Lingerie.This relates to all sorts of ladies’ and children’s undergarments, such as skirts, underskirts, infants’ short dresses, chemises, night robes, drawers, corset covers, etc.
Linonis a fine, closely woven plain fabric, well known for its excellent wearing and washing qualities. It is made from combed cotton yarns of long-stapled stocks to resemble as closely as possible fine linen fabrics. The cloth structure is firmly made in the loom.
Long Clothis a fine cotton fabric of superior quality, made with a fine grade of cotton yarn of medium twist. Originally the fabric was manufactured in England, and subsequently imitated in the United States. The fabric is used for infants’ long dresses, from which it derives its name, and for lingerie. Long cloth to someextent resembles batiste, fine muslins, India linen, and cambric. It is distinguished from these fabrics by the closeness of its weave, and when finished the fabric possesses a whiter appearance, due to the closeness of the weave and the soft twist of the yarn. It is not used as a dress fabric, chiefly because of its finished appearance, which is similar in all respects to fabrics which we have been accustomed to see used solely for lingerie, nightgowns, etc.
Madrasis a light-weight single cloth fabric, composed of all cotton or cotton and silk, and has excellent wearing qualities. It was at first a light-colored checked or striped plain-faced cotton-silk fabric, made in Madras, India, for sailors’ head-dress. It is twenty-seven inches wide, and is made of varying grades, weighing from two to three ounces per yard, and is used at all seasons of the year. It is used by ladies for summer skirts, shirtwaists, suits, etc., and by men in shirts. It is known by the white and colored narrow-stripe warp effects, and is made of cotton yarns ranging from1/26to1/80warp and filling, and from 50 to 100 or more ends per inch. The utility of madras for nearly all classes of people permits the greatest scope in creating both harmonious and contrasting color and weave combinations.
The colors most in demand in this fabric are rich and delicate shades of blue, rose, green, linen, tan, lavender, and bright red; for prominent hair-line effects black, navy blue, dark green, royal blue, and cherry red. Good fast color is necessary as it is a wash fabric. If inferior colors are used, they will surely spread duringthe finishing processes, and will cause a clouded stripe where a distinct one was intended.
Moreen.Heavy mohair, cotton, or silk and cotton cloth, with worsted or moire face. The making of moreen is interesting. The undyed cloth is placed in a trough in as many layers as will take the finish. This finish is imparted to the cloth by placing between the layers sheets of manila paper; the contents of the trough are then saturated with water; a heavy weighted roller is then passed over the wetted paper and cloth, the movement of the roller giving the cloth a watered face. It can then be dyed and refinished. The design or marking of moreen is different on every piece. Moreen was at first made for upholstery and drapery use. It was found to give a rustling sound similar to silk, so was taken up for underskirts. The name is from the Frenchmoire, meaning watering.
Mull.A soft cotton muslin of fine quality, made first in India, later in Switzerland. The name in Hindoo ismal, meaning soft, pliable.
Mummy.A plain weave of flax or linen yarn. Originally the winding cloth of the Egyptian mummified dead.
Muslin.A fine cotton cloth of plain weave originally made in Mosul, a city on the banks of the Tigris, in Asia.
Nainsook.Nainsook is a light cotton fabric utilized for various purposes, such as infants’ clothes, women’s dress goods, lingerie, half curtains, etc. The striped and plaid nainsook are used for the same purposes. When the fabric is required for lingerie and infants’clothes the English fabric is selected because of its softness. When intended for dress or curtain fabric, the French-finished fabric is chosen. The latter finish consists of slightly stiffening and calendering the cloth. The fabric may be distinguished from fine lawns, fine batiste, and fine cambric by the fact that it has not as firm construction or as much body, and the finish is not as smooth or as stiff, but inclines to softness, as the fabric has not the body to retain the finishing material.
Organdie.An organdie may be defined as a fine, translucent muslin used exclusively for dress goods. The fabric is made in a variety of qualities as regards the counts of yarn used, and in a variety of widths ranging from eighteen to sixty inches. The plain organdie is popular in pure white, although considerable quantities are dyed in the solid colors, pale blue, pink, etc., while the figured organdies are usually bleached pure white, then printed with small floral designs. The printed design is in from two to four colors, and in delicate shades in conformity with the material. Organdie considered in relation to cost as wearing material is rather expensive. The reason for this is that it has a finish peculiar to itself, so that when washed it does not have the same appearance as before. It loses its crisp feeling altogether.
