COTTON BOLE FULLY DEVELOPEDCOTTON BOLE FULLY DEVELOPEDFrom Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, 1903.
From Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, 1903.
BOLE OPENED, COTTON READY FOR PICKINGBOLE OPENED, COTTON READY FOR PICKINGYear Book of 1903.
Year Book of 1903.
The Brazilian and Peruvian cotton yields a long staple and is sometimes used to adulterate silk andother fibers. Some varieties of this cotton are harsh and wooly and are prized for use in mixing with wool.
Nankin Cotton
The Nankin cotton grown in China and India and in the southwestern part of Louisiana is characterized by its yellow color. It is used in weaving cloth of various kinds in the "fireside industries" which have become popular in the United States and England.
COTTON FIBERSCOTTON FIBERSA A—Unripe Fibers;B B—Half-ripe Fibers;C C—Ripe Fibers.
A A—Unripe Fibers;B B—Half-ripe Fibers;C C—Ripe Fibers.
Spinning Qualities
Very fine yarn can be spun from cotton because of the spiral character of the fibers. This twist of the fibers is peculiar to cotton, being present in no other animal or vegetable fiber. On account of this twist, cotton cloths are much more elastic in character than those woven from linen, the fibers of which are stiff and straight.
After the removal of the seed, no other fiber is so free from impurities—5 per cent is the loss sustainedby cleaning and bleaching. In its natural condition, cotton will not dye readily because of a waxy substance on the surface of the fibers. This must be removed by washing.
Picking and Ginning
Cotton should be picked only when it is fully ripe when the pods are fully burst and the fibers expanded. The unripe fiber is glassy, does not attain its full strength and resists the dye. After picking, the cotton is sent to the ginning factory to have the seed removed. It is then pressed into bales by hydraulic presses, five hundred pounds being the standard bale in the United States.
COTTON BALESCOTTON BALES
Physical Characteristics
Purified bleached cotton is nearly pure cellulose. It resists the action of alkalis well, but is harmed by hot, strong acids, or if acid is allowed to dry on the fabric. It is not harmed by high temperature, and so may be ironed with a hot iron.
WOOL FIBER AND SUBSTITUTESWOOL FIBER AND SUBSTITUTES1. South American Wool; 2. Noil from the Same; 3. Tangled Waste; 4. Waste Combed Out; 5. Lap Waste; 6. Shoddy.
1. South American Wool; 2. Noil from the Same; 3. Tangled Waste; 4. Waste Combed Out; 5. Lap Waste; 6. Shoddy.
Character of Fiber
Wool is the most important animal fiber. Strictly speaking the name applies only to the hairy covering of sheep, but the hair of certain goats and of camels is generally classified under the same terms. The wool fiber is distinguished by its scale-like surface which gives it its felting and spinning properties. Hair as distinguished from wool has little or no scaly structure being in general a smooth filament with no felting properties and spinning only with great difficulty. Fur is the undergrowth found on most fur-bearing animals and has in a modified way the scaly structure and felting properties of wool.
MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE OF WOOL FIBERSMICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE OF WOOL FIBERS
Value for Clothing
The great value of wool as a fiber lies in the fact that it is strong, elastic, soft, very susceptible to dye stuffs and being woven, furnishes a great number ofair spaces, rendering clothing made from it very warm and light.
Quality of Wool
Climate, breed, and food influence the quality of the wool. Where the pasturage is barren and rocky, the wool is apt to be coarse.
MERINO RAMSMERINO RAMSThe Variety of Sheep Giving the Finest Wool.
The Variety of Sheep Giving the Finest Wool.
Varieties of Sheep
There are supposed to be about thirty distinct varieties of sheep, nearly half of which are natives of Asia, one-third of Africa, and only four coming from Europe, and two from America. Wool is divided into two general classes—long and short staple, accordingto the average length of fiber. The long fiber wool is commonly carded, combed and spun intoworstedyarn. The short fiber is usually carded and spun into woolen yarn. The short fiber obtained in combing long staple wool is called "noil." It is used for woolens.
