Korea, NorthAn independent kingdom under Chinese suzerainty formost of the past millennium, Korea was occupied by Japan in 1905following the Russo-Japanese War; five years later, Japan formallyannexed the entire peninsula. Following World War II, Korea wassplit with the northern half coming under Soviet-sponsored Communistdomination. After failing in the Korean War (1950-53) to conquer theUS-backed republic in the southern portion by force, North Korea,under its founder President KIM Il Sung, adopted a policy ofostensible diplomatic and economic "self-reliance" as a checkagainst excessive Soviet or Communist Chinese influence. It moldedpolitical, economic, and military policies around the coreideological objective of eventual unification of Korea underPyongyang's control. KIM's son, the current ruler KIM Jong Il, wasofficially designated as KIM's successor in 1980 and assumed agrowing political and managerial role until his father's death in1994. He assumed full power without opposition. After decades ofeconomic mismanagement and resource misallocation, the North sincethe mid-1990s has relied heavily on international aid to feed itspopulation while continuing to expend resources to maintain an armyof about 1 million. North Korea's long-range missile development andresearch into nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons and massiveconventional armed forces are of major concern to the internationalcommunity. In December 2002, following revelations it was pursuing anuclear weapons program based on enriched uranium in violation of a1994 agreement with the United States to freeze and ultimatelydismantle its existing plutonium-based program, North Korea expelledmonitors from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). InJanuary 2003, it declared its withdrawal from the internationalNon-Proliferation Treaty. In mid-2003 Pyongyang announced it hadcompleted the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel rods (to extractweapons-grade plutonium) and was developing a "nuclear deterrent."From August 2003, North Korea has participated on and off insix-party talks with the China, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and theUnited States to resolve the stalemate over its nuclear programs.
Korea, SouthKorea was an independent kingdom under Chinesesuzerainty for most of the past millennium. Following its victory inthe Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Japan occupied Korea; five yearslater it formally annexed the entire peninsula. After World War II,a republic was set up in the southern half of the Korean Peninsulawhile a Communist-style government was installed in the north.During the Korean War (1950-53), US and other UN forces intervenedto defend South Korea from North Korean attacks supported by theChinese. An armistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsulaalong a demilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter,South Korea achieved rapid economic growth with per capita incomerising to roughly 14 times the level of North Korea. In 1987, SouthKorean voters elected ROH Tae-woo to the presidency, ending 26 yearsof military dictatorships. South Korea today is a fully functioningmodern democracy. In June 2000, a historic first North-South summittook place between the South's President KIM Tae-chung and theNorth's leader KIM Jong Il.
KuwaitBritain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the rulingKuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Followingseveral weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began aground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in fourdays. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructuredamaged during 1990-91.
KyrgyzstanA Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty andproud nomadic traditions, Kyrgyzstan was annexed by Russia in 1864;it achieved independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Nation-widedemonstrations in the spring of 2005 resulted in the ouster ofPresident Askar AKAYEV, who had run the country since 1990.Subsequent presidential elections in July of 2005 were wonoverwhelmingly by former prime minister Kurmanbek BAKIYEV. Currentconcerns include: privatization of state-owned enterprises,expansion of democracy and political freedoms, interethnicrelations, and combating terrorism.
LaosLaos was under the control of Siam (Thailand) from the late18th century until the late 19th century when it became part ofFrench Indochina. The Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1907 defined thecurrent Lao border with Thailand. In 1975, the Communist Pathet Laotook control of the government, ending a six-century-old monarchy.Initial closer ties to Vietnam and socialization were replaced witha gradual return to private enterprise, a liberalization of foreigninvestment laws, and the admission into ASEAN in 1997.
LatviaAfter a brief period of independence between the two WorldWars, Latvia was annexed by the USSR in 1940. It reestablished itsindependence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of theRussian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern toMoscow. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
LebanonLebanon has made progress toward rebuilding its politicalinstitutions since 1991 and the end of the devastating 15-year civilwar. Under the Ta'if Accord - the blueprint for nationalreconciliation - the Lebanese have established a more equitablepolitical system, particularly by giving Muslims a greater say inthe political process while institutionalizing sectarian divisionsin the government. Since the end of the war, the Lebanese haveconducted several successful elections, most of the militias havebeen weakened or disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) haveextended central government authority over about two-thirds of thecountry. Hizballah, a radical Shia organization, retains itsweapons. During Lebanon's civil war, the Arab League legitimized inthe Ta'if Accord Syria's troop deployment, numbering about 16,000based mainly east of Beirut and in the Bekaa Valley. Damascusjustified its continued military presence in Lebanon by citingBeirut's requests and the failure of the Lebanese Government toimplement all of the constitutional reforms in the Ta'if Accord.Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in May 2000, however,encouraged some Lebanese groups to demand that Syria withdraw itsforces as well. The passage of UNSCR 1559 in early October 2004 - aresolution calling for Syria to withdraw from Lebanon and end itsinterference in Lebanese affairs - further emboldened Lebanesegroups opposed to Syria's presence in Lebanon. Syria finallywithdrew the remainder of its forces from Lebanon in April of 2005.
LesothoBasutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho uponindependence from the UK in 1966. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in1990, but returned to Lesotho in 1992 and reinstated in 1995.Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after 23 years ofmilitary rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutinyfollowing a contentious election prompted a brief but bloodyintervention by South African and Botswanan military forces underthe aegis of the Southern African Development Community.Constitutional reforms have since restored political stability;peaceful parliamentary elections were held in 2002.
LiberiaIn August 2003, a comprehensive peace agreement ended 14years of civil war and prompted the resignation of former presidentCharles TAYLOR, who was exiled to Nigeria. The National TransitionalGovernment of Liberia (NTGL) - composed of rebel, government, andcivil society groups - assumed control in October 2003. ChairmanGyude BRYANT, who was given a two-year mandate to oversee efforts torebuild Liberia, heads the new government. The United NationsMission in Liberia (UNMIL), which maintains a strong presencethroughout the country, completed a disarmament program for formercombatants in late 2004, but the security situation is stillvolatile and the process of rebuilding the social and economicstructure of this war-torn country remains sluggish.
LibyaFrom the earliest days of his rule following his 1969 militarycoup, Col. Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI has espoused his ownpolitical system, the Third Universal Theory. The system is acombination of socialism and Islam derived in part from tribalpractices and is supposed to be implemented by the Libyan peoplethemselves in a unique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI hasalways seen himself as a revolutionary and visionary leader. He usedoil funds during the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outsideLibya, supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten theend of Marxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, heengaged in military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - togain access to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadianpolitics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. Libyan support for terrorism appearedto have decreased after the imposition of sanctions. During the1990s, QADHAFI also began to rebuild his relationships with Europe.UN sanctions were suspended in April 1999 and finally lifted inSeptember 2003 after Libya resolved the Lockerbie case. In December2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end itsprograms to develop weapons of mass destruction, and QADHAFI hasmade significant strides in normalizing relations with westernnations since then. He has received various Western European leadersas well as many working-level and commercial delegations, and madehis first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he traveled toBrussels in April 2004. QADHAFI also finally resolved in 2004several outstanding cases against his government for terroristactivities in the 1980s by paying compensation to the families ofvictims of the UTA and La Belle disco bombings.
LiechtensteinThe Principality of Liechtenstein was establishedwithin the Holy Roman Empire in 1719; it became a sovereign state in1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria,but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forcedLiechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary union withSwitzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remainedneutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economicgrowth. Shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight have resultedin concerns about the use of the financial institutions for moneylaundering. Liechtenstein has, however, implemented newanti-money-laundering legislation and recently concluded a MutualLegal Assistance Treaty with the US.
LithuaniaIndependent between the two World Wars, Lithuania wasannexed by the USSR in 1940. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became thefirst of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, butMoscow did not recognize this proclamation until September of 1991(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troopswithdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently restructured its economyfor integration into Western European institutions; it joined bothNATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
LuxembourgFounded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more thanhalf of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a largermeasure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrunby Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 whenit entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATOthe following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the sixfounding countries of the European Economic Community (later theEuropean Union), and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.
MacauColonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was thefirst European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreementsigned by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became theMacau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 20 December1999. China has promised that, under its "one country, two systems"formula, China's socialist economic system will not be practiced inMacau, and that Macau will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in allmatters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.
MacedoniaInternational recognition of Macedonia's independence fromYugoslavia in 1991 was delayed by Greece's objection to the newstate's use of what it considered a Hellenic name and symbols.Greece finally lifted its trade blockade in 1995 and the twocountries agreed to normalize relations, although differences overMacedonia's name remain. The undetermined status of neighboringKosovo, implementation of the Framework Agreement - which ended the2001 ethnic Albanian armed insurgency - and a weak economy continueto be challenges for Macedonia.
MadagascarFormerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became aFrench colony in 1896, but regained its independence in 1960. During1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections wereheld, ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the secondpresidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidentialelection was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA andMarc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANAthe winner.
MalawiEstablished in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasalandbecame the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decadesof one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the countryheld multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitution,which came into full effect the following year. Current PresidentBingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after the previous presidentfailed to amend the constitution to permit another term, hasstruggled to assert his authority against his predecessor, who stillleads their shared political party. MATHARIKA's anti-corruptionefforts have led to several high-level arrests but no convictions.Increasing corruption, population growth, increasing pressure onagricultural lands, and HIV/AIDS pose major problems for the country.
