Micronesia, Federated States ofIn 1979 the Federated States ofMicronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted aconstitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact ofFree Association with the US. Present concerns include large-scaleunemployment, overfishing, and overdependence on US aid.
Midway IslandsThe US took formal possession of the islands in 1867.The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed through theislands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and 1947,Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights. TheUS naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was one ofthe turning points of World War II. The islands continued to serveas a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands are anational wildlife refuge. From 1996 to 2001 the refuge was open tothe public. It is now temporarily closed.
MoldovaFormerly ruled by Romania, Moldova became part of the SovietUnion at the close of World War II. Although independent from theUSSR since 1991, Russian forces have remained on Moldovan territoryeast of the Dniester River supporting the Slavic majoritypopulation, mostly Ukrainians and Russians, who have proclaimed a"Transnistria" republic. One of the poorest nations in Europe,Moldova became the first former Soviet state to elect a Communist asits president in 2001.
MonacoEconomic development was spurred in the late 19th centurywith a railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Sincethen, the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, andgambling facilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist andrecreation center.
MongoliaThe Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when underGenghis KHAN they conquered a huge Eurasian empire. After his deaththe empire was divided into several powerful Mongol states, butthese broke apart in the 14th century. The Mongols eventuallyretired to their original steppe homelands and came under Chineserule. Mongolia won its independence in 1921 with Soviet backing. ACommunist regime was installed in 1924. During the early 1990s, theex-Communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) graduallyyielded its monopoly on power to the Democratic Union Coalition(DUC), which defeated the MPRP in a national election in 1996. Overthe next four years, the DUC put forward a number of key reforms tomodernize the economy and to democratize the political system. Theformer Communists were a strong opposition that stalled additionalrestructuring and made implementation difficult. In 2000, the MPRPwon an overwhelming victory in the legislature - with 72 of the 76seats - and completely reshuffled the government. While it continuesmany of the reform policies, the MPRP has focused on social welfareand public order priorities.
MontserratMuch of this island has been devastated and two-thirds ofthe population has fled abroad due to the eruption of the SoufriereHills Volcano that began on 18 July 1995.
MoroccoMorocco's long struggle for independence from France endedin 1956. The internationalized city of Tangier was turned over tothe new country that same year. Morocco virtually annexed WesternSahara during the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status ofthe territory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in1997.
MozambiqueAlmost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to aclose with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration by whites,economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and aprolonged civil war hindered the country's development. The rulingparty formally abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution thefollowing year provided for multiparty elections and a free marketeconomy. A UN-negotiated peace agreement with rebel forces ended thefighting in 1992. Heavy flooding in both 1999 and 2000 severely hurtthe economy. Political stability and sound economic policies haveencouraged recent foreign investment.
NamibiaSouth Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africaduring World War I and administered it as a mandate until afterWorld War II, when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the MarxistSouth-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla grouplaunched a war of independence for the area that was soon namedNamibia, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to endits administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entireregion. Independence came in 1990 following multi-party electionsand the establishment of a constitution. President NUJOMA iscurrently serving his third term as president.
NauruNauru's phosphate deposits began to be mined early in the 20thcentury by a German-British consortium; the island was occupied byAustralian forces in World War I. Nauru achieved independence in1968 and joined the UN in 1999. Nauru is the world's smallestindependent republic.
Navassa IslandThis uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857for its guano, and mining took place between 1865 and 1898. Thelighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administrationof Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Departmentof the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the islanddescribed it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; thefollowing year it became a National Wildlife Refuge.
NepalIn 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system ofrule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system ofgovernment. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracywithin the framework of a constitutional monarchy. A Maoistinsurgency, launched in 1996, has gained traction and is threateningto bring down the regime. In 2001, the Crown Prince massacred tenmembers of the royal family, including the king and queen, and thentook his own life. In October 2002, the new king dismissed the primeminister and his cabinet for "incompetence" after they dissolved theparliament and were subsequently unable to hold elections because ofthe ongoing insurgency. The country is now governed by the king andhis appointed cabinet, which has negotiated a cease-fire with theMaoist insurgents, until elections can be held at some unspecifiedfuture date.
NetherlandsThe Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed in 1815. In1830 Belgium seceded and formed a separate kingdom. The Netherlandsremained neutral in World War I, but suffered invasion andoccupation by Germany in World War II. A modern, industrializednation, the Netherlands is also a large exporter of agriculturalproducts. The country was a founding member of NATO and the EC (nowthe EU), and participated in the introduction of the Economic andMonetary Union (EMU) in 1999.
Netherlands AntillesOnce the center of the Caribbean slave trade,the island of Curacao was hard hit by the abolition of slavery in1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored inthe early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries toservice the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields. The island ofSaint Martin is shared with France; its northern portion is namedSaint-Martin and is part of Guadeloupe, and its southern portion isnamed Sint Maarten and is part of the Netherlands Antilles.
New CaledoniaSettled by both Britain and France during the firsthalf of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s seems tohave dissipated.
New ZealandThe Polynesian Maori reached New Zealand in about A.D.800. In 1840, their chieftains entered into a compact with Britain,the Treaty of Waitangi, in which they ceded sovereignty to QueenVictoria while retaining territorial rights. In that same year, theBritish began the first organized colonial settlement. A series ofland wars between 1843 and 1872 ended with the defeat of the nativepeoples. The British colony of New Zealand became an independentdominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars.New Zealand's full participation in a number of defense allianceslapsed by the 1980s. In recent years, the government has sought toaddress longstanding Maori grievances.
NicaraguaThe Pacific Coast of Nicaragua was settled as a Spanishcolony from Panama in the early 16th century. Independence fromSpain was declared in 1821 and the country became an independentrepublic in 1838. Britain occupied the Caribbean Coast in the firsthalf of the 19th century, but gradually ceded control of the regionin subsequent decades. Violent opposition to governmentalmanipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 andresulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the MarxistSandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftistrebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinistacontra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990,1996, and again in 2001 saw the Sandinistas defeated. The countryhas slowly rebuilt its economy during the 1990s, but was hard hit byHurricane Mitch in 1998.