Goat Wools
Alpaca, Vicuna and Llama wools are obtained from animals which are native to the mountains of Peru and Chile. The Angora goat, originally from Asia Minor, furnishes the mohair of commerce. This fiber does not resemble the hairs of common goats in any respect. It is a very beautiful fiber of silky luster, which constitutes its chief value.
ANGORA GOATSANGORA GOATS
Fur
The fur of beavers and rabbits can be and is used in manufacture, either spun into yarn or made into felt. The fibers of both animals enter largely into the manufacture of felt hats.
Sorting Wool
The fleece of sheep after being sheared is divided into different parts orsorted, according to the quality of the wool, the best wool coming from the sides of the animal.
WOOL FIBERSWOOL FIBERSa—Medium Wool;b—Camel's Hair;c—Diseased Fiber;d—Merino Wool;e—Mohair.
a—Medium Wool;b—Camel's Hair;c—Diseased Fiber;d—Merino Wool;e—Mohair.
Scouring Wool
As it comes from the sheep, the wool contains many substances besides the wool fiber which must be removed before dyeing or spinning. This cleansing is calledscouring. Before scouring, the wool is usually dusted by machines to remove all loose dirt. The scouring must be done by the mildest means possible in order to preserve the natural fluffiness and brilliancy of the fiber. The chief impurity is the woolgrease or "yolk" which is secreted by the skin glands to lubricate the fiber and prevent it from matting.
ONE METHOD OF WOOL SORTINGONE METHOD OF WOOL SORTING1—The Best Grade; 2—Lowest Grade; 3—Fair; 4—Medium Grade.
1—The Best Grade; 2—Lowest Grade; 3—Fair; 4—Medium Grade.
Scouring Agents
In the scouring of wool, soap is the principal agent. Soft soap made from caustic potash is generally used as it is less harmful than ordinary hard soda soap. Potassium carbonate—"pearl ash"—is often used in connection with the soap. If the water for scouring is hard, it is softened with pearl ash. The temperatureof wash water is never allowed to go above 120° F. The scoured wool weighs from a little over a half to one-third or less of the weight of the fleece.
Hydroscopic Moisture
Wool has the remarkable property of absorbing up to 30 per cent or more of its weight of water and yet not feel perceptibly damp to the touch. This is called "hydroscopic moisture." To this property wool owes its superiority as a textile for underclothing.
WOOL SORTINGWOOL SORTING
The thoroughly cleansed fiber is made up chiefly of the chemical substance keratin, being similar in composition to horn and feathers. In burning it gives off a characteristic disagreeable odor. It is a substance very weakly acid in its nature, for which reason it combines readily with many dyes. Wool resists the action of acids very well, but is much harmed by the alkalis, being dissolved completely by a warm solution of caustic soda. High temperature harms wool.
FLAXFLAX
Next to wool and cotton, flax is used most largely in our textile manufactures. The linen fiber consists of the bast cells of certain species of flax grown in Europe, Africa, and the United States. All bast fibers are obtained near the outer surface of the plant stems. The pith and woody tissues are of no value. The flax plant is an annual and to obtain the best fibers it must be gathered before it is fully ripe. To obtain seed from which the best quality of linseed oil can be made it is usually necessary to sacrifice the quality of the fibers to some extent.
Treatment of Flax
Unlike cotton, flax is contaminated by impurities from which it must be freed before it can be woven into cloth. The first process to which the freshly pulled flax is submitted is that of "rippling" or the removal of the seed capsules. Retting, next in order, is the most important operation. This is done to remove the substances which bind the bast fibers to each other and to remove the fiber from the central woody portion of the stem. This consists of steeping the stalks in water.
A FIELD OF FLAX IN MINNESOTAA FIELD OF FLAX IN MINNESOTAThe Flax Must Be Pulled Up by the Roots to Give Fibres with Tapered Ends.(Photograph of C. R. Dodge).
The Flax Must Be Pulled Up by the Roots to Give Fibres with Tapered Ends.(Photograph of C. R. Dodge).