Osnaburg.A coarse cloth of flax and tow, made in America of cotton, in checks or plaids, and used for furniture covering and mattress making. The town of Osnaburg, in Germany, made the fabric first.
Percale.Percale is a closely woven fabric made with a good quality of cotton yarn. The finer qualities are used for handkerchiefs, aprons, etc., and when used for these purposes are not printed, but bleached after the fabric comes from the loom. Percale is chiefly used for dress fabrics, and when used for this purpose is generally printed on one side with geometrical figures, generally black, although other colors may be seen. The fabric is bleached before it is subjected to the printing operations.
Percaline.Percaline is a highly finished and dressed percale. The first process to which the cloth is subjected is to boil it off, that is, to soak it in boiling water so as to relieve it from foreign matter that it may have gathered during the weaving, and at the same time to prepare it for dyeing. After dyeing it is sized to stiffen it, and also to increase the gloss on the cloth. After sizing it is ready for the calender. In order to give it the highest gloss the cloth is doubled lengthwise or the pieces are put together back to back, and as it passes through the rolls it is wet by steam, the rolls being well heated and tightly set together. Percaline is used chiefly for feminine wearing apparel, principally for linings, petticoats, etc. These purposes require that the cloth shall be solid color, the darker colors being preferred, as blue, green, and black. Sometimes it is seen in lighter shades of brown and tan. The most attention is given to the finishing process.
Piqué.Piqué is a heavy cotton material woven in corded or figured effects. The goods are used for suchpurposes as ladies’ tailor-made suits, vestings, shirt fronts, cravats, bedspreads, and the like. It was originally woven in diamond-shaped designs to imitate quilting. The name is French for quilting. The plainest and most common fabrics of piqué are those in which the pattern consists of straight cords extending across the cloth in the direction of the weft. In the construction of these fabrics, both a face and back warp are required, and the cords are produced by all the back warp threads being raised at intervals of six, eight, or more picks over two or more picks of the face cloth, which has a tendency to draw down on the surface of the fabric. The goods are always woven white and no colors are ever used. The face warp threads are generally finer than the back warp threads, and are in the proportion of two threads for the face and one thread for the back. On the heavier and better grades of piqué coarse picks called wadding are used to increase the weight, and also to give more prominence to the cord effect. They are introduced between the face and back cloths. In the lightest and cheapest grades neither any wadding nor back picks are used. In this case the back warp threads float on the back of the fabric except when raising over the face picks to form the cord. In the figured piqué the binding of the back warp threads into the face cloth is not done in straight lines as in plain piqué, but the binding points are introduced so as to form figures. These fabrics are woven in the white, and the figures are purely the result of binding the face and back cloths together.
Poplin.Poplin or popeline is a name given to a class of goods distinguished by a rib or cord effect running width way of the piece. It referred originally to a fabric having a silk warp and a figure of wool filling heavier than the warp. At the present time it refers more to a ribbed fabric than to one made from any particular combination of materials. Cotton poplin is usually made with a plain weave, the rep effect being obtained either by using a fine warp as compared with the filling, or a large number of ends as compared with picks per inch on both. Irish poplin is a light-weight variety of poplin, sometimes called single poplin, and is celebrated for its uniformly fine and excellent wearing qualities. It is principally made in Dublin.
Plumetis.Sheer cotton or woolen cloth having raised dots or figures in relief on plain ground. The design shows a feathery effect, as in embroidery tambour. The name is French for this kind of embroidery, and is derived fromplume, French for feather.
Rep.A fabric having a surface of a cord-like appearance. The name is probably corrupted from rib. It is used in making shirtwaists and skirts.
Sateen.Twilled cotton cloth of light weight, finished to imitate silk satin. There are two kinds, viz., warp sateen and filling sateen.
Scrim.Open mesh weave of cotton or linen for curtains and linings. The name is from scrimp, referring to economy in weaving.
Silesiais a light-weight single cloth fabric, having a rather high texture, and weighing about three ouncesper yard. It is composed of all cotton yarn, and is used principally as a lining for ladies’ and men’s clothing. Silesia is woven of yarn in the gray state, and is dyed in the piece in such colors as black, dark blue, brown, drab, slate, steel, etc. An important feature is the highly glazed or polished face of the goods, which is due to the action of the heated roller in the calendering machine upon the sizing.
Souffle.The largest designs of crepon show a raised or puffed appearance. Souffle is from the French and means puffed.