NigerNot until 1993, 33 years after independence from France, didNiger hold it's first free and open elections. A 1995 peace accordended a five-year Tuareg insurgency in the north. Coups in 1996 and1999 were followed by the creation of a National ReconciliationCouncil that effected a transition to civilian rule by December 1999.
NigeriaFollowing nearly 16 years of military rule, a newconstitution was adopted in 1999, and a peaceful transition tocivilian government was completed. The president faces the dauntingtask of rebuilding a petroleum-based economy, whose revenues havebeen squandered through corruption and mismanagement, andinstitutionalizing democracy. In addition, the OBASANJOadministration must defuse longstanding ethnic and religioustensions, if it is to build a sound foundation for economic growthand political stability. Despite some irregularities the April 2003elections marked the first civilian transfer of power in Nigeria'shistory.
NiueNiue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguisticdifferences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the restof the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered.The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200in 1966 to about 2,100 in 2002), with substantial emigration to NewZealand, 2,400 km to the southwest.
Norfolk IslandTwo British attempts at establishing the island as apenal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants ofthe Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.
Northern Mariana IslandsUnder US administration as part of the UNTrust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern MarianaIslands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead toforge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial statusbegan in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in politicalunion with the US was approved in 1975. A new government andconstitution went into effect in 1978.
NorwayTwo centuries of Viking raids into Europe tapered offfollowing the adoption of Christianity by King Olav TRYGGVASON in994. Conversion of the Norwegian kingdom occurred over the nextseveral decades. In 1397, Norway was absorbed into a union withDenmark that was to last for more than four centuries. In 1814,Norwegians resisted the cession of their country to Sweden andadopted a new constitution. Sweden then invaded Norway but agreed tolet Norway keep its constitution in return for accepting the unionunder a Swedish king. Rising nationalism throughout the 19th centuryled to a 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Norwayremained neutral in World War I and proclaimed its neutrality at theoutset of World War II. Nevertheless, it was not able to avoid afive-year occupation by Nazi Germany (1940-1945). In 1949,neutrality was abandoned and Norway became a member of NATO.Discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in the late 1960sboosted Norway's economic fortunes. The current focus is oncontaining spending on the extensive welfare system and planning forthe time when petroleum reserves are depleted. In referenda held in1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU.
OmanIn 1970, QABOOS bin Said Al Said ousted his father and hasruled as sultan ever since. His extensive modernization program hasopened the country to the outside world and has preserved along-standing political and military relationship with the UK.Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought to maintaingood relations with all Middle Eastern countries.
Pacific OceanThe Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's fiveoceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, SouthernOcean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterwaysinclude the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, andTorres Straits. The decision by the International HydrographicOrganization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, theSouthern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60degrees south.
PakistanThe separation in 1947 of British India into the Muslimstate of Pakistan (with two sections West and East) and largelyHindu India was never satisfactorily resolved. A third war betweenthese countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan seceding andbecoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. A dispute over the stateof Kashmir is ongoing. In response to Indian nuclear weaponstesting, Pakistan conducted its own tests in 1998.
PalauAfter three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of thePacific under US administration, this westernmost cluster of theCaroline Islands opted for independence in 1978 rather than join theFederated States of Micronesia. A Compact of Free Association withthe US was approved in 1986, but not ratified until 1993. It enteredinto force the following year, when the islands gained independence.
Palmyra AtollThe Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, andthe US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed thearchipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did notinclude Palmyra Atoll, which is now privately owned by the NatureConservancy. This organization is managing the atoll as a naturepreserve. The lagoons and surrounding waters within the 12 nauticalmile US territorial seas were transferred to the US Fish andWildlife Service and were designated a National Wildlife Refuge inJanuary 2001.
PanamaWith US backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 andpromptly signed a treaty with the US allowing for the constructionof a canal and US sovereignty over a strip of land on either side ofthe structure (the Panama Canal Zone). The Panama Canal was built bythe US Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. On 7 September1977, an agreement was signed for the complete transfer of the Canalfrom the US to Panama by the end of 1999. Certain portions of theZone and increasing responsibility over the Canal were turned overin the intervening years. With US help, dictator Manuel NORIEGA wasdeposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting theCanal, and remaining US military bases were turned over to Panama byor on 31 December 1999.
Papua New GuineaThe eastern half of the island of New Guinea -second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred toAustralia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during WorldWar I and continued to administer the combined areas untilindependence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the islandof Bougainville ended in 1997, after claiming some 20,000 lives.
Paracel IslandsThe Paracel Islands are surrounded by productivefishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932,French Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station onPattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor, Vietnam.China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troopsseized a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.The islands are claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam.
ParaguayIn the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70),Paraguay lost two-thirds of all adult males and much of itsterritory. It stagnated economically for the next half century. Inthe Chaco War of 1932-35, large, economically important areas werewon from Bolivia. The 35-year military dictatorship of AlfredoSTROESSNER was overthrown in 1989, and, despite a marked increase inpolitical infighting in recent years, relatively free and regularpresidential elections have been held since then.
PeruAncient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andeancivilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire wascaptured by the Spanish conquistadores in 1533. Peruvianindependence was declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forcesdefeated in 1824. After a dozen years of military rule, Perureturned to democratic leadership in 1980, but experienced economicproblems and the growth of a violent insurgency. President AlbertoFUJIMORI's election in 1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramaticturnaround in the economy and significant progress in curtailingguerrilla activity. Nevertheless, the president's increasingreliance on authoritarian measures and an economic slump in the late1990s generated mounting dissatisfaction with his regime. FUJIMORIwon reelection to a third term in the spring of 2000, butinternational pressure and corruption scandals led to his ouster byCongress in November of that year. A caretaker government oversawnew elections in the spring of 2001, which ushered in AlejandroTOLEDO as the new head of government.