MalaysiaDuring the late 18th and 19th centuries, Great Britainestablished colonies and protectorates in the area of currentMalaysia; these were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. In 1948,the British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed theFederation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia wasformed in 1963 when the former British colonies of Singapore and theEast Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast ofBorneo joined the Federation. The first several years of thecountry's history were marred by Indonesian efforts to controlMalaysia, Philippine claims to Sabah, and Singapore's secession fromthe Federation in 1965.
MaldivesThe Maldives was long a sultanate, first under Dutch andthen under British protection. It became a republic in 1968, threeyears after independence. Since 1978, President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM- currently in his sixth term in office - has dominated the islands'political scene. Following riots in the capital Male in August 2004,the president and his government have pledged to embark upondemocratic reforms, including a more representative political systemand expanded political freedoms. Tourism and fishing are beingdeveloped on the archipelago.
MaliThe Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of Francein 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only afew months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamedMali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 with atransitional government and in 1992 when Mali's first democraticpresidential election was held. After his reelection in 1997,President Alpha KONARE continued to push through political andeconomic reforms and to fight corruption. In keeping with Mali'stwo-term constitutional limit, he stepped down in 2002 and wassucceeded by Amadou TOURE.
MaltaGreat Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.The island staunchly supported the UK through both World Wars andremained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. Adecade later Malta became a republic. Since about the mid-1980s, theisland has transformed itself into a freight transshipment point, afinancial center, and a tourist destination. Malta became an EUmember in May of 2004.
Man, Isle ofPart of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under theBritish crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almostextinct Manx Gaelic language.
Marshall IslandsAfter almost four decades under US administrationas the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the PacificIslands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under aCompact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as aresult of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and1962. The Marshall Islands hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA)Reagan Missile Test Site, a key installation in the US missiledefense network.
MartiniqueColonized by France in 1635, the island has subsequentlyremained a French possession except for three brief periods offoreign occupation.
MauritaniaIndependent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed thesouthern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in1976, but relinquished it after three years of raids by thePolisario guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory.Maaouya Ould Sid Ahmed TAYA siezed power in a coup in 1984.Opposition parties were legalized and a new constitution approved in1991. Two multiparty presidential elections since then were widelyseen as flawed, but October 2001 legislative and municipal electionswere generally free and open. A bloodless coup in August 2005deposed President TAYA and ushered in a military council headed byCol. Ely Ould Mohamed VALL, which declared it would remain in powerfor up to two years while it created conditions for genuinedemocratic institutions. For now, however, Mauritania remains, aone-party state. The country continues to experience ethnic tensionsbetween its black population and the Maur (Arab-Berber) populace.
MauritiusDiscovered by the Portuguese in 1505, Mauritius wassubsequently held by the Dutch, French, and British beforeindependence was attained in 1968. A stable democracy with regularfree elections and a positive human rights record, the country hasattracted considerable foreign investment and has earned one ofAfrica's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather anddeclining sugar prices have slowed economic growth, leading to someprotests over standards of living in the Creole community.
MayotteMayotte was ceded to France along with the other islands ofthe Comoros group in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelagothat voted in 1974 to retain its link with France and foregoindependence.
MexicoThe site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico cameunder Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independenceearly in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recessionin over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressiverecovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low realwages, underemployment for a large segment of the population,inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunitiesfor the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southernstates. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time since the1910 Mexican Revolution that the opposition defeated the party ingovernment, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Vicente FOXof the National Action Party (PAN) was sworn in on 1 December 2000as the first chief executive elected in free and fair elections.
Micronesia, Federated States ofIn 1979 the Federated States ofMicronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted aconstitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact ofFree Association with the US, which was amended and renewed in 2004.Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, andoverdependence on US aid.
Midway IslandsThe US took formal possession of the islands in 1867.The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed through theislands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and 1947,Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights. TheUS naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was one ofthe turning points of World War II. The islands continued to serveas a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands are anational wildlife refuge. From 1996 to 2001 the refuge was open tothe public; it is now temporarily closed.
MoldovaFormerly part of Romania, Moldova was incorporated into theSoviet Union at the close of World War II. Although independent fromthe USSR since 1991, Russian forces have remained on Moldovanterritory east of the Dniester River supporting the Slavic majoritypopulation, mostly Ukrainians and Russians, who have proclaimed a"Transnistria" republic. The poorest nation in Europe, Moldovabecame the first former Soviet state to elect a Communist as itspresident in 2001.
MonacoEconomic development was spurred in the late 19th centurywith a railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Sincethen, the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, andgambling facilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist andrecreation center.