Retting
(1) Cold water retting, either running or stagnant water.(2) Dew retting.(3) Warm water retting.
RETTING TANKRETTING TANKA—Inlet;B—Undisturbed Water;C—Bundles of Flax.
A—Inlet;B—Undisturbed Water;C—Bundles of Flax.
Cold water retting in running water is practiced in Belgium. Retting in stagnant water is the method usually employed in Ireland and Russia. The retting in stagnant water is more rapidly done, but there is danger of over-retting on account of the organic matter retained in the water which favors fermentation. In this case the fiber is weakened.
RETTING FLAX IN THE RIVER LYS, BELGIUMRETTING FLAX IN THE RIVER LYS, BELGIUMFrom the Government Bulletin, "Flax for Seed and Fiber."
From the Government Bulletin, "Flax for Seed and Fiber."
FIBERS OF FLAXFIBERS OF FLAX
In dew retting, the flax is spread on the field and exposed to the action of the weather for several weekswithout any previous steeping. This method of retting is practiced in Germany and Russia. Warm water retting and chemical retting have met with limited success.
When the retting is complete, the flax is set up in sheaves to dry. The next operations consist of "breaking," "scutching," and "hackling" and are now done by machinery.
Breaking removes the woody center from the retted and dried flax by being passed through a series of fluted rollers. The particles of woody matter adhering to the fibers are detached by scutching.
Hackling
Hackling or combing still further separates the fibers into their finest filaments—"line" and "tow." The "flax line" is the long and valuable fiber; the tow, the short coarse tangled fiber which is spun and used for weaving coarse linen.
FLAXFLAXA, Unthrashed Straw; B, Retted; C, Cleaned or Scutched; D, Hackled or Dressed.(Photograph of C. R. Dodge).
A, Unthrashed Straw; B, Retted; C, Cleaned or Scutched; D, Hackled or Dressed.(Photograph of C. R. Dodge).
HACKLING FLAX BY HANDHACKLING FLAX BY HANDThe "Tow" Is Seen at the Left and a Bunch of "Flax line" on the Bench.(Photograph of C. R. Dodge, Special Agent U. S. Department of Agriculture.)
The "Tow" Is Seen at the Left and a Bunch of "Flax line" on the Bench.(Photograph of C. R. Dodge, Special Agent U. S. Department of Agriculture.)
Characteristics of Linen
When freed from all impurities the chief physical characteristics of flax are its snowy whiteness, silky luster and great tenacity. The individual fibers maybe from ten to twelve inches in length; they are much greater in diameter than cotton. It is less pliant and elastic than cotton and bleaches and dyes less readily. Linen cloth is a better conductor of heat than cotton and clothing made from it is cooler. When pure, it is, like cotton, nearly pure cellulose.
Ramie
Besides the linen, there is a great number of bast fibers fit for textile purposes, some superior, some inferior. India alone has over three hundred plants that are fiber yielding. One-third of these furnish useful fibers for cordage and fabrics. The next in importance to linen is ramie or rhea, and China grass. China grass comes from a different plant but is about the same as ramie. The staple is longer and finer than linen. The great strength of yarn made from it is due to length of the staple.
The variety and great value of the ramie fibers has long been recognized, but difficulties attending the separation and degumming of the fibers have prevented its employment in the manufactures to any great extent. The native Chinese split and scrape the plant stems, steeping them in water. The common retting process used for flax is not effective on account of the large amount of gummy matter, and although easy to bleach it is difficult to dye in full bright shades without injuring the luster of the fibers.
Jute and Hemp
Jute and hemp belong to the lower order of bast fibers. The fiber is large and is unfit for any but the coarsest kind of fabrics. Jute is mainly cultivated in Bengal. The fiber is separated from the plant by retting, beating, etc.
JUTE GROWING IN LOUISIANA.JUTE GROWING IN LOUISIANA.From Culture of Hemp and Jute, Report of U. S. Department of Agriculture.
From Culture of Hemp and Jute, Report of U. S. Department of Agriculture.