Swiss.From Switzerland, where the plain Swiss net and figured cambric is a specialty in the St. Gall district.
Tape.Tape is a narrow fabric composed either of cotton or linen yarns in warp and filling, and usually made with a point or broken twill weave, the break in the weave occurring in the center of the tape, and the twill lines running in a right- and left-hand direction. It is used as a trimming in the manufacture of clothing, also as a binding in innumerable cases, and is sold by the roll, each roll containing a certain number of yards. It is made of all bleached and of regular yarns about1/26’s to1/30’s and1/40’s cotton.
Tarletan.An open mesh of coarse cotton, used mostly in fruit packing, sometimes for dress and drapery. The name is fromtarlantanna, Milanese for coarse weave of linen and wool.
Terry Cloth or Turkish Towelingis a cotton pile fabric. It is woven in such a way as to permit theforming of a series of loops on each side of the cloth in regular order. After leaving the loom each piece is laid separately in the bleaching kier. Then the goods are dried on a tenter frame, given a light starching to add weight, run through a rubber rolled mangle and again dried on a tenter frame. This cloth is used in the manufacture of towels, Turkish bath robes, etc. Turkish toweling is the original terry. The name is from the Frenchtirer, to draw or pull.
Zephyr Ginghamis the finest grade of gingham made and is a light-weight cotton fabric, composed of1/40’s to1/60’s cotton warp and filling yarns. It is woven with either the plain weave or a small all-over dobby effect. It is made in attractive patterns by using good fast colors in warp and filling, and as a cloth has excellent wearing qualities.
FOOTNOTES:[16]This information is from the leading authority, “The Cotton Fabrics Glossary,” published by theAmerican Wool and Cotton Reporter, Boston, Mass., and is reprinted here through the kindness of Mr. Frank P. Bennett.[17]1/12’s cotton signifies single cotton yarn of 12’s.2/12’s cotton signifies two sets of single cotton yarn of 12’s twisted together.
[16]This information is from the leading authority, “The Cotton Fabrics Glossary,” published by theAmerican Wool and Cotton Reporter, Boston, Mass., and is reprinted here through the kindness of Mr. Frank P. Bennett.
[16]This information is from the leading authority, “The Cotton Fabrics Glossary,” published by theAmerican Wool and Cotton Reporter, Boston, Mass., and is reprinted here through the kindness of Mr. Frank P. Bennett.
[17]1/12’s cotton signifies single cotton yarn of 12’s.2/12’s cotton signifies two sets of single cotton yarn of 12’s twisted together.
[17]1/12’s cotton signifies single cotton yarn of 12’s.2/12’s cotton signifies two sets of single cotton yarn of 12’s twisted together.
Flax.Flax or linen occupies the first position in the group of stem fibers,[18]being not only the oldest, but next to cotton the most important vegetable spinning material known. Its value is increased by the fact that the flax plant readily adapts itself to various conditions of soil and climate, and in consequence has gained access to northerly districts and cool highlands. Although flax has lost some of its importance from the successful competition of cotton, nevertheless it still forms one of the chief articles of an industry which merits all the care bestowed on its cultivation and proves highly profitable.
The Physical Structure of Flax.Flax, when seen under the microscope, looks like a long, cylindrical tube of uniform thickness, with lumina so small as to be visible only as straight black lines lengthwise of the fiber, and frequently exhibits small transverse cracks. It is never twisted like cotton fiber. Its color varies from pale yellow to steel gray or greenish tints. Thedifference in color is due chiefly to the process of “retting.” Its average length is about twenty inches, and its tensile strength is superior to that of cotton. It will absorb moisture, 12 per cent being the standard allowance made.
Flax is used for making linen thread and cloth, yarn, twist, string fabric, and lace. In its composition it is almost purely an unlignified cellulose, and its specific gravity is 1.5.
Flax is a better conductor of heat than cotton, hence linen goods always feel colder than cotton goods.
Russia produces more than one-half the world’s supply of flax, but that from Belgium and Ireland is of the best quality. Italy, France, Holland, and Egypt are other important producers. The plant is an annual, of delicate structure, and is gathered just before it is ripe, the proper time being indicated by the changing of the color from green to brown. At the time of gathering the whole plant is uprooted, dried on the ground, and finally rippled with iron combs, to separate the stalks from the leaves, lateral shoots, and seeds.
The best fiber amounts to about 75 per cent of the stalk. To separate this valuable commercial product from the woody matter the stalks are first subjected to a process termed retting, which is steeping them in water until they are quite soft. Then follow the mechanical processes to further the production of the fiber and free it from all useless matter.