PhilippinesThe Philippines were ceded by Spain to the US in 1898following the Spanish-American War. They attained independence in1946 after Japanese occupation in World War II. The 21-year rule ofFerdinand MARCOS ended in 1986, when a widespread popular rebellionforced him into exile. In 1992, the US closed its last militarybases on the islands. The Philippines has had two electoralpresidential transitions since the removal of MARCOS. In January2001, the Supreme Court declared Joseph ESTRADA unable to rule inview of mass resignations from his government and administered theoath of office to Vice President Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO as hisconstitutional successor. The government continues to struggle withMuslim insurgencies in the south.
Pitcairn IslandsPitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by theBritish and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and theirTahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to becomea British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige ofthat empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to NewZealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 toless than 50 today.
PolandPoland is an ancient nation that was conceived around themiddle of the 10th century. Its golden age occurred in the 16thcentury. During the following century, the strengthening of thegentry and internal disorders weakened the nation, until anagreement in 1772 between Russia, Prussia, and Austria partitionedPoland. Poland regained its independence in 1918 only to be overrunby Germany and the Soviet Union in World War II. It became a Sovietsatellite state following the war, but its government wascomparatively tolerant and progressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led tothe formation of the independent trade union "Solidarity" that overtime became a political force and by 1990 had swept parliamentaryelections and the presidency. A "shock therapy" program during theearly 1990s enabled the country to transform its economy into one ofthe most robust in Central Europe, but Poland currently suffers lowGDP growth and high unemployment. Solidarity suffered a major defeatin the 2001 parliamentary elections when it failed to elect a singledeputy to the lower house of Parliament, and the new leaders of theSolidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to reduce the TradeUnion's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and is scheduledto accede to the European Union along with nine other states on 1May 2004.
PortugalFollowing its heyday as a world power during the 15th and16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with thedestruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during theNapoleonic Wars, and the independence in 1822 of Brazil as a colony.A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; for most of the next sixdecades, repressive governments ran the country. In 1974, aleft-wing military coup installed broad democratic reforms. Thefollowing year, Portugal granted independence to all of its Africancolonies. Portugal entered the EC (now the EU) in 1986.
Puerto RicoPopulated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, theisland was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following Columbus'second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonialrule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated andAfrican slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as aresult of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted UScitizenship in 1917 and popularly elected governors have servedsince 1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing forinternal self-government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and1998 voters chose to retain commonwealth status.
QatarRuled by the Al Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatartransformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly forpearling into an independent state with significant oil and naturalgas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatarieconomy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleumrevenues by the amir, who had ruled the country since 1972. He wasoverthrown by his son, the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa Al Thani,in a bloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved itslongstanding border disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Oiland natural gas revenues enable Qatar to have a per capita incomenot far below the leading industrial countries of Western Europe.
ReunionThe Portuguese discovered the uninhabited island in 1513.From the 17th to the 19th centuries, French immigration,supplemented by influxes of Africans, Chinese, Malays, and MalabarIndians, gave the island its ethnic mix. The opening of the SuezCanal in 1869 cost the island its importance as a stopover on theEast Indies trade route.
RomaniaSoviet occupation following World War II led to theformation of a Communist "peoples republic" in 1947 and theabdication of the king. The decades-long rule of dictator NicolaeCEAUSESCU, who took power in 1965, and his Securitate police statebecame increasingly oppressive and draconian through the 1980s.CEAUSESCU was overthrown and executed in late 1989. FormerCommunists dominated the government until 1996, when they were sweptfrom power by a fractious coalition of centrist parties. Currently,the Social Democratic Party forms a nominally minority government,which governs with the support of the opposition Democratic Union ofHungarians in Romania. Bucharest must address rampant corruption,while invigorating lagging economic and democratic reforms, beforeRomania can achieve its hope of joining the European Union.
RussiaRepeated devastating defeats of the Russian army in World WarI led to widespread rioting in the major cities of the RussianEmpire and to the overthrow in 1917 of the 300-year old RomanovDynasty. The Communists under Vladimir LENIN seized power soon afterand formed the USSR. The brutal rule of Josef STALIN (1928-53)strengthened Russian dominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tensof millions of lives. The Soviet economy and society stagnated inthe following decades until General Secretary Mikhail GORBACHEV(1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika(restructuring) in an attempt to modernize Communism, but hisinitiatives inadvertently released forces that by December 1991splintered the USSR into 15 independent republics. Since then,Russia has struggled in its efforts to build a democratic politicalsystem and market economy to replace the strict social, political,and economic controls of the Communist period. A determinedguerrilla conflict still plagues Russia in Chechnya.
RwandaIn 1959, three years before independence from Belgium, themajority ethnic group, the Hutus, overthrew the ruling Tutsi king.Over the next several years, thousands of Tutsis were killed, andsome 150,000 driven into exile in neighboring countries. Thechildren of these exiles later formed a rebel group, the RwandanPatriotic Front, and began a civil war in 1990. The war, along withseveral political and economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnictensions, culminating in April 1994 in the genocide of roughly800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated theHutu regime and ended the killing in July 1994, but approximately 2million Hutu refugees - many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled toneighboring Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire. Since then, mostof the refugees have returned to Rwanda. Despite substantialinternational assistance and political reforms - including Rwanda'sfirst local elections in March 1999 - the country continues tostruggle to boost investment and agricultural output and to fosterreconciliation. A series of massive population displacements, anagging Hutu extremist insurgency, and Rwandan involvement in twowars over the past four years in the neighboring DROC continue tohinder Rwanda's efforts.
Saint HelenaUninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in1502, Saint Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17thcentury. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE'sexile, from 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as aport of call declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.Ascension Island is the site of a US Air Force auxiliary airfield;Gough Island has a meteorological station.
Saint Kitts and NevisFirst settled by the British in 1623, theislands became an associated state with full internal autonomy in1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to secede in1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983. In 1998,a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from Saint Kitts fellshort of the two-thirds majority needed.
Saint LuciaThe island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,was contested between England and France throughout the 17th andearly 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finallyceded to the UK in 1814. Self-government was granted in 1967 andindependence in 1979.
