Much has been said, and said with force, about the impossibility ofteachingliterature. But while many believe that certain kinds of literature can be taught with marked success, they are apt to feel the force of the above contention when they attempt to teach poetry.
It is, of course, comparatively easy to make clear the main idea of a poem, the facts of the plot, the details of the setting, and the characteristics of the actors; but the score of artistic touches that make the poem great cannot be taught, any more than can the beauty of a flower. To be sure, some pupils may appreciate these touches, and appreciate them because of the instruction they receive, but, on the other hand, others never will in spite of all aid and encouragement. It should not for a moment be forgotten, however, that the matters that can be taught are by no means inconsiderable. The language must often be explained; the thought, buried in involved sentences, must be simplified; and the unfamiliar or abstract ideas must be illuminated by illustration. There are doubtless some ideas in poetry that cannot be explained in words, but most of the obstacles that pupilsmeet with may be smoothed away, if only the difficulty is perceived.
The task of the teacher is, first, to put himself and his class into the atmosphere of the poem. Then the events of the narrative, the idea of the lyric, the characteristics of the setting, and the individualities of the various actors must be clearly brought out. Studies must be suggested that will make the pupil read over and think over, again and again, the words of the poet. Lastly, by reading aloud and by devices which may defy analysis, but which will suggest themselves to teachers who, enthusiastic themselves, desire to inspire others, the class must be made tofeelthe truth and beauty of the poem.
A narrative in verse is not essentially different from a narrative in prose. The content is still the important feature, but form demands far more attention than it does in prose. More care must be given to the first and second readings of a poem than of a novel, since certain difficulties of form and language cannot so readily be left to the student himself to master.
The comprehensive study will follow the same lines as in the prose narrative;—setting, plot, characters, central idea, and form. Before beginning certain poems, the teacher should bring up briefly some preliminarytopics for the purpose of interesting the class in what they are about to study. A half-hour's talk at this point may be of the greatest value, if it is strictly a preparation for the work in hand. It is a mistaken kindness to tell pupils, in advance, the story of a poem, but whatever will give them more interest in beginning the work, or a better understanding as they proceed, is legitimate and desirable.
Such facts must be presented as will make the first reading intelligible, and put the class into the atmosphere of the poem.
This reading of the poem must be accompanied by general suggestive questions and explanations. A part of the first reading should probably be assigned for home work, but the more important passages, at least, should be read in class by the teacher, or by some good reader among the pupils.
The main purpose of this reading is to gain an understanding of the poem. It will include a thorough but not exhaustive study of its details; the best passages may be read aloud, and choice selections committed tomemory. Then should follow a brief practical study of meter, with class discussions to interpret the thought of the author.
A.Content
1. Setting
2. Plot
3. Characters
4. Central idea
5. Method of narration
B.Form
1. Structure
2. Meter
3. Style
C.The Life and Character of the Author
The introductory work that the teacher is required to do for his class depends upon the conditions: the age of the pupils, their previous reading, etc. The following topics are suggested as suitable for the double purpose that we have in mind: arousing the interest of the class, and supplying necessary information.
1. A brief account of Scott's ancestry to show his connection with theHighland clans.
2. Some facts of Scott's boyhood to show his enthusiasm for outdoor life, for deeds of daring, for old Scotch legends.
3. The story that Lockhart tells in his life of Scott[1](p. 266), of how tired soldiers were aroused by a recital ofThe Battle of Beal an Duine.
4. A short account of the Scottish lake region, with map.
5. A very few facts concerning James V and the Douglas family.
This is for the purpose of getting the main facts of the story. It may be done partly by the teacher[2]and partly by the class out of school. A short time in every recitation period should be taken for a running fire of questions to make sure that the class understand the plot. The questions ought to be simple matters of fact which a first reading should reveal.
The class should now be ready to enjoy a second reading with whatever study of words, figures of speech, meter, etc., is necessary together with the memorizing of a considerable amount. The following questions areintended to suggest the kind of work that ought to be done with young pupils:
1.Canto I,line47.Explain "tainted gale."2.""54-63.To which of the senses does Scott appeal?3.""54-63.Point out the words that are most effective.4.""69.What is the hurricane?5.""114-130.To what sense does Scott appeal?6.""114-130.How does he appeal here to our sympathy?7.""131-151.How does he make the escape of the stag a surprise?