DRYING HEMP IN KENTUCKYDRYING HEMP IN KENTUCKYFrom "Culture of Hemp and Jute."
From "Culture of Hemp and Jute."
Olona
Olona, the textile fiber of Hawaii, is found to have promising qualities. This plant resembles ramie and belongs to the nettle family also, but it is without the troublesome resin of the ramie. The fiber is fine, light, strong, and durable.
The Philippines are rich in fiber producing plants. The manila hemp is the most prominent, of which coarse cloth is woven, besides the valuable cordage. The sisal hemp, pineapple, yucca, and a number of fiber plants growing in the southern part of the United States are worthy of note. These fiber industries are conducted in a rude way, the fiber being cleaned by hand, except the pineapple.
The silk fiber is the most perfect as well as the most beautiful of all fibers. It is nearly faultless, fine and continuous, often measuring from 1000 to 4000 feet long, without a scale, joint, or a blemish, though not of the same diameter or fineness throughout its entire length, as it becomes finer as the interior of the cocoon is approached. Silk differs from all other vegetable or animal fibers by being devoid of all cellular structure.
Where Produced
Southern Europe leads in the silk worm culture—Italy, southern France, and Turkey, with China and India. Several species of moths, natives of India, China, and Japan, produce the wild silk. The mostimportant of the "wild silks" are the Tussah. Silk plush and the coarser varieties of buff colored fabrics are made of this silk. While manufacturers do not favor the wild silk, the coarse uneven weave and softness make it a favorite with artists and it is being used for interior decoration as well as for clothing.
Silk Worm
The silk of commerce begins with an egg no bigger than a mustard seed, out of which comes a diminutive caterpillar, which is kept in a frame and fed upon mulberry leaves. When the caterpillars are full grown, they climb upon twigs placed for them and begin to spin or make the cocoon. The silk comes from two little orifices in the head in the form of a glutinous gum which hardens into a fine elastic fiber. With a motion of the head somewhat like the figure eight, the silk worm throws this thread around the body from head to tail until at last it is entirely enveloped. The body grows smaller and the thread grows finer until at last it has spun out most of the substance of the body and the task is done.
If left to itself, when the time came, the moth would eat its way out of the cocoon and ruin the fiber. A few of the best cocoons are saved for a new supply of caterpillars; the remainder are baked at a low heat which destroys the worm but preserves the silk. This now becomes the cocoon of commerce.
Reeling Silk
Next the cocoons go to the reelers who wind the filaments into the silk yarn that makes the rawmaterial of our mills. The cocoons are thrown into warm water mixed with soap in order to dissolve the gum. The outer or coarser covering is brushed off down to the real silk and the end of the thread found. Four or five cocoons are wound together, the sticky fibers clinging to each other as they pass through the various guides and are wound as a single thread on the reels. The silk is dried and tied into hanks or skeins. As the thread unwinds from the cocoon, it becomes smaller, so other threads must be added.
SILK:—CATERPILLAR, COCOON, CHRYSALIS, MOTHSILK:—CATERPILLAR, COCOON, CHRYSALIS, MOTH
Organize and Tram
At the mill the raw silk goes to the "throwster" who twists the silk threads ready for the loom. These threads are of two kinds—"organize" or warp and "tram" or filling. The warp runs the long way of woven fabric or parallel with the selvage and it must be strong, elastic, and not easily parted by rubbing. To prepare the warp, two threads of raw silk are slightly twisted. Twist is always put into yarn of any kind to increase its strength. These threads are united and twisted together and this makes a strong thread capable of withstanding any reasonable strain in the loom and it will not roughen. For the woof or tram which is carried across the woven cloth on the shuttle, the thread should be as loose and fluffy as possible. Several threads are put together, subjected to only a very slight twist—just enough to hold the threads together so they will lie evenly in the finished fabric.
Boiling Off
After the yarn leaves the spinners it is again run off on reels to be taken to the dye house. First the yarn is boiled off in soapy water to remove the remaining gum. Now the silk takes on its luster. Before it was dull like cotton. The silk is now finer and harder and is known as "souple."