These are as follows:
1. Crushing or Beating. This consists of breakingthe woody matter with the aid of mallets or in stamping mills.
2. Breaking. This is passing the stalks through a series of horizontal rollers to break further the woody matter and at the same time separate the greater part of it from the fiber.
3. Scutching. The object of this process is to remove completely the woody matter, and it is done by means of rapidly revolving wooden arms or blades, which beat the firmly held flax until it is sufficiently cleaned and separated.
4. Hackling. The scutched flax is drawn through iron combs which still further open the fiber. Fineness of fiber depends upon the number of times it is hackled, each time with a finer and finer instrument, which secures the different degrees of subdivision. Then the fibers are sorted and classified as to length and quality and laid in parallel forms ready for spinning and manufacture into linen.
PULLING FLAX IN MINNESOTA
Bleaching.Linen is bleached in the form of yarn, thread, and cloth. This is a difficult and long process owing to the large amount of natural impurities present in flax fiber, and the difficulty of removing or dissolving them. Bleaching is now done as a rule by chemical processes, and when chemicals are used great care must be taken about their strength and about the time the cloth is allowed to remain in them. In olden times sour buttermilk was applied to linen and rubbed in, and then bleaching was finished out of doors by sun and rain. “Unbleached” linen is treated in the same way as bleached, only the process is not carried to such an extent. In Ireland, famous for its bleaching, chemicals are used in the earlier stages of this process, and then fine linens are spread out on the grass to improve their color, and to purge them completely of any chemicals used. After bleaching, linen is washed, dried, starched, and put through heavy machines to give it a glossy finish, and it is then made up in pieces for sale.
Characteristics of Good Linen.Linen is noted for its smoothness of texture, its brilliancy—which laundering increases—its wearing qualities, and its exquisite freshness. The celebrated Irish linen is the most valuable staple in the market, and on account of its fineness and strength, and particularly its bright color, it attains an unapproachable excellence because the best processes are used throughout the entire manufacture. Linen is less elastic and pliable than cotton and bleaches and dyes readily.
Flax from all countries is woven into table linen,though very fine linen must have carefully prepared fiber. Linen should be soft, yielding, and elastic, with almost a leathery feel. Fineness of linen does not always determine good wearing qualities.
Good linen ranges in price from 75 cents to $3.00. Irish linen has a good bleach. French and Belgian linens, while fine in thread, are not as serviceable as Irish linen. Germany makes a good wearing linen, but not a large variety of patterns. Scotch linens are now used more than other kinds.
STACKS OF FLAX IN BELGIUMCopyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y.
Sources of Flax
Russia,Holland,Belgium,Germany,Ireland,Canada,U. S. (for seed only).
Sources of Manufactured Linens
Scotland,Ireland,Germany,Austria,Belgium,France,Russia,United States.
Damasks and Napkins
Scotland,Ireland,Germany,Belgium.
Towelings
Scotland,Ireland,Germany,United States,Russia.
Glass Checks
Ireland.
Canvas
Scotland,Ireland.
Handkerchief Lawns, Cambrics, and Laces
Ireland,Germany,France.
Towels
Germany,Scotland,Ireland,Austria,U. S. (union).
Linen Sheetings
Ireland,Belgium,France,Scotland.
Blouse or Dress Linens
Ireland,Scotland.
Bleached Waist Linens
Ireland,France,Belgium.
Fancy Linens, Doylies, etc.
Germany,France,Japan,Madeira Islands,Island of Teneriffe.
FOOTNOTE:[18]The stem fibers such as flax, jute, ramie are called bast fibers, and before any of them can be utilized industrially, steps have to be taken to render them free from gum. When the stems of these plants are severed, the juice tends to oxidize through contact with the air and forms a gum of a peculiarly tenacious character.
[18]The stem fibers such as flax, jute, ramie are called bast fibers, and before any of them can be utilized industrially, steps have to be taken to render them free from gum. When the stems of these plants are severed, the juice tends to oxidize through contact with the air and forms a gum of a peculiarly tenacious character.
[18]The stem fibers such as flax, jute, ramie are called bast fibers, and before any of them can be utilized industrially, steps have to be taken to render them free from gum. When the stems of these plants are severed, the juice tends to oxidize through contact with the air and forms a gum of a peculiarly tenacious character.