It is easy to select many good narrative and descriptive topics for oral and written composition, and here, as always, frequent writing is an aid to the understanding of the work of literature under discussion, as well as to the enlargement of the power of expression.
The study of meter ought to offer little difficulty if only a simple, practical knowledge is required, and yet a large number of pupils find it confusing. It may never have occurred to some of them that the great difference in form between prose and poetry is that in the one case the arrangement of accented and unaccented syllables is irregular, and in the other regular. If they are directed to mark a few passages aftersome definite form, as
~ - ~ - ~ - ~ -The stag at eve had drunk his fill
they will easily learn the normal line. They will learn, too, that there are a few common variations. Having learned these, and the names of different feet and meters, the whole subject will seem, as it is, a very simple matter.
Setting.—When and where did the events of this story take place?
Are we interested in the descriptions because they are beautiful, or because of historical associations?
What caused the trouble between the Highlanders and the Lowlanders?
What do you learn from the poem about Highland hospitality? (See Canto I, lines 576-601; II, 585-604, etc.) Customs of dress? (I, 362-372; II, 534-539; III, 478-499, etc.) Devotion to leaders? (III, 410-451; IV, 397-400, etc.) Superstition of the people? (III, 123-178; IV, 79-99.)
What foundation in fact was there for James's treatment of Douglas (V, 609-631), and for Ellen's visit to court? (VI.) (See Introduction toThe Lady of the Lake,pp. 27-31.)
Plot.—How is the story introduced?
At the end of Canto I what do we think the story is to be?
What is brought into Canto II to complicate the plot or to make it less simple?
How is the main action of Canto III foreshadowed in Canto II?
What is the purpose of Canto III? Would the story be complete without it?
How does the prophecy related in the early part of Canto IV affect our interest in what follows?
What is the purpose of the Blanche of Devan incident?
What is the purpose of Canto IV in the development of the story?
What is the purpose of the dialogue in the early part of Canto V? of the games in the latter part? Show how Canto VI is a fitting conclusion.
Note in how many of the cantos the main action is told in a single scene vividly described.
How does the author retard the movement, keep the story from going too fast, in the most exciting parts?
What is the purpose of the Minstrel in the development of the story?
In what cases does Scott keep the identity of characters unknown to the reader for a time? for what purpose?
Are we more interested in the fortunes of Roderick or in those of Ellen?
Characters.—What characters are historical?
Are the others true to life? Are they too good, or too bad, too brave, or too foolish?
Is there a hero? a heroine?
Compare Malcolm and Roderick. Which makes the stronger appeal to your interest? Why?
How did the clansmen regard Roderick? Why? Name some of his virtues.
In the struggle between James and Roderick, which one do you wish to be successful? Why?
What qualities do you admire in Ellen?
Interpretation.—Was Scott's purpose merely to tell an interesting story, or to present a period of history, or to teach some ethical truth, or to present high ideals of character, or all of these combined? Give your reasons carefully.
Method of Narration.—Who tells the story?
Suggest some of the changes that would have been necessary if the author had made Ellen or Douglas tell it.
By what device does Scott tell us the story of the battle?
How does he acquaint us with the characters: by what he says, by what they say, or by what others say of them?
Form.—What is a canto? Is it merely a form division, or is it also a thought division?
Can you discover any plan in the division of the canto into stanzas?
Mark the scansion of stanza 34, Canto II.
What is the meter of the normal line?
What variations are there in the kind of feet?
Mark the scansion of stanzas 2 and 3 of the ballad in Canto IV.
What is the meter of lines 1 and 3? of lines 2 and 4? what variations are there in the kind of feet?
Find the meter of one or two of the songs.
Does the author use language of a time other than his own?
Does he use dialect? Compare in this respect with some of his Scotch stories in prose.
Do the characters all talk alike, or as we should expect of persons differing in birth and education?
Does Scott use simple or unfamiliar language?
Find a vivid picture (for example, Canto I, stanzas 11, 12), and examine the language to see what kind of words are most effective: specific or general, concrete or abstract, figurative or literal.
Do the same with some passage that presents an impression of sounds (as in Canto I, stanza 3).