Loading Silk
The silk fiber has a remarkable property of absorbing certain metallic salts, still retaining much of itsluster. This process is known as "loading" or "weighting," and gives increased body and weight to the silk. Silk without weighting is known as "pure dye," of which there is little made, as such goods take too much silk.
REELING SILKREELING SILK
For the weighting of white or light colored silk goods, tin crystals (stanous chloride) are used and for dark shades and black, iron salts and tannin. By this means the original weight of the fiber may be increased three or four hundred per cent. This result is not attained, however, except through the weakening of the fiber.
Action of Common Salt
Common salt has a very curious action on weighted silk. It slowly weakens the fiber. A silk dress may be ruined by being splashed with salt water at the seashore. Most often holes appear after a dress comes back from the cleaners; these he may not be to blame for, as salt is abundant in nearly all the bodily secretions,—tears, perspiration, urine.
Artificial Silk
Artificial silk is made by dissolving cellulose obtained from cotton. It is lacking in strength and water spoils all kinds manufactured at present.
Characteristics of Silk
Silk, like wool, has the property of absorbing considerable moisture without becoming perceptibly damp. Like wool and all the animal fibers, it is harmed by alkalis. The important physical properties of silk are its beautiful luster, strength, elasticity and the readiness with which it takes dyes. Silk combines well with other fibers, animal and vegetable.
Value of Raw Fibers
A comparison of the relative value of textile fibers may be seen from the following approximate prices:
Cotton—$.07 to $.14 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching 5 per cent.Flax—$.12 to $.30 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching about 20 per cent.Wool—$.15 to $.30 per pound; loss in scouring 20 to 60 per cent.Raw Silk—$7.00 to $10.00 per pound; loss in "boiling off" about 30 per cent which is made up and much more by "loading."
Cotton—$.07 to $.14 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching 5 per cent.
Flax—$.12 to $.30 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching about 20 per cent.
Wool—$.15 to $.30 per pound; loss in scouring 20 to 60 per cent.
Raw Silk—$7.00 to $10.00 per pound; loss in "boiling off" about 30 per cent which is made up and much more by "loading."
All the complex processes and machinery of the textile industry are but developments of the old-time methods of the home. Brief outlines only will be given here for the processes are most intricate in detail.
The spinning of cotton yarn (thread) is typical of all the fibers. The stages may be divided into—
1. Opening and picking.2. Carding.3. Combing.4. Drawing.5. Spinning.
Picking and Carding
The picking and carding have for their object the removal of all foreign substances with as little damage to the fiber as possible. The foreign substances in cotton are sand, dirt, pieces of leaves, seed, husk, etc., which have become mixed with the fiber during the process of growing, ginning and transportation.
Cleaning
The cotton bales are opened and thrown into the automatic feeder which carries up a layer of cotton on a spiked apron from which it is removed by a rapidly revolving "doffer" underneath which is a screen which catches some of the dirt. It is next fed between rolls in front of a rapidly revolving blunt-edged knife which throws out more of the dirt through a screen. There is a suction of air through the screen which helps remove the foreign substances. The cotton passesthrough several of such machines, being formed into a soft web or "lap" which is wound into a roll.
Carding
The carding machine further cleans the fibers and lays them in a general parallel position. From this machine the web is formed into "sliver," a loose rope of cotton fiber about two inches in diameter. This is received in circular cans.
COTTON OPENER AND PICKERCOTTON OPENER AND PICKERThe cotton from the bale is thrown intoA, carried by the spiked apronsBandC, evened byE, removed from the apron byF(some of the dirt falls through the screen into boxG) is beaten by the revolving "knife,"N P, more dirt being removed through screenN, then goes through the flueCto the next machine.
The cotton from the bale is thrown intoA, carried by the spiked apronsBandC, evened byE, removed from the apron byF(some of the dirt falls through the screen into boxG) is beaten by the revolving "knife,"N P, more dirt being removed through screenN, then goes through the flueCto the next machine.