LOADING HEMP IN MANILA
Hempis a fiber that is obtained from the hemp plant. It grows principally in Russia, Poland, France, Italy, Asia, India, the Philippines, Japan, and some parts of the United States—Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The original country of the hemp plant was doubtless Asia, probably thatpart near the Caspian Sea. The preparatory treatment is similar to that for the flax plant, except that most of the work is done by machinery. Considered chemically, in addition to cellulose, hemp fiber contains a considerable amount of woody matter, differing in this respect from cotton. Its properties are color (pearl gray, with green or yellow tints), fineness (which depends upon the quality of the hemp; it is usually bought as fine as flax), and tensile strength (which is considerable and greater than that of flax). Its best qualities are its slight luster and its ability to resist to a great extent the tendency to rot under water. Owing to the fact that it is difficult to bleach, it is used chiefly in making string, cord, ropes, etc.
Sisal Hemp.Sisal hemp is a variety that grows extensively in Central America and the West Indies. The plant, theagava rigida, is similar to what is known in this country as the century plant. The fiber is found in the leaves which closely surround the stalks. The common hemp on the other hand is found closely surrounding the woody part of the stem. The fiber of Sisal hemp is obtained by scraping away the fleshy part of the leaves with large wooden knives or by machines.
Manila Hemp.Manila hemp is obtained in the Philippines. The plant belongs to the banana family and grows as large as a small tree. The hemp is obtained from the leaf stalks which appear to form the trunk of the tree. The fiber is larger, not so stiff, butstronger than Sisal hemp. The fiber of Russian hemp is the strongest; that of Italian hemp the finest.
FIELD OF SISAL HEMP
Jute.Jute is the name given to the fibers found in certain plants which grow principally in India, and the East Indian Islands. The common jute comes principally from the province of Bengal, India, where it was first known to science in 1725. The term jute was first applied to the fiber by Dr. Rosburgh in 1795. The plant is cut just about the time when it appears in full flower. The stalks are then bundled and retted by steeping in pools of stagnant water.
Jute occupies third position in importance of vegetable fibers in the manufacturing scale, being inferior to cotton and flax. Hemp is stronger than jute. Jute becomes weak when exposed to dampness.
It is extensively used for mixing with silk, cotton, flax, hemp, and woolen fabrics. The coarse varietiesare made into coarse fabrics—sacks, packing cloth, etc., while the finer varieties, in which the undesirable quality of growing darker with age is less apparent, are used for making carpets, curtains, and heavy plushes, for which they are very suitable.
Silk.The silk of commerce is obtained from the cocoons of several species of insects. These insects resemble strongly the ordinary caterpillars. At a certain period of its existence the silkworm gives off a secretion of jelly-like substance. This hardens on exposure to the air as the worm forces it out and winds it about its body.
MOTH, SILKWORM, AND COCOONS
It takes about three days for the worm to form the cocoon. After the cocoon has been formed the silkworm passes from the form of a caterpillar into a moth which cuts an opening through the cocoon and flies away. It is very important that the moth should not be allowed to escape from the cocoon; the merebreaking of the cocoon greatly decreases the value of the thread. The cocoon is preserved by killing the chrysalis by heat.
There are a great many varieties of caterpillars, but few of them secrete a sufficient quantity of silk to render them of commercial value. The principal species is the mulberry silkworm which produces most of the silk in commerce. It is cultivated and fed on mulberry leaves. There are other varieties of silkworms that are not capable of being cultivated and are called wild silkworms. The silk produced by the wild worms of China and India is called “tussah” (or “tussur”). The silk is inferior to that produced by the cultivated worms and is used for making pile fabrics, such as velvet, plush, etc.
The color of the cocoons varies greatly. Most of the European cocoons are bright yellow, though some are white. The Eastern cocoons, on the other hand, are mostly white, while a few are yellow. The wild silks are for the most part écru color, though some are pale green. The color, except in the wild silks, is derived from the gum which is secreted by the worm, and with which the fibers are stuck together. This gum comprises from 15 to 30 per cent of the weight and is removed by boiling in soap and water before the silk is dyed. All silks except the wild silks, after the gum is removed, are from white to cream in color. The tussah, or wild silks, remain an écru color.
