element of experience5viewed as anobject, it is, with certain exceptions, preceded by the atonic particleaŋ:aŋ bátaʾtheora child,boy,girl;children,aŋ báhaythe, a house;houses,aŋ báyanthe, a town,aŋ kabàítangoodness,kindness;an act of kindness,aŋ kataúhanmankind,aŋ pagsúlattheoran act of writing,aŋ mabútethat which10is good,the best thing.The following are the exceptions:62.Personal names preceded bysiorsinà(silà) do not takeaŋ; they always, of course, denote an object idea. See the examples in §58ff.1563.Thepersonal pronouns(which always express an object idea) do not takeaŋ. They are:akòI;kitàwe, i. e.thou and I, inclusive dual;táyowe, i. e.thou(orye)and I(orwe), inclusive dual and plural;kamìwe(but not you), exclusive dual and plural;ikàw, kàthou(singular);kayòye, you(dual, plural, and20polite singular);siyàhe,she;silàthey.All of these exceptikàware often enclitic;kàis always so:Ikàw ay talúnan.You are defeated.Sumúlat ka.Write (thou).Siyàis used only of living beings, except for a single peculiar construction to be described below (§106f.).25Kitàin the sense here given is not much used,táyobeing commoner:Palìt kità naŋ sombréro.Let’s trade hats.Kità ay pumaroònsa teyátro.Or, more commonly:Táyo ay pumaroòn sa teyátro.Let us go to the theatre.Kitàis more used in another meaning, as we shall see (§182).30Kamìdiffers from these two words in excluding the personor persons addressed:Kàkáin táyo.We shall eat.Nakitúluy kamì kina Pédro.We asked hospitality of Pedro’s.In both of these sentences (as also in that withtáyoalready given) two or more people may be meant. It will be seen, therefore, that the35distinction between dual and plural is not categoric (obligatory).That between singular and plural is categoric in these pronouns; everywhere else it is not obligatory; the idea of plurality is inherent in many words and forms, but these are used only where the idea of plurality is explicitly prominent.4064.Thedemonstrative pronounsas object expressions also rejectaŋ. They are:irèthis(on the person of the speaker orwithin his immediate reach);itòthis(more generally, of anything nearer to the speaker than to the person addressed);iyàn, yànthat(nearer to the person addressed);iyòn, yaòn, yoòn, yònthat(of things distant from both speaker and person addressed).5Itòandiyònare used also anaphorically:the former—the latter.The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitic.Aŋis omitted also before an object expression in which a demonstrative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §130.1065.Similarly before object expressions in which an interrogative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §§131.168.66.The use ofaŋis optional before thenumerative pronouns. The use ofaŋseems sometimes to lend these greater definiteness, sometimes to be indifferent.15The numerative pronouns used as object expressions are:ibàother,ilànfew,karamíhanmost,lahàtall. (The other numerative pronouns, namelyboòʾwholeand the particlesbálaanyandbáwateveryare not used as object expressions).ibàothers;ilàna few;Aŋ ilàn ay malalakàs at aŋ ibà ay20mahihínaʾ.Some are strong and others are weak.Lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay dápat umalìs.All people (who are) in this town ought to leave(naŋ táoof people,of the peopleis an attribute oflahàt).Aŋ lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay máy sakìt.All the people in this town are diseased.karamíhan sa kanilà25most of them;aŋ karamíhanthe majority.The use ofaŋis optional also before object expressions in which a numerative pronoun stands first as an attribute, see §132.67.The use ofaŋis optional before thecardinal numerals:isà sa kanilà, or:aŋ isà sa kanilàone of them.30The simple cardinal numerals are:isàone,dalawàtwo,tatlòthree,ápatfour,limàfive,ánimsix,pitòseven,walòeight,siyàm,syàmnine.Similarly, the use ofaŋis optional before an object expression in which a cardinal numeral stands first as a modifier, see35§133.In dates and for the hours of the day the Spanish numerals are commonly used; these demandaŋ:aŋ abéynte-kwátru naŋ Húnyothe twenty-fourth of June.68.Aŋis omitted, further, before object expressions beginning40with the particlenì(§253) and optionally before those beginning with the particlekáhit(§248). All object expressions lackaŋwhen forming an indefinite object predicate (§109), inexpressions of indefinite quantity (§69), when used indefinitely afterpára(§275),haŋgàŋ(§293),patì(§305), and in exclamation or address (§§75.78).3
61.When a word or phrase denotes an element of experience5viewed as anobject, it is, with certain exceptions, preceded by the atonic particleaŋ:aŋ bátaʾtheora child,boy,girl;children,aŋ báhaythe, a house;houses,aŋ báyanthe, a town,aŋ kabàítangoodness,kindness;an act of kindness,aŋ kataúhanmankind,aŋ pagsúlattheoran act of writing,aŋ mabútethat which10is good,the best thing.