Saint Pierre and MiquelonFirst settled by the French in the early17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige ofFrance's once vast North American possessions.
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesDisputed between France and theUnited Kingdom in the 18th century, Saint Vincent was ceded to thelatter in 1783. Autonomy was granted in 1969 and independence in1979.
SamoaNew Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoaat the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administerthe islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablishindependence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"from its name in 1997.
San MarinoThe third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy Seeand Monaco) also claims to be the world's oldest republic. Accordingto tradition, it was founded by a Christian stonemason named Marinusin 301 A.D. San Marino's foreign policy is aligned with that ofItaly. Social and political trends in the republic also trackclosely with those of its larger neighbor.
Sao Tome and PrincipeDiscovered and claimed by Portugal in the late15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffeeand cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slavelabor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. Althoughindependence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were notinstituted until the late 1980s. Though the first free electionswere held in 1991, the political environment has been one ofcontinued instability with frequent changes in leadership and coupattempts in 1995 and 2003. The recent discovery of oil in the Gulfof Guinea is likely to have a significant impact on the country'seconomy.
Saudi ArabiaIn 1902, ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman Al Saud capturedRiyadh and set out on a 30-year campaign to unify the ArabianPeninsula. In the 1930s, the discovery of oil transformed thecountry. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabiaaccepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees whileallowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for theliberation of Kuwait the following year. A burgeoning population,aquifer depletion, and an economy largely dependent on petroleumoutput and prices are all major governmental concerns.
SenegalIndependent from France in 1960, Senegal joined with TheGambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in 1982.However, the envisaged integration of the two countries was nevercarried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peacetalks, a southern separatist group sporadically has clashed withgovernment forces since 1982. Senegal has a long history ofparticipating in international peacekeeping.
Serbia and MontenegroThe Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes wasformed in 1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929.Occupation by Nazi Germany in 1941 was resisted by variousparamilitary bands that fought themselves as well as the invaders.The group headed by Marshal TITO took full control upon Germanexpulsion in 1945. Although Communist, his new governmentsuccessfully steered its own path between the Warsaw Pact nationsand the West for the next four and a half decades. In the early1990s, post-TITO Yugoslavia began to unravel along ethnic lines:Slovenia, Croatia, and The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia alldeclared their independence in 1991; Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992.The remaining republics of Serbia and Montenegro declared a new"Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" (FRY) in 1992 and, under PresidentSlobodan MILOSEVIC, Serbia led various military intervention effortsto unite Serbs in neighboring republics into a "Greater Serbia." Allof these efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In 1999, massiveexpulsions by FRY forces and Serb paramilitaries of ethnic Albaniansliving in Kosovo provoked an international response, including theNATO bombing of Serbia and the stationing of NATO, Russian, andother peacekeepers in Kosovo. Federal elections in the fall of 2000,brought about the ouster of MILOSEVIC and installed VojislavKOSTUNICA as president. The arrest of MILOSEVIC in 2001 allowed forhis subsequent transfer to the International Criminal Tribunal forthe Former Yugoslavia in The Hague to be tried for crimes againsthumanity. In 2001, the country's suspension was lifted, and it wasonce more accepted into UN organizations under the name ofYugoslavia. Kosovo has been governed by the UN InterimAdministration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) since June 1999, under theauthority of UN Security Council Resolution 1244. In 2002, theSerbian and Montenegrin components of Yugoslavia began negotiationsto forge a looser relationship. These talks became a reality inFebruary 2003 when lawmakers restructured the country into a loosefederation of two republics called Serbia and Montenegro. Anagreement was also reached to hold a referendum in each republic inthree years on full independence.
SeychellesA lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain forthe islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a closewith a new constitution and free elections in 1993. The most recentpresidential elections were held 31 August-2 September 2001.President RENE, who has served since 1977, was re-elected.
Sierra LeoneSince 1991, civil war between the government and theRevolutionary United Front (RUF) has resulted in tens of thousandsof deaths and the displacement of more than 2 million people (wellover one-third of the population), many of whom are now refugees inneighboring countries. After several setbacks, the end to the11-year conflict in Sierra Leone may finally be near at hand. Withthe support of the UN peacekeeping force and contributions from theWorld Bank and international community, demobilization anddisarmament of the RUF and Civil Defense Forces (CDF) combatants hasbeen completed. National elections were held in May 2002 and thegovernment continues to slowly reestablish its authority.
SingaporeSingapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819.It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two yearslater and became independent. It subsequently became one of theworld's most prosperous countries with strong international tradinglinks (its port is one of the world's busiest) and with per capitaGDP equal to that of the leading nations of Western Europe.
SlovakiaIn 1918 the Slovaks joined the closely related Czechs toform Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,Czechoslovakia became a Communist nation within Soviet-ruled EasternEurope. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 and Czechoslovakia oncemore became free. The Slovaks and the Czechs agreed to separatepeacefully on 1 January 1993. Slovakia was invited to join NATO andthe EU in 2002.
SloveniaThe Slovene lands were part of the Holy Roman Empire andAustria until 1918 when the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats informing a new nation, renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. After World WarII, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, whichthough Communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfiedwith the exercise of power of the majority Serbs, the Slovenessucceeded in establishing their independence in 1991 after a short10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, anda stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia's transformation to amodern state. In December 2002, Slovenia received an invitation tojoin NATO, and it is scheduled to accede to the EU along with nineother states on 1 May 2004. In a March 2003 referendum on NATO andEU membership, Slovenes voted 90% in favor of joining the EU and 66%in favor of joining NATO.
Solomon IslandsThe UK established a protectorate over the SolomonIslands in the 1890s. Some of the bitterest fighting of World War IIoccurred on these islands. Self-government was achieved in 1976 andindependence two years later. Ethnic violence, governmentmalfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civilsociety.