REELING RAW SILK
The greatest care has to be exercised throughout in the care of the moths, eggs, worms, and cocoons—thisbeing the succession of changes. That is, the moth lays eggs which are collected and kept cool till the proper season for incubation. They are then kept warm during the time occupied in hatching, sometimes about the person of the raiser. After a time these eggs hatch out worms, tiny things hardly larger than the head of a pin. After the worms are hatched they require constant care and feeding with chopped mulberry leaves till they reach maturity. They are then about three inches in length, and spin their cocoons from a fiber and gum which they secrete. When the cocoons are spun the worms become chrysalises inside of them. The cocoons are then collected and the chrysaliseskilled, generally by heat, before they can again become moths.
Raw Silk.The cocoons are next sent to the reelers or filatures. A number of cocoons, greater or less, according to the size of thread desired, are placed in a basin of hot water, which softens the gum. After the outside fibers are removed so that the ends run free, the ends are collected through a guide and are wound upon a reel. As the silk cools and dries, the gum hardens, sticking the fibers from the different cocoons together in one smooth thread varying in size according to the number of cocoons used. After the silk has been reeled and dried it is twisted into hanks and sent to America and other countries as raw silk.
Most of the raw silk of commerce is produced in China, Japan, and Italy. It is also produced to a large extent in Italy, Turkey, and Greece, also France and Portugal. The cultivation of silk is not only carried on by private firms, but is encouraged by the government to the extent of granting money to the manufacturers.
Various attempts have been made to raise silkworms in the United States. All have failed on account of the high price of labor necessary to feed the worms.
Throwing.The manufacture in the United States begins with raw silk. We import our raw silk chiefly from Italy, China, and Japan. It is handled here first by the “throwster,” who winds it from the skein and makes various kinds of thread for different purposes.
Raw silk wound on spools in a single thread, andcalled singles is often used to make warps (that is, the threads running lengthwise of a piece of cloth) for piece-dyed goods, or cloth which is woven with the gum in the silk, and afterward boiled out and dyed. Singles are also sometimes used for filling (that is, cross threads) in very thin fabrics.
Silk yarn that is used for weaving is divided into two kinds, “tram” and “organzine.” Tram silk is made by twisting two or more loosely twisted threads. It is heavier than organzine and is used for filling. Organzine silk is produced by uniting a number of strongly twisted threads. It is used for warp. Crêpe yarn is used in making crêpe, chiffon, and for other purposes. It is very hard twisted thread, generally tram, from forty to eighty turns per inch.
Embroidery silk is made by winding the raw silk, putting a large number of ends together, giving them a slack twist, then doubling and twisting in the reverse direction with a slack twist.
Sewing silk is made by winding and doubling the raw product, then twisting into tram, giving it a slack twist, doubling and twisting in the reverse direction under tension. Machine twist is similar, but three ply.
The principal fabrics made of silk are: silk, satin, plush, chenille, crêpe, crepon, gauze, damask, brocade, pongee, and ribbons. Silk thread and cord are also extensively used. The United States is among the leaders in the manufacture of silk fabrics.
Silk Waste.When the cocoons are softened for reeling a certain portion of the silk is found to consist ofwaste and broken threads. The tangled silk on the outside of the cocoon is called floss. The residue after reeling, and other wastes in reeling, are known as frisonnets. Floss silk is not used for weaving. It is a slack twisted tram, generally composed of a large number of threads of singles.
Spun Silk.There is another class of threads made from waste silk by spinning and known as spun silk. Waste silks include the pierced cocoons, that is, those from which the moth has come out by making the hole and breaking the fibers in one end of the cocoon; the waste made in the filatures in producing raw or reeled silk, chiefly the outside fiber of the cocoon and the inside next the chrysalis; and also the waste made in manufacture. The waste silk is ungummed; that is, the gum is removed from the fibers by boiling with soap, by macerating or retting, or by chemical reagents.
After the gum is removed from the cocoons, they are opened and combed, most of the chrysalis shell being removed. The remainder, with other foreign matter, is picked out by hand from the combed silk. The silk is put through a number of drawing frames to get the fibers even on the roving frames, where it first takes the form of thread, then on the spinning frames, where it is twisted. If it is to be used as singles, the manufacture ends here. In two- or three-ply yarns, the singles are doubled, twisted again, singed by running through a gas flame, cleaned by friction, controlled, that is, the knots and lumps taken out, and then reeled into skeins for dyeing or put on spools.
Spun Numbers.There are two methods in general use for numbering spun silk. In the French system, the number is based on the singles, by the meters per kilogram; two and three cord yarns have one-half, one-third, etc., the length the numbers indicate. Thus—
No. 100 singles has 100,000 meters per kilogram.No. 2-100 has 50,000 meters per kilogram.No. 3-100 has 33,333 meters per kilogram.