MongoliaThe Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when underChinggis KHAN they conquered a huge Eurasian empire. After his deaththe empire was divided into several powerful Mongol states, butthese broke apart in the 14th century. The Mongols eventuallyretired to their original steppe homelands and later came underChinese rule. Mongolia won its independence in 1921 with Sovietbacking. A Communist regime was installed in 1924. During the early1990s, the ex-Communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party(MPRP) gradually yielded its monopoly on power to the DemocraticUnion Coalition (DUC), which defeated the MPRP in a nationalelection in 1996. Since then, parliamentary elections returned theMPRP overwhelmingly to power in 2000 and produced a coalitiongovernment in 2004.
MontserratMuch of this island was devastated and two-thirds of thepopulation fled abroad because of the eruption of the SoufriereHills Volcano that began on 18 July 1995. Montserrat has enduredvolcanic activity since, with the last eruption occurring in July2003.
MoroccoIn 788, about a century after the Arab conquest of NorthAfrica, successive Moorish dynasties began to rule in Morocco. Inthe 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under AhmadAL-MANSUR (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated agolden age. In 1860, Spain occupied northern Morocco and ushered ina half century of trade rivalry among European powers that sawMorocco's sovereignty steadily eroded; in 1912, the French imposed aprotectorate over the country. A protracted independence strugglewith France ended successfully in 1956. The internationalized cityof Tangier and most Spanish possessions were turned over to the newcountry that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western Saharaduring the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of theterritory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the 1990sresulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in 1997.Parliamentary elections were held for the second time in September2002 and municipal elections were held in September 2003.
MozambiqueAlmost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to aclose with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration by whites,economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and aprolonged civil war hindered the country's development. The rulingFront for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) party formallyabandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the following yearprovided for multiparty elections and a free market economy. AUN-negotiated peace agreement between FRELIMO and rebel MozambiqueNational Resistance (RENAMO) forces ended the fighting in 1992. InDecember 2004, Mozambique underwent a delicate transition as JoaquimCHISSANO stepped down after 18 years in office. His newly electedsuccessor, Armando Emilio GUEBUZA, has promised to continue thesound economic policies that have encouraged foreign investment.
NamibiaSouth Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africaduring World War I and administered it as a mandate until afterWorld War II, when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the MarxistSouth-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla grouplaunched a war of independence for the area that was soon namedNamibia, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to endits administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entireregion. Namibia won its independence in 1990 and has been governedby SWAPO since. Hifikepunye POHAMBA was elected president inNovember 2004 in a landslide victory replacing Sam NUJOMA who ledthe country during its first 14 years of self rule.
NauruNauru's phosphate deposits began to be mined early in the 20thcentury by a German-British consortium; the island was occupied byAustralian forces in World War I. Nauru achieved independence in1968 and joined the UN in 1999. Nauru is the world's smallestindependent republic.
Navassa IslandThis uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857for its guano. Mining took place between 1865 and 1898. Thelighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administrationof Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Departmentof the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the islanddescribed it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; thefollowing year it became a National Wildlife Refuge and annualscientific expeditions have continued.
NepalIn 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system ofrule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system ofgovernment. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracywithin the framework of a constitutional monarchy. A Maoistinsurgency, launched in 1996, has gained traction and is threateningto bring down the regime, especially after a negotiated cease-firebetween the Maoists and government forces broke down in August 2003.In 2001, the crown prince massacred ten members of the royal family,including the king and queen, and then took his own life. In October2002, the new king dismissed the prime minister and his cabinet for"incompetence" after they dissolved the parliament and weresubsequently unable to hold elections because of the ongoinginsurgency. While stopping short of reestablishing parliament, theking in June 2004 reinstated the most recently elected primeminister who formed a four-party coalition government, which theking subsequently tasked with paving the way for elections to beheld in spring of 2005. Citing dissatisfaction with the government'slack of progress in addressing the Maoist insurgency, the king inFebruary 2005 dissolved the government and assumed power.
NetherlandsThe Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed in 1815. In1830 Belgium seceded and formed a separate kingdom. The Netherlandsremained neutral in World War I, but suffered invasion andoccupation by Germany in World War II. A modern, industrializednation, the Netherlands is also a large exporter of agriculturalproducts. The country was a founding member of NATO and the EEC (nowthe EU), and participated in the introduction of the euro in 1999.
Netherlands AntillesOnce the center of the Caribbean slave trade,the island of Curacao was hard hit by the abolition of slavery in1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored inthe early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries toservice the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields. The island ofSaint Martin is shared with France; its southern portion is namedSint Maarten and is part of the Netherlands Antilles; its northernportion is called Saint-Martin and is part of Guadeloupe (France).
New CaledoniaSettled by both Britain and France during the firsthalf of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s hasdissipated.
New ZealandThe Polynesian Maori reached New Zealand in about A.D.800. In 1840, their chieftains entered into a compact with Britain,the Treaty of Waitangi, in which they ceded sovereignty to QueenVictoria while retaining territorial rights. In that same year, theBritish began the first organized colonial settlement. A series ofland wars between 1843 and 1872 ended with the defeat of the nativepeoples. The British colony of New Zealand became an independentdominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars.New Zealand's full participation in a number of defense allianceslapsed by the 1980s. In recent years, the government has sought toaddress longstanding Maori grievances.