SomaliaThe SIAD BARRE regime was ousted in January 1991; turmoil,factional fighting, and anarchy have followed for twelve years. InMay of 1991, northern clans declared an independent Republic ofSomaliland that now includes the administrative regions of Awdal,Woqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag, and Sool. Although not recognizedby any government, this entity has maintained a stable existence,aided by the overwhelming dominance of a ruling clan and economicinfrastructure left behind by British, Russian, and Americanmilitary assistance programs. The regions of Bari and Nugaal andnorthern Mudug comprise a neighboring self-declared autonomous stateof Puntland, which has been self-governing since 1998, but does notaim at independence; it has also made strides towards reconstructinga legitimate, representative government, but has suffered civilstrife in 2002. Puntland disputes its border with Somaliland as italso claims portions of eastern Sool and Sanaag. Beginning in 1993,a two-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily in the south) was ableto alleviate famine conditions, but when the UN withdrew in 1995,having suffered significant casualties, order still had not beenrestored. The mandate of the Transitional National Government (TNG),created in August 2000 in Arta, Djibouti, expires in August 2003 anda new interim government was being created at peace talks held inKenya. Numerous warlords and factions are still fighting for controlof Mogadishu and the other southern regions. Suspicion of Somalilinks with global terrorism further complicates the picture.
South AfricaAfter the British seized the Cape of Good Hope area in1806, many of the Dutch settlers (the Boers) trekked north to foundtheir own republics. The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold(1886) spurred wealth and immigration and intensified thesubjugation of the native inhabitants. The Boers resisted Britishencroachments, but were defeated in the Boer War (1899-1902). Theresulting Union of South Africa operated under a policy of apartheid- the separate development of the races. The 1990s brought an end toapartheid politically and ushered in black majority rule.
South Georgia and the South Sandwich IslandsThe islands lieapproximately 1,000 km east of the Falkland Islands and have beenunder British administration since 1908, except for a brief periodin 1982 when Argentina occupied them. Grytviken, on South Georgia,was a 19th and early 20th century whaling station. Famed explorerErnest SHACKLETON stopped there in 1914 en route to his ill-fatedattempt to cross Antarctica on foot. He returned some 20 monthslater with a few companions in a small boat and arranged asuccessful rescue for the rest of his crew, stranded off theAntarctic Peninsula. He died in 1922 on a subsequent expedition andis buried in Grytviken. Today, the station houses scientists fromthe British Antarctic Survey. The islands have large bird and sealpopulations, and, recognizing the importance of preserving themarine stocks in adjacent waters, the UK, in 1993, extended theexclusive fishing zone from 12 NM to 200 NM around each island.
Southern OceanA decision by the International HydrographicOrganization in the spring of 2000 delimited a fifth world ocean -the Southern Ocean - from the southern portions of the AtlanticOcean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extendsfrom the coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude,which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit. The Southern Oceanis now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after thePacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than theArctic Ocean).
SpainSpain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuriesultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequentfailure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions causedthe country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economicand political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II,but suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). In thesecond half of the 20th century, Spain has played a catch-up role inthe western international community; it joined the EU in 1986.Continuing concerns are Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA)terrorism and further reductions in unemployment.
Spratly IslandsThe Spratly Islands consist of more than 100 smallislands or reefs. They are surrounded by rich fishing grounds andpotentially by gas and oil deposits. They are claimed in theirentirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, while portions are claimedby Malaysia and the Philippines. About 50 islands are occupied byChina (about 450 soldiers), Malaysia (70-90), the Philippines (about100), and Vietnam (about 1,500). Brunei is a claimant but has nooutposts. (2002)
Sri LankaThe Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6th centuryB.C., probably from northern India. Buddhism was introducedbeginning in about the mid-third century B.C., and a greatcivilization developed at the cities of Anuradhapura (kingdom fromcirca 200 B.C. to circa 1000 A.D.) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070to 1200). In the 14th century, a south Indian dynasty seized powerin the north and established a Tamil kingdom. Occupied by thePortuguese in the 16th century and by the Dutch in the 17th century,the island was ceded to the British in 1796, became a crown colonyin 1802, and was united under British rule by 1815. As Ceylon, itbecame independent in 1948; its name was changed to Sri Lanka in1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority and Tamil separatistserupted in violence in the mid-1980s. Tens of thousands have died inan ethnic war that continues to fester. After two decades offighting, the government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam begana ceasefire in December 2001, with Norway brokering peacenegotiations.
SudanMilitary regimes favoring Islamic-oriented governments havedominated national politics since independence from the UK in 1956.Sudan has been embroiled in a civil war for all but 10 years of thisperiod (1972-82). The wars are rooted in northern economic,political, and social domination of non-Muslim, non-Arab southernSudanese. Since 1983, the war and war- and famine-related effectshave led to more than 2 million deaths and over 4 million peopledisplaced. The ruling regime is a mixture of military elite and anIslamist party that came to power in a 1989 coup. Some northernopposition parties have made common cause with the southern rebelsand entered the war as a part of an anti-government alliance. Peacetalks gained momentum in 2002-03 with the signing of severalaccords, including a cease-fire agreement.
SurinameIndependence from the Netherlands was granted in 1975. Fiveyears later the civilian government was replaced by a militaryregime that soon declared a socialist republic. It continued to rulethrough a succession of nominally civilian administrations until1987, when international pressure finally forced a democraticelection. In 1989, the military overthrew the civilian government,but a democratically-elected government returned to power in 1991.
SvalbardFirst discovered by the Norwegians in the 12th century, theislands served as an international whaling base during the 17th and18th centuries. Norway's sovereignty was recognized in 1920; fiveyears later it officially took over the territory.
SwazilandAutonomy for the Swazis of southern Africa was guaranteedby the British in the late 19th century; independence was granted1968. Student and labor unrest during the 1990s have pressured themonarchy (one of the oldest on the continent) to grudgingly allowpolitical reform and greater democracy.
SwedenA military power during the 17th century, Sweden has notparticipated in any war in almost two centuries. An armed neutralitywas preserved in both World Wars. Sweden's long-successful economicformula of a capitalist system interlarded with substantial welfareelements was challenged in the 1990s by high unemployment, risingmaintenance costs, and a declining position in world markets.Indecision over the country's role in the political and economicintegration of Europe delayed Sweden's entry into the EU until 1995,and waived the introduction of the euro in 1999.