Can you see any difference between this poem and a prose story in language, thought, beauty of description, or any other respect except metrical form?
The Life and Character of the Author.—Was Scott a Highlander or a Lowlander?
What do we know of his father and mother? of his earlier ancestors? of his childhood? of his boyhood interests? of his education and training? What profession did he enter? How successful was he in it? What was his reputation? What was his first literary venture?Name his great poems in the order in which they appeared. Give some idea of their success. Why did he stop writing poetry? Compare his success as a novelist with his success as a poet.
How did he change his manner of living as he became increasingly successful?
What misfortune overtook him? How did he meet it?
Give a picture of his home life.
What are the chief traits of his character?
This is a wonderful poem, which makes a profound impression on an imaginative mind; but it is most difficult to teach. This is because of its very simplicity. The teacher must try to put himself into the attitude of a child and read the poem several times until the vividness of the pictures and the beauty of the language have captivated his imagination. Then he must attempt to put his pupils into the same frame of mind. At this point it is helpful to discuss the differences between prose and poetry, the beauty or horror of a vivid dream, and the real truth that often underlies a fairy story or a dream story. Next, the translation of the Latin quotation that is prefixed to the poem may be read and discussed simply, especially the first sentence. The teacher must try to secure from his class, if possible, what Coleridge calls"that willing suspension of disbelief which constitutes poetic faith."
After this very important preparation and a rapid reading of the poem, as in the case ofThe Lady of the Lake, the teacher will find it profitable to read the poem again rather slowly with the class in order to bring out the meaning of words, the clearness of the pictures, the simple train of incidents, the rapidity of the narrative, the remarkable development of the Mariner's character, and the simple beauty of his faith and love.
Setting.—To whom and under what circumstances was the story told?
How do music, and feasting, and ceremony serve to set off the story?
Trace the course of the Mariner's voyage.
Can you form any idea of the time when he lived, or of the length of time that he was absent on his voyage?
Why was not Coleridge more definite in regard to time and place?
"The poem is a story told by pictures." Name the most important ones. Note the details that make them clear. In what respects are they unusual?
Plot.—Name the incidents that lead to the killing of the albatross; those that lead from the killing of the albatross to the blessing of the water snakes; and those that lead from this point to the end.
Show how one incident leads to another by the law of cause and effect.
Show how the killing of the albatross and the blessing of the water snakes are the most important events of all.
How does the author impress us with the importance of the Mariner's crime?
Which events in the story are caused by the Mariner? which by the supernatural beings?
Show how the author makes improbable events, like the coming of the spectre-bark, seem probable.
Characters.—Show why the Mariner is the only important human character.
In what respect are the supernatural characters important?
How are they like mortals? how unlike?
Describe the Mariner's appearance. Trace carefully the changes in the development of his character.
What do we know of his companions? Why were they punished?
Interpretation.—What idea or truth does the author bring out in the poem?
Show how the Mariner in his development illustrates it.
Method of Narration.—Who begins the narrative? Who else soon takes it up? What part does each tell? Does the Mariner tell anything beyond what he himself saw or heard?
Compare this narrative with some other with respect to the rapidity with which the story moves.
Note some places where the movement is most rapid, and try to discover how the poet makes it so.
Form.—Why do you suppose this poem is divided into seven parts?
Do the stanzas correspond to thought divisions as they do inThe Lady of the Lake?
What is a ballad? Select three stanzas in different parts of the poem and mark the scansion. Compare these to see whether they are alike, and, if not, what variations there are.
Compare this poem with some other ballad, for example, "Alice Brand" (The Lady of the Lake, Canto IV), to find what is the normal ballad stanza.
Style.—Did Coleridge use language of a time other than his own? Select several words that he would not have used in writing a letter. Do they seem appropriate here? Why? Are the sentences simple or involved?
Are the words common or unusual? Are the most effective words concrete or abstract? figurative or literal? Find examples of alliteration, of onomatopœia, of all the figures of speech that you can find here.
Do the figures of speech make the idea clearer? more beautiful? more impressive? Make a list of five or six of the most effective scenes and decide whether they are effective because of their beauty, their pathos, their horror, or for some other reason.