NicaraguaThe Pacific Coast of Nicaragua was settled as a Spanishcolony from Panama in the early 16th century. Independence fromSpain was declared in 1821 and the country became an independentrepublic in 1838. Britain occupied the Caribbean Coast in the firsthalf of the 19th century, but gradually ceded control of the regionin subsequent decades. Violent opposition to governmentalmanipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 andresulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the MarxistSandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftistrebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinistacontra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990,1996, and again in 2001 saw the Sandinistas defeated. The countryhas slowly rebuilt its economy during the 1990s, but was hard hit byHurricane Mitch in 1998.
NigerNot until 1993, 33 years after independence from France, didNiger hold its first free and open elections. A 1995 peace accordended a five-year Tuareg insurgency in the north. Coups in 1996 and1999 were followed by the creation of a National ReconciliationCouncil that effected a transition to civilian rule by December1999. Niger is one of the poorest countries in the world withminimal government services and insufficient funds to develop itsresource base. The largely agrarian and subsistence-based economy isfrequently disrupted by extended droughts common to the Sahel regionof Africa.
NigeriaFollowing nearly 16 years of military rule, a newconstitution was adopted in 1999, and a peaceful transition tocivilian government was completed. The president faces the dauntingtask of rebuilding a petroleum-based economy, whose revenues havebeen squandered through corruption and mismanagement, andinstitutionalizing democracy. In addition, the OBASANJOadministration must defuse longstanding ethnic and religioustensions, if it is to build a sound foundation for economic growthand political stability. Despite some irregularities, the April 2003elections marked the first civilian transfer of power in Nigeria'shistory.
NiueNiue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguisticdifferences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the restof the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered.The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200in 1966 to about 2,150 in 2005), with substantial emigration to NewZealand, 2,400 km to the southwest.
Norfolk IslandTwo British attempts at establishing the island as apenal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants ofthe Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.
Northern Mariana IslandsUnder US administration as part of the UNTrust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern MarianaIslands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead toforge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial statusbegan in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in politicalunion with the US was approved in 1975. A new government andconstitution went into effect in 1978.
NorwayTwo centuries of Viking raids into Europe tapered offfollowing the adoption of Christianity by King Olav TRYGGVASON in994. Conversion of the Norwegian kingdom occurred over the nextseveral decades. In 1397, Norway was absorbed into a union withDenmark that was to last for more than four centuries. In 1814,Norwegians resisted the cession of their country to Sweden andadopted a new constitution. Sweden then invaded Norway but agreed tolet Norway keep its constitution in return for accepting the unionunder a Swedish king. Rising nationalism throughout the 19th centuryled to a 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. AlthoughNorway remained neutral in World War I, it suffered heavy losses toits shipping. Norway proclaimed its neutrality at the outset ofWorld War II, but was nonetheless occupied for five years by NaziGermany (1940-45). In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norwaybecame a member of NATO. Discovery of oil and gas in adjacent watersin the late 1960s boosted Norway's economic fortunes. The currentfocus is on containing spending on the extensive welfare system andplanning for the time when petroleum reserves are depleted. Inreferenda held in 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU.
OmanIn 1970, QABOOS bin Said Al Said ousted his father and hasruled as sultan ever since. His extensive modernization program hasopened the country to the outside world and has preserved along-standing political and military relationship with the UK.Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought to maintaingood relations with all Middle Eastern countries.
Pacific OceanThe Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's fiveoceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, SouthernOcean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterwaysinclude the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, andTorres Straits. The decision by the International HydrographicOrganization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, theSouthern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60degrees south.
PakistanThe separation in 1947 of British India into the Muslimstate of Pakistan (with two sections West and East) and largelyHindu India was never satisfactorily resolved, and India andPakistan have fought two wars - in 1947-48 and 1965 - over thedisputed Kashmir territory. A third war between these countries in1971 - in which India capitalized on Islamabad's marginalization ofBengalis in Pakistani politics - resulted in East Pakistan becomingthe separate nation of Bangladesh. In response to Indian nuclearweapons testing, Pakistan conducted its own tests in 1998. Thedispute over the state of Kashmir is ongoing, but recent discussionsand confidence-building measures may be a start toward lessenedtensions.
PalauAfter three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of thePacific under US administration, this westernmost cluster of theCaroline Islands opted for independence in 1978 rather than join theFederated States of Micronesia. A Compact of Free Association withthe US was approved in 1986, but not ratified until 1993. It enteredinto force the following year, when the islands gained independence.