SwitzerlandSwitzerland's independence and neutrality have long beenhonored by the major European powers, and Switzerland was notinvolved in either of the two World Wars. The political and economicintegration of Europe over the past half century, as well asSwitzerland's role in many UN and international organizations, hasstrengthened Switzerland's ties with its neighbors. However, thecountry did not officially become a UN member until 2002.Switzerland remains active in many UN and internationalorganizations, but retains a strong commitment to neutrality.
SyriaFollowing the breakup of the Ottoman Empire during World WarI, Syria was administered by the French until independence in 1946.In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost the Golan Heights toIsrael. Since 1976, Syrian troops have been stationed in Lebanon,ostensibly in a peacekeeping capacity. In recent years, Syria andIsrael have held occasional peace talks over the return of the GolanHeights.
TaiwanIn 1895, military defeat forced China to cede Taiwan toJapan. It reverted to Chinese control after World War II. Followingthe Communist victory on the mainland in 1949, 2 millionNationalists fled to Taiwan and established a government using the1947 constitution drawn up for all of China. Over the next fivedecades, the ruling authorities gradually democratized andincorporated the native population within the governing structure.In 2000, Taiwan underwent its first peaceful transfer of power fromthe Nationalist to the Democratic Progressive Party. Throughout thisperiod, the island prospered and became one of East Asia's economic"Tigers." The dominant political issues continue to be therelationship between Taiwan and China - specifically the question ofeventual unification - as well as domestic political and economicreform.
TajikistanTajikistan has experienced three changes in governmentand a five-year civil war since it gained independence in 1991 fromthe USSR. A peace agreement among rival factions was signed in 1997,and implemented in 2000. The central government's less than totalcontrol over some areas of the country has forced it to compromiseand forge alliances among factions. Attention by the internationalcommunity in the wake of the war in Afghanistan has broughtincreased economic development assistance, which could create jobsand increase stability in the long term. Tajikistan is in the earlystages of seeking World Trade Organization membership and has joinedNATO's Partnership for Peace.
TanzaniaShortly after independence, Tanganyika and Zanzibar mergedto form the nation of Tanzania in 1964. One-party rule came to anend in 1995 with the first democratic elections held in the countrysince the 1970s. Zanzibar's semi-autonomous status and popularopposition have led to two contentious elections since 1995, whichthe ruling party won despite international observers' claims ofvoting irregularities.
ThailandA unified Thai kingdom was established in the mid-14thcentury. Known as Siam until 1939, Thailand is the only SoutheastAsian country never to have been taken over by a European power. Abloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional monarchy. Inalliance with Japan during World War II, Thailand became a US allyfollowing the conflict.
TogoFrench Togoland became Togo in 1960. Gen. Gnassingbe EYADEMA,installed as military ruler in 1967, is Africa's longest-servinghead of state. Despite the facade of multiparty elections institutedin the early 1990s, the government continues to be dominated byPresident EYADEMA, whose Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) partyhas maintained power almost continually since 1967. In addition,Togo has come under fire from international organizations for humanrights abuses and is plagued by political unrest. Most bilateral andmultilateral aid to Togo remains frozen.
TokelauOriginally settled by Polynesian emigrants from surroundingisland groups, the Tokelau Islands were made a British protectoratein 1889. They were transferred to New Zealand administration in 1925.
TongaThe archipelago of "The Friendly Islands" was united into aPolynesian kingdom in 1845. It became a constitutional monarchy in1875 and a British protectorate in 1900. Tonga acquired itsindependence in 1970 and became a member of the Commonwealth ofNations. It remains the only monarchy in the Pacific.
Trinidad and TobagoThe islands came under British control in the19th century; independence was granted in 1962. The country is oneof the most prosperous in the Caribbean, thanks largely to petroleumand natural gas production and processing. Tourism, mostly inTobago, is targeted for expansion and is growing.
Tromelin IslandFirst explored by the French in 1776, the islandcame under the jurisdiction of Reunion in 1814. At present, itserves as a sea turtle sanctuary and is the site of an importantmeteorological station.
TunisiaFollowing independence from France in 1956, President HabibBOURGUIBA established a strict one-party state. He dominated thecountry for 31 years, repressing Islamic fundamentalism andestablishing rights for women unmatched by any other Arab nation. Inrecent years, Tunisia has taken a moderate, non-aligned stance inits foreign relations. Domestically, it has sought to defuse risingpressure for a more open political society.
TurkeyPresent-day Turkey was created in 1923 from the Turkishremnants of the Ottoman Empire. Soon thereafter, the countryinstituted secular laws to replace traditional religious fiats. In1945 Turkey joined the UN, and in 1952 it became a member of NATO.Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprus in 1974 to protect TurkishCypriots and prevent a Greek takeover of the island; the northern 37percent of the island remains under Turkish Cypriot control.Relations between the two countries remain strained, but have begunto improve over the past few years. In 1984, the Kurdistan Workers'Party (PKK), a Marxist-Leninist, separatist group, initiated aninsurgency in southeast Turkey, often using terrorist tactics to tryto attain its goal of an independent Kurdistan. The group - whoseleader, Abdullah OCALAN, was captured in Kenya in February 1999 -has observed a unilateral cease-fire since September 1999, althoughthere have been occasional clashes between Turkish military unitsand some of the 4,000-5,000 armed PKK militants, most of whomcurrently are encamped in northern Iraq. The PKK changed its name tothe Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy Congress (KADEK) in April 2002.
TurkmenistanAnnexed by Russia between 1865 and 1885, Turkmenistanbecame a Soviet republic in 1925. It achieved its independence uponthe dissolution of the USSR in 1991. President NIYAZOV retainsabsolute control over the country and opposition is not tolerated.Extensive hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves could prove a boon tothis underdeveloped country if extraction and delivery projects canbe worked out.