Combing
The combing is omitted for short fiber cotton, but is used in worsted spinning and with long staple cotton to remove the short fibers. Cotton to be used formaking yarn suitable for hosiery, underwear, sewing thread, lace, and for very fine cotton fabrics is carded.
In drawing, from six to sixteen "slivers" are run together and the fibers drawn out in several stages until the soft rope is about an eighth of an inch in diameter, called "roving." This tends to get rid of any unevenness and makes the fibers all parallel. From this machine the roving is wound on a bobbin ready for the spinning frame.
COTTON CARDCOTTON CARDThe roll of webbingAis beaten and transferred to the cylinderH H, carded by the spiked beltE, removed by the "doffer" and formed into a "sliver" which runs into the canM.
The roll of webbingAis beaten and transferred to the cylinderH H, carded by the spiked beltE, removed by the "doffer" and formed into a "sliver" which runs into the canM.
Spinning
The spinning frame may have a hundred spindles or more, each one of which is drawing out its supply of "roving" to the required size of yarn and giving it the twist necessary to bind the fibers together. The yarn to be used for the warp is given a harder twist so that it may be strong enough to stand the strain in weaving. The yarn for filling is usually left soft.
COTTON COMB, USED FOR LONG STAPLECOTTON COMB, USED FOR LONG STAPLE
RECEIVING THE "SLIVER" AT THE BACK OF THE DRAWING FRAME.RECEIVING THE "SLIVER" AT THE BACK OF THE DRAWING FRAME.
DRAWING FRAMEDRAWING FRAMEDrawing the Roving Finer.
Drawing the Roving Finer.
A FLY SPINNING FRAMEA FLY SPINNING FRAMEThe Spools of Roving Above Are Being Drawn Out, Given the Twist by the Fliers, and Wound on Bobbins Below.
The Spools of Roving Above Are Being Drawn Out, Given the Twist by the Fliers, and Wound on Bobbins Below.
MULE DRAWING AND SPINNING FRAMEMULE DRAWING AND SPINNING FRAMEAlways used for wool. Part of the machine moves away from the frame, thus drawing out the thread, which is then twisted.
Always used for wool. Part of the machine moves away from the frame, thus drawing out the thread, which is then twisted.
MODERN RING SPINNING FRAME FOR COTTON. SIXTY-EIGHT SPINDLESMODERN RING SPINNING FRAME FOR COTTON. SIXTY-EIGHT SPINDLESGives the Largest Production.
Gives the Largest Production.
A PLAIN POWER LOOM WEAVING LINENA PLAIN POWER LOOM WEAVING LINEN
The yarn for warp is now usually given a coating or "sizing" of starch and gums so that the thread may not become unwound and break during weaving.
The process of spinning is much the same for flax and for wool, although somewhat differently constructed machines must be used. Flax is usually spun wet.
Modern Loom
The modern power driven loom is a wonderful piece of machinery. The principle of its operation is essentially the same as the hand loom, but it is almost perfectly automatic in its action, a man or woman being able to tend from ten to fifteen looms weaving plain cotton goods.
Warping
The yarn coming from the spinning frame is sometimes dyed before weaving. The warp is formed by winding as many threads as the width of the fabric is to contain on a slowly revolving drum, called a "beam," in the same relative position in which they are to appear in the finished cloth. From its position on the beam at the back of the loom, each thread is brought through its particular loop or eye with the heddle, then passes through its own slot in the reed, and down to the roller or "cloth beam" that is to take up the woven cloth. This is called "drawing in the warp." If there is a piece of cloth coming from the loom, the work is very simple, for the ends of the new warp are tied to the ends remaining from the warp that has been woven out.
The shuttle with its bobbin, containing the yarn of the filling, is much the same as is used in the hand looms, except for form and size, which varies according to the requirements and size of the warp being used. At first only one shuttle was used, but in 1760 Robert Kay invented a mechanism by which several shuttles containing different grades or colors of yarn might be used. Each throw of the shuttle across the width of the goods is called a "pick."