Palmyra AtollThe Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, andthe US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed thearchipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did notinclude Palmyra Atoll, which is now privately owned by the NatureConservancy. This organization is managing the atoll as a naturepreserve. The lagoons and surrounding waters within the 12 nauticalmile US territorial seas were transferred to the US Fish andWildlife Service and were designated a National Wildlife Refuge inJanuary 2001.
PanamaWith US backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 andpromptly signed a treaty with the US allowing for the constructionof a canal and US sovereignty over a strip of land on either side ofthe structure (the Panama Canal Zone). The Panama Canal was built bythe US Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. On 7 September1977, an agreement was signed for the complete transfer of the Canalfrom the US to Panama by the end of 1999. Certain portions of theZone and increasing responsibility over the Canal were turned overin the intervening years. With US help, dictator Manuel NORIEGA wasdeposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting theCanal, and remaining US military bases were turned over to Panama byor on 31 December 1999.
Papua New GuineaThe eastern half of the island of New Guinea -second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred toAustralia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during WorldWar I and continued to administer the combined areas untilindependence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the islandof Bougainville ended in 1997 after claiming some 20,000 lives.
Paracel IslandsThe Paracel Islands are surrounded by productivefishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932,French Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station onPattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor, Vietnam.China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troopsseized a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.The islands are claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam.
ParaguayIn the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70),Paraguay lost two-thirds of all adult males and much of itsterritory. It stagnated economically for the next half century. Inthe Chaco War of 1932-35, large, economically important areas werewon from Bolivia. The 35-year military dictatorship of AlfredoSTROESSNER was overthrown in 1989, and, despite a marked increase inpolitical infighting in recent years, relatively free and regularpresidential elections have been held since then.
PeruAncient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andeancivilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire wascaptured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independencewas declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces defeated in 1824.After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to democraticleadership in 1980, but experienced economic problems and the growthof a violent insurgency. President Alberto FUJIMORI's election in1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in theeconomy and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity.Nevertheless, the president's increasing reliance on authoritarianmeasures and an economic slump in the late 1990s generated mountingdissatisfaction with his regime. FUJIMORI won reelection to a thirdterm in the spring of 2000, but international pressure andcorruption scandals led to his ouster by Congress in November ofthat year. A caretaker government oversaw new elections in thespring of 2001, which ushered in Alejandro TOLEDO as the new head ofgovernment; his presidency has been hampered by allegations ofcorruption.
PhilippinesThe Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony duringthe 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following theSpanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became aself-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected President andwas tasked with preparing the country for independence after a10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japaneseoccupation during WWII, and US forces and Filipinos fought togetherduring 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 the Philippinesattained their independence. The 21-year rule of Ferdinand MARCOSended in 1986, when a widespread popular rebellion forced him intoexile and installed Corazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency washampered by several coup attempts, which prevented a return to fullpolitical stability and economic development. Fidel RAMOS waselected president in 1992 and his administration was marked bygreater stability and progress on economic reforms. In 1992, the USclosed its last military bases on the islands. Joseph ESTRADA waselected president in 1998, but was succeeded by his vice-president,Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, in January 2001 after ESTRADA's stormyimpeachment trial on corruption charges broke down and widespreaddemonstrations led to his ouster. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to asix-year term in May 2004. The Philippine Government faces threatsfrom armed communist insurgencies and from Muslim separatists in thesouth.
Pitcairn IslandsPitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by theBritish and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and theirTahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to becomea British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige ofthat empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to NewZealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 toless than 50 today.
PolandPoland is an ancient nation that was conceived near themiddle of the 10th century. Its golden age occurred in the 16thcentury. During the following century, the strengthening of thegentry and internal disorders weakened the nation. In a series ofagreements between 1772 and 1795, Russia, Prussia, and Austriapartitioned Poland amongst themselves. Poland regained itsindependence in 1918 only to be overrun by Germany and the SovietUnion in World War II. It became a Soviet satellite state followingthe war, but its government was comparatively tolerant andprogressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of theindependent trade union "Solidarity" that over time became apolitical force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary elections andthe presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the early 1990senabled the country to transform its economy into one of the mostrobust in Central Europe, but Poland currently suffers low GDPgrowth and high unemployment. Solidarity suffered a major defeat inthe 2001 parliamentary elections when it failed to elect a singledeputy to the lower house of Parliament, and the new leaders of theSolidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to reduce the TradeUnion's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and the EuropeanUnion in 2004.
PortugalFollowing its heyday as a world power during the 15th and16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with thedestruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during theNapoleonic Wars, and the independence in 1822 of Brazil as a colony.A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; for most of the next sixdecades, repressive governments ran the country. In 1974, aleft-wing military coup installed broad democratic reforms. Thefollowing year, Portugal granted independence to all of its Africancolonies. Portugal is a founding member of NATO and entered the EC(now the EU) in 1986.