The other system which is more generally used in this country, is the English system. The hank is 840 yards, and the number of hanks in one pound avoirdupois is the count of the yarn. It is based on the finished yarn, and singles, two or three cord yarns of the same number all have the same yards per pound. Thus—
No. 50 singles has 42,000 yards per pound.No. 50-2 has 42,000 yards per pound.No. 50-3 has 42,000 yards per pound.
Dyeing Yarns.Generally speaking there are two large classes into which silk goods may be divided, those in which the threads are colored before weaving and called yarn-dyed goods, and those dyed or printed after weaving and called piece-dyed or printed goods. In dyeing yarns, the silk is first ungummed and cleaned by boiling in soap and water, then washed in cold water. If the thread is to be weighted, as is frequently done, tin salts, iron, or other heavy material is deposited on the fiber. If carried far, this is injurious, making the silk tender and weak. Sometimes there is more weighting than silk. Yarns are usually dyed in hotliquors, aniline colors being the ones in most common use to-day, though other dyes are used for special purposes. Some yarns are dyed in the gum, and some with a part of the gum left in. After dyeing, they are washed in cold water, dried, and wound on spools.
Silk Dyeing.Silk occupies in several respects an intermediate position between the animal and vegetable fibers. Like wool, it is a highly nitrogenous body, but contains no sulphur. It readily takes up many of the colors which can be worked upon vegetable fiber by the aid of the mordants. This is particularly the case with reference to a large number of aniline colors, which require merely to be dissolved and mixed with perfectly clear water in the dye vessel. The great attraction of silk for these colors simplifies silk dyeing exceedingly. The sad colors, on the other hand, and especially black, are in many cases exceedingly complex, the main object of the dyer being not so much to color the silk as to increase its weight.
Dyeing black on silk is unquestionably the most important branch of silk dyeing, and it has probably received more attention than any other branch, in consequence of which it has been brought to a high degree of perfection. Blacks on silks are produced both from natural and artificial coloring matters, the former having, so far, retained their pre-eminence despite the recent discoveries of chemists. For various reasons coal-tar colors have never proved successful in dyeing black on silk. Since the discovery of America, logwood blacks have formed the staple of the black-silk dyer,who has carried their production to a high degree of excellence. But unfortunately, besides aiming at a high state of perfection in the actual dyeing operation, the black-silk dyer has also aimed at increasing the weight of the dyed silk, so that nowadays it is possible for him to receive ten pounds of raw silk and to send out fifty pounds of black silk, the extra forty pounds being additions made in the process of dyeing.
WINDING SILK ON SWIFTS
Logwood black-silk dyeing consists essentially of alternate dippings in separate baths with the mordant and dyestuffs suitable for producing the required color and weight. The number of dippings and the lengthof time taken in each operation depend on the intensity of the black wanted and the amount of weighting which is desired. The chief substances used for weighting are lead salts, catechu, iron, and nut-galls, with soap and oil to soften in some degree the harshness of the fabric which these minerals cause. As the details of the operations are practically the same for all kinds of logwood blacks (raven, jet, crape, dead black, etc.), the method for producing one will suffice for all. The process involves several distinct operations, as follows:
1.The Boiling Off.This is the removal of the gum and natural coloring matter in the silk. It is accomplished by boiling the skeins of silk in water and good olive oil soap for about one hour. This dissolves the gum and leaves the fiber clean and glossy.
2.Mordanting.This is done in a bath of nitrate of iron, in which the skeins of silk are allowed to remain one hour. The silk gains some in weight in this operation by absorbing a quantity of the iron in the bath. After having been dipped in the first bath three or four times, it is ready for the soap and iron bath, in which it is repeatedly immersed, the operation causing a deposit of iron-soap on the fiber which adds to its weight, but at the same time does not lessen its flexibility and softness. Eight dippings in the iron and soap bath increase the weight of the silk about 100 per cent.
3.Blue Bottoming.The next operation is to dye the silk blue, which is done by immersing it in a solution of potash. In this it is worked for half an hour, when it acquires a deep blue color. It is then takenout, and after rinsing is ready for the “weighting” operations.