Turks and Caicos IslandsThe islands were part of the UK's Jamaicancolony until 1962, when they assumed the status of a separate crowncolony upon Jamaica's independence. The governor of The Bahamasoversaw affairs from 1965 to 1973. With Bahamian independence, theislands received a separate governor in 1973. Although independencewas agreed upon for 1982, the policy was reversed and the islandsare presently a British overseas territory.
TuvaluIn 1974, ethnic differences within the British colony of theGilbert and Ellice Islands caused the Polynesians of the ElliceIslands to vote for separation from the Micronesians of the GilbertIslands. The following year, the Ellice Islands became the separateBritish colony of Tuvalu. Independence was granted in 1978. In 2000,Tuvalu negotiated a contract leasing its Internet domain name ".tv"for $50 million in royalties over the next dozen years.
UgandaUganda achieved independence from the UK in 1962. Thedictatorial regime of Idi AMIN (1971-79) was responsible for thedeaths of some 300,000 opponents; guerrilla war and human rightsabuses under Milton OBOTE (1980-85) claimed at least another 100,000lives. During the 1990s, the government promulgated non-partypresidential and legislative elections.
UkraineUkraine was the center of the first Slavic state, KievanRus, which during the 10th and 11th centuries was the largest andmost powerful state in Europe. Weakened by internecine quarrels andMongol invasions, Kievan Rus was incorporated into the Grand Duchyof Lithuania and eventually into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.The cultural and religious legacy of Kievan Rus laid the foundationfor Ukrainian nationalism through subsequent centuries. A newUkrainian state, the Cossack Hetmanate, was established during themid-17th century after an uprising against the Poles. Despitecontinuous Muscovite pressure, the Hetmanate managed to remainautonomous for well over 100 years. During the latter part of the18th century, most Ukrainian ethnographic territory was absorbed bythe Russian Empire. Following the collapse of czarist Russia in1917, Ukraine was able to bring about a short-lived period ofindependence (1917-1920), but was reconquered and forced to endure abrutal Soviet rule that engineered two artificial famines (1921-22and 1932-33) in which over 8 million died. In World War II, Germanand Soviet armies were responsible for some 7 to 8 million moredeaths. Although independence was achieved in 1991 with thedissolution of the USSR, true freedom remains elusive, as many ofthe former Soviet elite remain entrenched, stalling efforts ateconomic reform, privatization, and civil liberties.
United Arab EmiratesThe Trucial States of the Persian Gulf coastgranted the UK control of their defense and foreign affairs in 19thcentury treaties. In 1971, six of these states - Abu Zaby, 'Ajman,Al Fujayrah, Ash Shariqah, Dubayy, and Umm al Qaywayn - merged toform the United Arab Emirates (UAE). They were joined in 1972 byRa's al Khaymah. The UAE's per capita GDP is not far below those ofleading West European nations. Its generosity with oil revenues andits moderate foreign policy stance have allowed the UAE to play avital role in the affairs of the region.
United KingdomGreat Britain, the dominant industrial and maritimepower of the 19th century, played a leading role in developingparliamentary democracy and in advancing literature and science. Atits zenith, the British Empire stretched over one-fourth of theearth's surface. The first half of the 20th century saw the UK'sstrength seriously depleted in two World Wars. The second halfwitnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UK rebuilding itselfinto a modern and prosperous European nation. As one of fivepermanent members of the UN Security Council, a founding member ofNATO, and of the Commonwealth, the UK pursues a global approach toforeign policy; it currently is weighing the degree of itsintegration with continental Europe. A member of the EU, it chose toremain outside the European Monetary Union for the time being.Constitutional reform is also a significant issue in the UK. TheScottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, and theNorthern Ireland Assembly were established in 1999.
United StatesBritain's American colonies broke with the mothercountry in 1776 and were recognized as the new nation of the UnitedStates of America following the Treaty of Paris in 1783. During the19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13as the nation expanded across the North American continent andacquired a number of overseas possessions. The two most traumaticexperiences in the nation's history were the Civil War (1861-65) andthe Great Depression of the 1930s. Buoyed by victories in World WarsI and II and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the US remains theworld's most powerful nation-state. The economy is marked by steadygrowth, low unemployment and inflation, and rapid advances intechnology.
UruguayA violent Marxist urban guerrilla movement, the Tupamaros,launched in the late 1960s, led Uruguay's president to agree tomilitary control of his administration in 1973. By yearend, therebels had been crushed, but the military continued to expand itshold throughout the government. Civilian rule was not restored until1985. Uruguay's political and labor conditions are among the freeston the continent.
UzbekistanRussia conquered Uzbekistan in the late 19th century.Stiff resistance to the Red Army after World War I was eventuallysuppressed and a socialist republic set up in 1924. During theSoviet era, intensive production of "white gold" (cotton) and grainled to overuse of agrochemicals and the depletion of water supplies,which have left the land poisoned and the Aral Sea and certainrivers half dry. Independent since 1991, the country seeks togradually lessen its dependence on agriculture while developing itsmineral and petroleum reserves. Current concerns include terrorismby Islamic militants, a nonconvertible currency, and the curtailmentof human rights and democratization.
VanuatuThe British and French, who settled the New Hebrides in the19th century, agreed in 1906 to an Anglo-French Condominium, whichadministered the islands until independence in 1980.
VenezuelaVenezuela was one of three countries that emerged from thecollapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others being Colombia andEcuador). For most of the first half of the 20th century, Venezuelawas ruled by generally benevolent military strongmen, who promotedthe oil industry and allowed for some social reforms. Democraticallyelected governments have held sway since 1959. Current concernsinclude: an embattled president who is losing his once solid supportamong Venezuelans, a divided military, drug-related conflicts alongthe Colombian border, increasing internal drug consumption,overdependence on the petroleum industry with its pricefluctuations, and irresponsible mining operations that areendangering the rain forest and indigenous peoples.
VietnamFrance occupied all of Vietnam by 1884. Independence wasdeclared after World War II, but the French continued to rule until1954 when they were defeated by Communist forces under Ho Chi MINH,who took control of the North. US economic and military aid to SouthVietnam grew through the 1960s in an attempt to bolster thegovernment, but US armed forces were withdrawn following acease-fire agreement in 1973. Two years later, North Vietnameseforces overran the South. Economic reconstruction of the reunitedcountry has proven difficult as aging Communist Party leaders haveonly grudgingly initiated reforms necessary for a free market.