Puerto RicoPopulated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, theisland was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following Columbus'second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonialrule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated andAfrican slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as aresult of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted UScitizenship in 1917. Popularly-elected governors have served since1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing for internalself government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998, voterschose to retain commonwealth status.
QatarRuled by the Al Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatartransformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly forpearling into an independent state with significant oil and naturalgas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatarieconomy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleumrevenues by the amir, who had ruled the country since 1972. His son,the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa Al Thani, overthrew him in abloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved its longstandingborder disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Oil and naturalgas revenues enable Qatar to have one of the highest per capitaincomes in the world.
ReunionThe Portuguese discovered the uninhabited island in 1513.From the 17th to the 19th centuries, French immigration,supplemented by influxes of Africans, Chinese, Malays, and MalabarIndians, gave the island its ethnic mix. The opening of the SuezCanal in 1869 cost the island its importance as a stopover on theEast Indies trade route.
RomaniaThe principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia - for centuriesunder the suzerainty of the Turkish Ottoman Empire - secured theirautonomy in 1856; they united in 1859 and a few years later adoptedthe new name of Romania. The country gained recognition of itsindependence in 1878. It joined the Allied Powers in World War I andacquired new territories following the conflict. In 1940, it alliedwith the Axis powers and participated in the 1941 German invasion ofthe USSR. Three years later, overrun by the Soviets, Romania signedan armistice. The post-war Soviet occupation led to the formation ofa Communist "people's republic" in 1947 and the abdication of theking. The decades-long rule of dictator Nicolae CEAUSESCU, who tookpower in 1965, and his Securitate police state became increasinglyoppressive and draconian through the 1980s. CEAUSESCU was overthrownand executed in late 1989. Former Communists dominated thegovernment until 1996, when they were swept from power by afractious coalition of centrist parties. In 2000, the center-leftSocial Democratic Party (PSD) became Romania's leading party,governing with the support of the Democratic Union of Hungarians inRomania (UDMR). The opposition center-right alliance formed by theNational Liberal Party (PNL) and the Democratic Party (PD) scored asurprise victory over the ruling PSD in December 2004 presidentialelections. The PNL-PD alliance maintains a parliamentary majoritywith the support of the UDMR, the Humanist Party (PUR), and variousethnic minority groups. Although Romania completed accession talkswith the European Union (EU) in December 2004, it must continue toaddress rampant corruption - while invigorating lagging economic anddemocratic reforms - before it can achieve its hope of joining theEU, tentatively set for 2007. Romania joined NATO in March of 2004.
RussiaFounded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy, wasable to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15thcenturies) and to gradually conquer and absorb surroundingprincipalities. In the early 17th century, a new Romanov Dynastycontinued this policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific.Under PETER I (ruled 1682-1725), hegemony was extended to the BalticSea and the country was renamed the Russian Empire. During the 19thcentury, more territorial acquisitions were made in Europe and Asia.Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army in World War I ledto widespread rioting in the major cities of the Russian Empire andto the overthrow in 1917 of the imperial household. The Communistsunder Vladimir LENIN seized power soon after and formed the USSR.The brutal rule of Josef STALIN (1928-53) strengthened Russiandominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tens of millions oflives. The Soviet economy and society stagnated in the followingdecades until General Secretary Mikhail GORBACHEV (1985-91)introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in anattempt to modernize Communism, but his initiatives inadvertentlyreleased forces that by December 1991 splintered the USSR into 15independent republics. Since then, Russia has struggled in itsefforts to build a democratic political system and market economy toreplace the strict social, political, and economic controls of theCommunist period. While some progress has been made on the economicfront, recent years have seen a recentralization of power underVladimir PUTIN and an erosion in nascent democratic institutions. Adetermined guerrilla conflict still plagues Russia in Chechnya.
RwandaIn 1959, three years before independence from Belgium, themajority ethnic group, the Hutus, overthrew the ruling Tutsi king.Over the next several years, thousands of Tutsis were killed, andsome 150,000 driven into exile in neighboring countries. Thechildren of these exiles later formed a rebel group, the RwandanPatriotic Front (RPF), and began a civil war in 1990. The war, alongwith several political and economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnictensions, culminating in April 1994 in the genocide of roughly800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated theHutu regime and ended the killing in July 1994, but approximately 2million Hutu refugees - many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled toneighboring Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and the former Zaire. Sincethen, most of the refugees have returned to Rwanda, but about 10,000that remain in the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo haveformed an extremist insurgency bent on retaking Rwanda, much as theRPF tried in 1990. Despite substantial international assistance andpolitical reforms - including Rwanda's first local elections inMarch 1999 and its first post-genocide presidential and legislativeelections in August and September 2003, respectively - the countrycontinues to struggle to boost investment and agricultural output,and ethnic reconciliation is complicated by the real and perceivedTutsi political dominance. Kigali's increasing centralization andintolerance of dissent, the nagging Hutu extremist insurgency acrossthe border, and Rwandan involvement in two wars in recent years inthe neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo continue to hinderRwanda's efforts to escape its bloody legacy.