4.“Weighting” Bath.A catechu bath is now prepared, in which the silk is entered and worked for an hour, and then allowed to steep over night. The result is that the blue on the silk is decomposed, and the goods by absorbing the tannin in the catechu increase in weight from 35 to 40 per cent. This bath is the most important one in the dyeing of “weighted” black silks, as the dyer can regulate the strength of the bath by the addition of tin crystals so as to increase the weight of the silk to an astonishing degree. The proportion of tin crystals used is regulated by the number of iron baths that have previously been given the silk; if two baths of iron have been given, 5 per cent of tin crystals are used; if four baths, 10 per cent, and so on. The action of these chemicals is somewhat complex. All that is known is that by reason of some peculiar quality possessed by silk it is enabled to combine with iron and tin, and that exposure to the air after the baths fixes these chemicals permanently upon the fibers, thus increasing their weight to almost any desired extent. Silk, according to its quality and weight, will take up of these substances from 50 to 200 per cent without creating much suspicion. Instances have been known in which silk has been increased nine times its own weight. All the operations thus far have had for their object the weighting of the silk, although the blueing and the catechu baths have some influence on the finished result. After these come the dyeingoperations proper, two in number, mordanting and dyeing.
5.Mordanting.A bath of iron liquor heated to 130 degrees F. is provided. The silk is entered, worked well for one hour, then wrung out and hung up to “age” for two hours, after which it is ready for the logwood dye.
6.Dyeing.A bath of logwood liquor is prepared to which is added 10 per cent of fustic, and the solution is brought to a temperature of 150 degrees F. In this the silk is entered and worked for an hour, then taken out and wrung dry. Sometimes the black does not come up full enough, and in such cases the bath is repeated.
7. The final operation has for its object the restoration of the luster and suppleness of the silk, which has to some extent deteriorated from the many operations through which it has passed. The brightening and softening of the fiber are effected by immersing the silk in a bath of olive oil in the form of an emulsion. In this the silk is worked until it is thoroughly impregnated with the oil, when it is taken out and wrung dry, after which it is ready for the loom. Practically the same process is followed in piece dyeing, though only inferior grades of silk are dyed in the web.
Colored Silks.This class of silks is generally purer than black and sad-colored silks. It is not nearly so easy to weight the former as the latter, for the reason that there are but few substances capable of giving weight which do not interfere with the effect of light colored dyes. The weighting agents most generallyused are sugar and acetate of lead. The weighting by sugar is done after the silk is dyed. A solution is made of pure lump sugar by placing it in a large copper pan with water and heating until dissolved. In this bath the silk is thoroughly saturated, and then dried and finished; or, the dipping process may be repeated several times if desired. One dipping will weight the silk about 12 per cent, two about 20 per cent, and three about 30 per cent. In a solution of acetate of lead, each dipping will weight the silk about 8 per cent, and these may be repeated as often as it is wished. In this case the weighting is generally done on the undyed, boiled-off silk, although it may be done on the dyed silk if the color is such as will stand the acid.
Mixed Silk Fabrics.Until lately silk was invariably dyed in the state of yarn. When the silk was to be woven into mixed fabrics, such as satin, gloria, etc., it was impossible to dye both fibers exactly the same shade. Formerly such fabrics were woven with the cotton and silk yarns dyed separately, care being taken to match them as closely as possible. The weaving of dyed yarns of different fibers is open to the objection that when the fabric comes to be finished there is a wide difference in the color, no matter how closely they may have matched in the beginning.
Ribbons.Ribbons are woven several pieces in one loom, with a separate shuttle for each piece. The shuttle is carried through the shed or warp by a rack and pinion, instead of being thrown through as in broad goods; otherwise the weaving is the same.
Velvets.Velvets and other pile fabrics are woven in two pieces, one over the other, with the pile threads woven back and forth between them. A knife travels between the two pieces cutting the pile threads so as to leave the ends standing up straight. Velvets used to be woven over wires and cut by hand, but this method is practically obsolete.
Piece Dyeing.If the goods are woven with the gum still in the silk, it must be taken out afterward, and the goods either dyed in the piece or prepared for printing.
Printing.The most primitive method of printing is by the use of stencils. It is the method employed by the Japanese and Chinese. Next came block printing, which is still extensively used in Europe. The pattern is raised in felt on wooden blocks, the color taken up from pads, one block for each color. The results are good, but the work is very slow. Most silk goods are to-day machine printed. The design is engraved or etched on copper cylinders, one cylinder for each color; the color thickened with gum is supplied by rolls running against the cylinders, and the surplus is scraped off by a knife blade, leaving only that in the engraving which is taken up by the cloth. After printing, the cloth is steamed to set the colors, and then washed in order to remove the gum used to thicken the colors for printing.