The Life and Character of the Author.—What do we know of Coleridge's childhood? his school days? his college experiences? his struggles to get on in the world? his radical opinions? his acquaintance with Wordsworth? with Southey? his success as a poet? his other literary work? his domestic life? his decline?
Tell how this poem came to be written. What was Wordsworth's part? In what volume was it first published? What epoch in the history of poetry does this volume mark?
What were the strong features in Coleridge's character?
What was lacking? What characteristics of the man may you infer from this poem?
The following topics are more or less important for the pupil to understand before he begins his study of the poems: the meaning ofidyllas Tennyson uses it; the facts about King Arthur (what we actually know and what we have reason to believe); the period of history in general covered by his reign; condition of Britain at this time; her enemies within and without; the sources of the large number of legends about Arthur; beginning of Tennyson's work on this subject; the growth of his plan.
It is desirable that the class be familiar with all of the Idylls. Such familiarity will give the student not only a greater interest in the ones especially assigned for study, but also a larger grasp of their meaning. If the conditions make it impracticable for the teacher to assign all of the poems to the entire class, the best alternative will be to assign each of the poems to some members of the class for special study. Time enough should be taken in the recitation periods for these students to report somewhat fully on the special Idylls they have been studying, so that the essential facts of the entire series may be in possession of the class.
Questions like the following will test a general knowledge of these facts:
Who was King Arthur?
What struggles did he have to make before he became undisputed king?
What were his ideals? Who were his chief knights? What were their characters? What were their tasks? (Specify several.) What great danger to the success of the Round Table soon arose? (SeeMarriage of Geraint, ll. 24-28.) What second danger arose later? (The Holy Grail, ll. 203-327.)
Trace briefly the effect of each. Did Guinevere truly repent? What were her feelings toward Arthur at the last?
Who were opponents in the last great battle? What was the result?
What explanation does the poet give in the Dedication to the Queen at the end of the Idylls? (ll. 36-44).
In the struggle of "Sense at war with Soul" what part does Arthur play? What is the position of Guinevere? of Lancelot? Who represent the forces altogether evil?
What is the result of the war in respect to the Round Table? to Guinevere and Lancelot? to the king? Was Arthur victor or vanquished?
How is each separate Idyll related to the general development of the story?
What is the allegorical significance of Arthur's miraculous birth? of his training by Merlin? of the Lady of the Lake? of the three Queens? of Excalibur?
What tasks of the soul are symbolized in Arthur's wars against the Heathen? against the lords and barons of his own realm?
How does the search for the Holy Grail symbolize a danger to the soul?
Do these Idylls form a grand epic?
Are the places of these poems, Camelot, Caerleon, Glastonbury, etc., to be identified with known places?
Are the descriptions of scenery such that we think of the places as real, or as places in fairyland? Do the characters seem like real people?
Is there unity in the story as a whole?
Are the episodes closely connected with the main action?
Each of the three Idylls especially chosen for reading should be studied as a story complete in itself, and as part of the series taken as a whole.
Setting.—Where is the scene of the story? In what season of the year do the events take place? How does the season fit the story? In what condition is the court represented? (ll. 305-309).
How do the cases brought before Arthur, and his disposition of them, show the character of his rule?
How clear an idea do you get of the country between Camelot and Castle Perilous? of Castle Perilous? Of what importance are these descriptions?
Plot.—How does Tennyson introduce the story?
How is Gareth prepared for his work as a knight?
Give the chain of incidents that lead from Gareth's leaving home to his victory at Castle Perilous. How do the several contests compare with one another in difficulty?
Is there unity in the plot? Is it more consistent with the story as Tennyson tells it to have Gareth marry Lyonors, as Malory says? Why?
Characters.—How is the character of Gareth madeclear to us at the outset? How, if at all, is his character developed by his service as a scullion?
In what respects does he show himself different from the other scullions?
Would you have respected him any more if he had resented the taunts of Kay and the insults of Lynette? Why?
What impression of Lynette do you form from her interview with the king?
In her language is she coarse and rude, or only petulant and thoughtless?
After she is won by Gareth does she show any fineness of nature?
Describe the characters of Lot, Bellicent, Gawain, and Modred.
Interpretation.—What period of a man's life may Gareth be intended to typify?
What is the allegorical meaning of the gateway to the city of Camelot and of Merlin's description of the building of the city?