Virgin Islands During the 17th century, the archipelago was divided into two territorial units, one English and the other Danish. Sugarcane, produced by slave labor, drove the islands' economy during the 18th and early 19th centuries. In 1917, the US purchased the Danish portion, which had been in economic decline since the abolition of slavery in 1848.
Wake IslandThe US annexed Wake Island in 1899 for a cable station.An important air and naval base was constructed in 1940-41. InDecember 1941, the island was captured by the Japanese and helduntil the end of World War II. In subsequent years, Wake wasdeveloped as a stopover and refueling site for military andcommercial aircraft transiting the Pacific. Since 1974, the island'sairstrip has been used by the US military and some commercial cargoplanes, as well as for emergency landings. There are over 700landings a year on the island.
Wallis and FutunaAlthough discovered by the Dutch and the Britishin the 17th and 18th centuries, it was the French who declared aprotectorate over the islands in 1842. In 1959, the inhabitants ofthe islands voted to become a French overseas territory.
West BankThe Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on InterimSelf-Government Arrangements (the DOP), signed in Washington on 13September 1993, provided for a transitional period not exceedingfive years of Palestinian interim self-government in the Gaza Stripand the West Bank. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to transfer certainpowers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority, whichincludes the Palestinian Legislative Council elected in January1996, as part of the interim self-governing arrangements in the WestBank and Gaza Strip. A transfer of powers and responsibilities forthe Gaza Strip and Jericho took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4May 1994 Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area andin additional areas of the West Bank pursuant to the Israel-PLO 28September 1995 Interim Agreement, the Israel-PLO 15 January 1997Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron, the Israel-PLO 23October 1998 Wye River Memorandum, and the 4 September 1999 Sharmel-Sheikh Agreement. The DOP provides that Israel will retainresponsibility during the transitional period for external securityand for internal security and public order of settlements andIsraeli citizens. Direct negotiations to determine the permanentstatus of Gaza and West Bank had begun in September 1999 after athree-year hiatus, but have been derailed by a second intifadah thatbroke out in September 2000. The resulting widespread violence inthe West Bank and Gaza Strip, Israel's military response, andinstability within the Palestinian Authority continue to undermineprogress toward a permanent agreement.
Western SaharaMorocco virtually annexed the northern two-thirds ofWestern Sahara (formerly Spanish Sahara) in 1976, and the rest ofthe territory in 1979, following Mauritania's withdrawal. Aguerrilla war with the Polisario Front contesting Rabat'ssovereignty ended in a 1991 UN-brokered cease-fire; a UN-organizedreferendum on final status has been repeatedly postponed.
WorldGlobally, the 20th century was marked by: (a) two devastatingworld wars; (b) the Great Depression of the 1930s; (c) the end ofvast colonial empires; (d) rapid advances in science and technology,from the first airplane flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina (US) tothe landing on the moon; (e) the Cold War between the Westernalliance and the Warsaw Pact nations; (f) a sharp rise in livingstandards in North America, Europe, and Japan; (g) increasedconcerns about the environment, including loss of forests, shortagesof energy and water, the decline in biological diversity, and airpollution; (h) the onset of the AIDS epidemic; and (i) the ultimateemergence of the US as the only world superpower. The planet'spopulation continues to explode: from 1 billion in 1820, to 2billion in 1930, 3 billion in 1960, 4 billion in 1974, 5 billion in1988, and 6 billion in 2000. For the 21st century, the continuedexponential growth in science and technology raises both hopes(e.g., advances in medicine) and fears (e.g., development of evenmore lethal weapons of war).
YemenNorth Yemen became independent of the Ottoman Empire in 1918.The British, who had set up a protectorate area around the southernport of Aden in the 19th century, withdrew in 1967 from what becameSouth Yemen. Three years later, the southern government adopted aMarxist orientation. The massive exodus of hundreds of thousands ofYemenis from the south to the north contributed to two decades ofhostility between the states. The two countries were formallyunified as the Republic of Yemen in 1990. A southern secessionistmovement in 1994 was quickly subdued. In 2000, Saudi Arabia andYemen agreed to a delimitation of their border.
ZambiaThe territory of Northern Rhodesia was administered by theSouth Africa Company from 1891 until it was taken over by the UK in1923. During the 1920s and 1930s, advances in mining spurreddevelopment and immigration. The name was changed to Zambia uponindependence in 1964. In the 1980s and 1990s, declining copperprices and a prolonged drought hurt the economy. Elections in 1991brought an end to one-party rule, but the subsequent vote in 1996saw blatant harassment of opposition parties. The election in 2001was marked by administrative problems with three parties filing alegal petition challenging the election of ruling party candidateLevy MWANAWASA. The new president launched a far-reachinganti-corruption campaign in 2002, which resulted in the 2003 arrestof the previous president Frederick CHILUBA and many of hissupporters. Opposition parties currently hold a majority of seats inthe National Assembly.
ZimbabweThe UK annexed Southern Rhodesia from the South AfricaCompany in 1923. A 1961 constitution was formulated that favoredwhites in power. In 1965 the government unilaterally declared itsindependence, but the UK did not recognize the act and demanded morecomplete voting rights for the black African majority in the country(then called Rhodesia). UN sanctions and a guerrilla uprisingfinally led to free elections in 1979 and independence (as Zimbabwe)in 1980. Robert MUGABE, the nation's first prime minister, has beenthe country's only ruler (as president since 1987) and has dominatedthe country's political system since independence. His chaotic landredistribution campaign begun in 2000 caused an exodus of whitefarmers, crippled the economy, and ushered in widespread shortagesof basic commodities. Ignoring international condemnation, MUGABErigged the 2002 presidential election to ensure his reelection.Opposition and labor groups launched general strikes in 2003 topressure MUGABE to retire early; security forces continued theirbrutal repression of regime opponents.