The following are the exceptions:
62.Personal names preceded bysiorsinà(silà) do not takeaŋ; they always, of course, denote an object idea. See the examples in §58ff.
1563.Thepersonal pronouns(which always express an object idea) do not takeaŋ. They are:akòI;kitàwe, i. e.thou and I, inclusive dual;táyowe, i. e.thou(orye)and I(orwe), inclusive dual and plural;kamìwe(but not you), exclusive dual and plural;ikàw, kàthou(singular);kayòye, you(dual, plural, and20polite singular);siyàhe,she;silàthey.
All of these exceptikàware often enclitic;kàis always so:Ikàw ay talúnan.You are defeated.Sumúlat ka.Write (thou).
Siyàis used only of living beings, except for a single peculiar construction to be described below (§106f.).
25Kitàin the sense here given is not much used,táyobeing commoner:Palìt kità naŋ sombréro.Let’s trade hats.Kità ay pumaroònsa teyátro.Or, more commonly:Táyo ay pumaroòn sa teyátro.Let us go to the theatre.Kitàis more used in another meaning, as we shall see (§182).
30Kamìdiffers from these two words in excluding the personor persons addressed:Kàkáin táyo.We shall eat.Nakitúluy kamì kina Pédro.We asked hospitality of Pedro’s.In both of these sentences (as also in that withtáyoalready given) two or more people may be meant. It will be seen, therefore, that the35distinction between dual and plural is not categoric (obligatory).
That between singular and plural is categoric in these pronouns; everywhere else it is not obligatory; the idea of plurality is inherent in many words and forms, but these are used only where the idea of plurality is explicitly prominent.
4064.Thedemonstrative pronounsas object expressions also rejectaŋ. They are:irèthis(on the person of the speaker orwithin his immediate reach);itòthis(more generally, of anything nearer to the speaker than to the person addressed);iyàn, yànthat(nearer to the person addressed);iyòn, yaòn, yoòn, yònthat(of things distant from both speaker and person addressed).
5Itòandiyònare used also anaphorically:the former—the latter.
The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitic.
Aŋis omitted also before an object expression in which a demonstrative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §130.
1065.Similarly before object expressions in which an interrogative pronoun stands first as a modifier, see §§131.168.
66.The use ofaŋis optional before thenumerative pronouns. The use ofaŋseems sometimes to lend these greater definiteness, sometimes to be indifferent.
15The numerative pronouns used as object expressions are:ibàother,ilànfew,karamíhanmost,lahàtall. (The other numerative pronouns, namelyboòʾwholeand the particlesbálaanyandbáwateveryare not used as object expressions).
ibàothers;ilàna few;Aŋ ilàn ay malalakàs at aŋ ibà ay20mahihínaʾ.Some are strong and others are weak.Lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay dápat umalìs.All people (who are) in this town ought to leave(naŋ táoof people,of the peopleis an attribute oflahàt).Aŋ lahàt naŋ táo sa báya ŋ itò ay máy sakìt.All the people in this town are diseased.karamíhan sa kanilà25most of them;aŋ karamíhanthe majority.
The use ofaŋis optional also before object expressions in which a numerative pronoun stands first as an attribute, see §132.
67.The use ofaŋis optional before thecardinal numerals:isà sa kanilà, or:aŋ isà sa kanilàone of them.
30The simple cardinal numerals are:isàone,dalawàtwo,tatlòthree,ápatfour,limàfive,ánimsix,pitòseven,walòeight,siyàm,syàmnine.
Similarly, the use ofaŋis optional before an object expression in which a cardinal numeral stands first as a modifier, see35§133.
In dates and for the hours of the day the Spanish numerals are commonly used; these demandaŋ:aŋ abéynte-kwátru naŋ Húnyothe twenty-fourth of June.