The Harness
In making a cloth with plain weave, that is, with every thread interlacing with every other, as in darning, only two harnesses are required, but the modern loom may have up to about twenty-four harnesses so that an infinite variety of weaves may be obtained. Various cams and levers move the harness frame and so raise or lower the threads required for the design.
Jacquard Loom
The Jacquard loom is arranged on a different principle. In this loom, all kinds of fancy weaves may be obtained as in table linen, tapestries and carpets. Each warp thread is supplied with a separate hook and by means of perforated card the desired threads are raised or depressed at each throw of the shuttle. The cards are worked out by the designer. A set of a thousand or more cards may be required to produce the desired design. Jacquard looms are sometimes to be seen at fairs and expositions weaving handkerchiefs with some picture design.
JACQUARD HAND LOOM.JACQUARD HAND LOOMWeaving Ingrain Carpet at Hull House.
Weaving Ingrain Carpet at Hull House.
The great variety of weaves found in the textiles of to-day are modifications of a few fundamental weaves invented in the earliest times.
The chief fundamental weaves are:
(1) Plain weave.(2) Twills.(3) Sateen.
To which may be added the derivatives—
(4) Rib weave.(5) Basket weave.
DIAGRAM OF FANCY KNIT GOODSDIAGRAM OF FANCY KNIT GOODS
These do not include the many fancy weaves, too numerous to classify, and the open work weaves, made in the Leno loom, in which some of the threads are crossed. Knit goods are made by the interlooping of a single thread, by hand or on circular knittingmachines and lace by an analogous process, using several systems of threads. Felt is made up of matted fibers of fur and wool and has no thread structure.
WEAVE DIAGRAMSWEAVE DIAGRAMS
Plain Weave
The plain weave is the most common, nearly all light weight goods being thus woven. In plain weaving, each thread of both warp and filling passes alternately over and under the threads at right angles. This makes a comparatively open cloth, requiring thesmallest amount of yarn for the surface covered. This weave is used in nearly all cotton goods, as in muslins, sheetings, calicoes, ginghams, and thin woolen goods. Even in the plain weave variety is obtained by having some of the threads larger than others, either in warp or filling or both, thus producing stripes and checked effects.
SECTIONS OF WEAVESSECTIONS OF WEAVESa—Plain weave;b—Prunella twill;c—Cassimere twill;d—Swansdown twill.
a—Plain weave;b—Prunella twill;c—Cassimere twill;d—Swansdown twill.
Twills
After the plain weave the twill is the most common, being much used for dress goods, suitings, etc., as well as some of the thicker cottons. In this weave the intersections of the threads produce characteristic lines diagonally across the fabric, most often at an angle of 45°. The twill may be hardly visible or verypronounced. The simplest twills are the so-called "doeskin" and "prunella." In the doeskin the filling threads pass over one and under two of the warp threads and in the prunella twill over two and under one. The most common twill is the cassimere twill in which both the warp and filling run over two and under two of the threads at right angles.
DIAGRAM OF RIB AND BASKET WEAVE AND DOUBLE CLOTHDIAGRAM OF RIB AND BASKET WEAVE AND DOUBLE CLOTH
Uneven Twills
A twill made by running both warp and filling under one and over three threads is called a swansdown twill and the reverse is known as the crow weave. In these the diagonal twilled effect is much more marked. Various twills are often combined with each other and with plain weave, making a great variety of texture. Numerous uneven twills are made, two over and three under, etc., etc.
Sateen Weave
In the sateen weave, nearly all of either the warp or the filling threads are on the surface, the object being to produce a smooth surface fabric like sateen. With this weave it is possible to use a cotton warp and silk filling, having most of the silk appear on the surface of the fabric.
TEXTILE DESIGNTEXTILE DESIGNA—On cross-section paper;B—Graphic diagram.
A—On cross-section paper;B—Graphic diagram.
Rib and Basket Weaves
The rib and basket weaves are derivatives of the plain weave, two or more threads replacing the singlestrand. In the rib weave, either the warp or the filling threads run double or more, thus making a corded effect. In the basket weave, both warp and filling are run double or treble, giving a coarse texture. This weave is sometimes called the panama weave.