In Gareth's contests with the four knights for the possession of Lyonors' castle, what does each in turn typify? What does the poet mean by making the first three contests increasingly difficult? by the terror which the fourth knight inspires? by the easy victory over him? What does Lynette represent in her impulsive and persistent opposition to Gareth?
What does Gareth represent in his constant devotion tohigh ideals? What truth is illustrated by Gareth's overcoming the petulant opposition of Lynette?
Connect the teaching of this poem with the thought of the whole series.
Form.—What is the meter of the poem? What are the principal variations from the normal line in the number of syllables and the position of accents or stresses? Explain and illustratecæsura,end-stopt line,run-on line. What variations do you find in the position of the pauses? What is the effect of the variations on the music of the verse?
Base your study of meter on several passages (for example, ll. 100-150, 520-550, 1350-1394).
Compare the language used by Bellicent and Gareth in their dialogue (ll. 34-168), with descriptive passages (like 184-193, 209-226, 376-427, 650-685, and 883-900).
What differences do you note in the poet's choice of words?
Find passages that present a vivid picture, a vigorous action, simple narrative, true sentiment.
Setting.—Where did the King keep court at the time of this story?
Where did Elaine live?
Where was the tournament held? What do we know of the relative positions of these places?
At what season of the year do the events of the story take place? How does the season fit the story? Do the places seem real?
Plot.—How is the story introduced? Compare with the introduction of the previous Idyll.
What was the occasion for the tournament?
What led Lancelot to Astolat? What caused Elaine's passion for him? Why did he wear her favor? What were the consequences of his wearing it?
Elaine's love for Lancelot led her to what different acts? What did Lancelot's devotion to Guinevere lead him to do?
At what dramatic moment did Elaine's body reach Camelot? How did the event affect the King? Guinevere? Lancelot?
Characters.—From what Arthur says and does, do you find any change in him since his appearance inGareth and Lynette?
Do Lancelot and Guinevere, as they talk of him, reveal any real weakness in his character?
What personal characteristics does Guinevere show in the opening interview? What at the conclusion of the story?
How is Lancelot pictured in the opening interview? in the night that he spends at Astolat? How does he appear when he defends himself after Elaine's letter has been read? What, on the whole, is our feeling for him? Show how his life was a tragedy.
Describe Elaine as we first see her. Does it seem consistent with her retiring, almost timid, nature to press Lancelot to wear her favor and later to confess her love to him? How do you account for her doing it? What is the charm of her character?
Contrast Elaine and Guinevere.
Interpretation.—Compare the picture of the court that we get here with the one that is drawn inGareth and Lynette.
What stage in the history of the Round Table does this story mark? What is the central idea of the poem?
Form.—Compare this Idyll withGareth and Lynettewith reference to meter, and to choice of language.
Setting.—Where is the scene of the story laid? At what season of the year? How does the season fit the story? Do the descriptive passages help you to imagine the places? Illustrate. Do they help you to feel the situations? Illustrate. Of what importance are place and time here?
Plot.—Make a simple outline to show the chain of incidents that form the plot. Compare this Idyll, in respect to reality, with the other two you have studied.
Characters.—Is Arthur's character essentially the same as it appears in the other Idylls we have studied?
What is his mood at the beginning? Does he talk like a vanquished man?
Interpretation.—Do we think of Arthur here as King of Britain, or as a figure in an allegory? Why?
What is indicated by the fact that Arthur did not die, but was taken away by the three Queens?
What is indicated by the uncertainty of Bedivere and even of Arthur himself as to where he was going and whether he would ever return?
Show how the "war between Sense and Soul" is manifest in the war between the King and his enemies; in the struggle of Bedivere between obedience and disobedience; and in the conversation of Arthur and Bedivere as the barge is coming.
Form.—Compare the meter of the part of the poem published in 1842 (ll. 170-440), with that ofGareth and Lynettepublished in 1872, to note the difference in the poet's variations from the normal line, and, in general, the difference in effect.
Compare this Idyll with the other two in respect to language, beauty of description, etc. Study especially such passages as ll. 95-117, 129-135, 349-360. Find others worthy to be learned for their sentiment or beauty of description.