68.Aŋis omitted, further, before object expressions beginning40with the particlenì(§253) and optionally before those beginning with the particlekáhit(§248). All object expressions lackaŋwhen forming an indefinite object predicate (§109), inexpressions of indefinite quantity (§69), when used indefinitely afterpára(§275),haŋgàŋ(§293),patì(§305), and in exclamation or address (§§75.78).3
f.Expressions of indefinite quantity.569.Object expressions are used (withoutaŋ, §68) to express indefinite objects (roughly speaking such as would lack the articlethein English) or indefinite quantities of objects, when preceded by certain modifiers. These modifiers are the pretonic particlemáy, expressing existence or forthcomingness (§252), and10the full wordsmáy-roòn, equivalent withmáy; walàʾthe negative of these;malakìgreat;maláonlong;marámimuch,many(§138). The phrases so formed may be described asexpressions of indefinite quantity. Beside the omission ofaŋbefore the object expression, they have the peculiarity that in certain constructions15they express (without further accompaniments) thepossessorof that designated:may súŋaythere are hornsorhaving horns,horned;máy-roo ŋ aklàtthere are booksorhaving a book, books;wala ŋ aklàtthere are no booksorwithout a book,having no books;malakì ŋ kagamitàngreat usefulness,there is great use, orhaving20great usefulness;maláo ŋ panahònlong timeortaking a long time;marámi ŋ salapèʾmuch money,there is much moneyorhaving much money;marámi ŋ kaybíganmany friends,there are many friendsorhaving many friends.Máyexpresses also approximateness (where the object expression25is one of number):may ápat na pu ŋ paàabout forty feetorhaving, measuring about forty feet.70.An expression of indefinite quantity may, as a unit, stand in object construction; in this case the first three have possessive value, but not the others:aŋ máy sakìttheora person having30sickness,theora sick person;aŋ máy-roo ŋ aklàtthe (a) person who has a book or books;aŋ wala ŋ hiyàʾthe (a) shameless person; but:aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe, a large house;aŋ marámi ŋ bágaythe many things.71.Marámimay by itself stand in object construction; it35then has the meaning:aŋ marámithe many,the crowd,the people,hoi polloi.
f.Expressions of indefinite quantity.
569.Object expressions are used (withoutaŋ, §68) to express indefinite objects (roughly speaking such as would lack the articlethein English) or indefinite quantities of objects, when preceded by certain modifiers. These modifiers are the pretonic particlemáy, expressing existence or forthcomingness (§252), and10the full wordsmáy-roòn, equivalent withmáy; walàʾthe negative of these;malakìgreat;maláonlong;marámimuch,many(§138). The phrases so formed may be described asexpressions of indefinite quantity. Beside the omission ofaŋbefore the object expression, they have the peculiarity that in certain constructions15they express (without further accompaniments) thepossessorof that designated:may súŋaythere are hornsorhaving horns,horned;máy-roo ŋ aklàtthere are booksorhaving a book, books;wala ŋ aklàtthere are no booksorwithout a book,having no books;malakì ŋ kagamitàngreat usefulness,there is great use, orhaving20great usefulness;maláo ŋ panahònlong timeortaking a long time;marámi ŋ salapèʾmuch money,there is much moneyorhaving much money;marámi ŋ kaybíganmany friends,there are many friendsorhaving many friends.Máyexpresses also approximateness (where the object expression25is one of number):may ápat na pu ŋ paàabout forty feetorhaving, measuring about forty feet.70.An expression of indefinite quantity may, as a unit, stand in object construction; in this case the first three have possessive value, but not the others:aŋ máy sakìttheora person having30sickness,theora sick person;aŋ máy-roo ŋ aklàtthe (a) person who has a book or books;aŋ wala ŋ hiyàʾthe (a) shameless person; but:aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe, a large house;aŋ marámi ŋ bágaythe many things.71.Marámimay by itself stand in object construction; it35then has the meaning:aŋ marámithe many,the crowd,the people,hoi polloi.
569.Object expressions are used (withoutaŋ, §68) to express indefinite objects (roughly speaking such as would lack the articlethein English) or indefinite quantities of objects, when preceded by certain modifiers. These modifiers are the pretonic particlemáy, expressing existence or forthcomingness (§252), and10the full wordsmáy-roòn, equivalent withmáy; walàʾthe negative of these;malakìgreat;maláonlong;marámimuch,many(§138). The phrases so formed may be described asexpressions of indefinite quantity. Beside the omission ofaŋbefore the object expression, they have the peculiarity that in certain constructions15they express (without further accompaniments) thepossessorof that designated:may súŋaythere are hornsorhaving horns,horned;máy-roo ŋ aklàtthere are booksorhaving a book, books;wala ŋ aklàtthere are no booksorwithout a book,having no books;malakì ŋ kagamitàngreat usefulness,there is great use, orhaving20great usefulness;maláo ŋ panahònlong timeortaking a long time;marámi ŋ salapèʾmuch money,there is much moneyorhaving much money;marámi ŋ kaybíganmany friends,there are many friendsorhaving many friends.
Máyexpresses also approximateness (where the object expression25is one of number):may ápat na pu ŋ paàabout forty feetorhaving, measuring about forty feet.
70.An expression of indefinite quantity may, as a unit, stand in object construction; in this case the first three have possessive value, but not the others:aŋ máy sakìttheora person having30sickness,theora sick person;aŋ máy-roo ŋ aklàtthe (a) person who has a book or books;aŋ wala ŋ hiyàʾthe (a) shameless person; but:aŋ malakì ŋ báhaythe, a large house;aŋ marámi ŋ bágaythe many things.
71.Marámimay by itself stand in object construction; it35then has the meaning:aŋ marámithe many,the crowd,the people,hoi polloi.