The Life and Character of the Author.—What do we know of Tennyson's parentage? his boyhood? his early love of poetry? his favorite poets? his college life? his employment after leaving college? his earlyvolumes of poems? the importance of his 1842 volume? the significance to him of the death of Arthur Henry Hallam? the three principal events of his life in 1850? his great and continued popularity? the honors conferred upon him? his two estates? his peaceful death?
Did Tennyson ever pursue any profession other than that of a poet? Did he write prose literature? Did he hold public office? Compare him with other famous poets in each of these three particulars.
Point out, by reference to his best known poems, Tennyson's three successive impulses: æsthetic, personal and religious, social and patriotic. (See Introduction toIdylls of the Kingpp. 11-15.) Show how all these are blended together in theIdylls of the King. Was he equally successful in all the kinds of poetry that he undertook? Discriminate.
What were some of his favorite pursuits?
What three successive attempts did Tennyson make with the Arthurian legends? in what periods of his poetic development?
The lyric is a poem which voices the personal feeling, sentiment, or passion of the poet. The poet's feelings are the feelings of human nature, but purified and intensified by his genius. So they are as varied as human nature, but nobler and more beautiful. Lyric poetry, then, appeals to our various moods and often expresses that of which we have been vaguely conscious in ourselves. Sometimes, too, it inspires us to nobler and purer feeling and to higher conceptions of life.
The wise teacher seeks to awaken the interest and arouse the imagination of his pupils. He tries to bring them into the right mood, but avoids putting himself between them and the poet. He must see that they understand the poet's thought, but the appeal to the feelings he will best leave to the poet himself.
Repeated readings and the memorizing of important passages are nowhere so important as in the study of lyric poetry. To make repeated readings useful, however, the teacher must convince the class by questions, or the introduction of discussion, that they have overlooked some message of the poet's. A general plan of study might include, first, wise preparatory work on the partof the teacher to bring the class into the atmosphere of the poem; second, a mastery of the details of the poem; third, a study of the content of the poem as a whole and in parts; fourth, a study of form and structure; fifth, a study of the poem as an interpretation of the poet.
A brief discussion of the meaning of lyric poetry will be helpful, with discriminations between it and other forms of verse.
The class will be put in the right attitude for study by an interesting account of Milton's life up to 1632; his home influences; his education; his Puritan ideas; the difference between Puritanism in Milton's youth and Puritanism in the days of the Commonwealth; and, especially, by a vivid picture of the surroundings of the poet at Horton.
The first reading may be utilized to get a general idea of the poem, and to mark the thought divisions. Other readings will make the student familiar with the details of description, the allusions, the difficult words and constructions, the varieties of meter and rhyme. A comparison, point by point, between the two poems will behelpful. Such a one might be written in the notebooks after the plan suggested by Mr. Chubb inThe Teaching of English, p. 298.
LinesL'AllegroLinesIl Penseroso1-10Dismissal--of Melancholy1-10of deluding joys1-46Invitation to Mirth11-54to Melancholy47-150Progress of day of social delights55-174of night of solitary joys42(a) Lark's Reveille56(a) Evening44(b) "Dappled Dawn," cock, hounds, etc.67(b) Nightingales even-song60(c) Sunrise74(c) Moonrise(d) Sounds of labor(d) Curfew
A comprehensive study will naturally follow the detailed study and may, to a certain extent, be a summary of the work already done.
Content.—Contrast the two speakers in respect to their choice of companions; descriptions of morning and evening; their attitude toward country life; their recreations and employments in the daytime and in the evening; and their tastes in music, worship, and the theater.
Must we suppose that these poems express conflicting views of different men, or may they represent views of the same man in different moods?
State in a single sentence the main idea of each poem.
Form.—Indicate the meter of the normal line, orrather of the two types of lines most frequently used. What is the difference in effect between these two types?
What are the principal variations in the position of accented syllables? in the number of syllables? in the kind of rhyme?
Do you like these poems because of their beauty of sentiment? beauty of figurative expression? beauty of description? some other form of beauty? or because of all of these? Quote what seems to you most beautiful.
Is there anything notable in the choice of words? in their arrangement?
Do you find any passages where words have been chosen because their sound corresponds to the sense?
The Life and Character of the Author.—(See outline for the study ofLycidas, p. 59.)