Saint HelenaUninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in1502, Saint Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17thcentury. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE'sexile, from 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as aport of call declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.Ascension Island is the site of a US Air Force auxiliary airfield;Gough Island has a meteorological station.
Saint Kitts and NevisFirst settled by the British in 1623, theislands became an associated state with full internal autonomy in1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to secede in1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983. In 1998,a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from Saint Kitts fellshort of the two-thirds majority needed. Nevis is once more tryingto separate from the Saint Kitts.
Saint LuciaThe island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,was contested between England and France throughout the 17th andearly 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finallyceded to the UK in 1814. Self-government was granted in 1967 andindependence in 1979.
Saint Pierre and MiquelonFirst settled by the French in the early17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige ofFrance's once vast North American possessions.
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesDisputed between France and theUnited Kingdom in the 18th century, Saint Vincent was ceded to thelatter in 1783. Autonomy was granted in 1969 and independence in1979.
SamoaNew Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoaat the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administerthe islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablishindependence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"from its name in 1997.
San MarinoThe third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy Seeand Monaco) also claims to be the world's oldest republic. Accordingto tradition, it was founded by a Christian stonemason named Marinoin 301 A.D. San Marino's foreign policy is aligned with that ofItaly. Social and political trends in the republic also trackclosely with those of its larger neighbor.
Sao Tome and PrincipeDiscovered and claimed by Portugal in the late15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffeeand cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slavelabor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. Althoughindependence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were notinstituted until the late 1980s. Though the first free electionswere held in 1991, the political environment has been one ofcontinued instability with frequent changes in leadership and coupattempts in 1995 and 2003. The recent discovery of oil in the Gulfof Guinea is likely to have a significant impact on the country'seconomy.
Saudi ArabiaIn 1902, ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman Al Saud capturedRiyadh and set out on a 30-year campaign to unify the ArabianPeninsula. A son of ABD AL-AZIZ rules the country today, and thecountry's Basic Law stipulates that the throne shall remain in thehands of the aging sons and grandsons of the kingdom's founder.Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia acceptedthe Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees while allowing Westernand Arab troops to deploy on its soil for the liberation of Kuwaitthe following year. The continuing presence of foreign troops onSaudi soil after Operation Desert Storm remained a source of tensionbetween the royal family and the public until the US military'snear-complete withdrawal to neighboring Qatar in 2003. The firstmajor terrorist attacks in Saudi Arabia in several years, whichoccurred in May and November 2003, prompted renewed efforts on thepart of the Saudi government to counter domestic terrorism andextremism, which also coincided with a slight upsurge in mediafreedom and announcement of government plans to phase in partialpolitical representation. A burgeoning population, aquiferdepletion, and an economy largely dependent on petroleum output andprices are all ongoing governmental concerns.
SenegalIndependent from France in 1960, Senegal joined with TheGambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in 1982.However, the envisaged integration of the two countries was nevercarried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peacetalks, a southern separatist group sporadically has clashed withgovernment forces since 1982. Senegal has a long history ofparticipating in international peacekeeping.
Serbia and MontenegroThe Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes wasformed in 1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929.Occupation by Nazi Germany in 1941 was resisted by variousparamilitary bands that fought each other as well as the invaders.The group headed by Marshal TITO took full control upon Germanexpulsion in 1945. Although Communist, his new government and itssuccessors (he died in 1980) managed to steer their own path betweenthe Warsaw Pact nations and the West for the next four and a halfdecades. In the early 1990s, post-TITO Yugoslavia began to unravelalong ethnic lines: Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, and Bosnia andHerzegovina were recognized as independent states in 1992. Theremaining republics of Serbia and Montenegro declared a new "FederalRepublic of Yugoslavia" (FRY) in April 1992 and, under PresidentSlobodan MILOSEVIC, Serbia led various military intervention effortsto unite ethnic Serbs in neighboring republics into a "GreaterSerbia." All of these efforts were ultimately unsuccessful and ledto Yugoslavia being ousted from the UN in 1992. In 1998-99, massiveexpulsions by FRY forces and Serb paramilitaries of ethnic Albaniansliving in Kosovo provoked an international response, including theNATO bombing of Serbia and the stationing of a NATO-led force(KFOR), in Kosovo. Federal elections in the fall of 2000, broughtabout the ouster of MILOSEVIC and installed Vojislav KOSTUNICA aspresident. The arrest of MILOSEVIC in 2001 allowed for hissubsequent transfer to the International Criminal Tribunal for theFormer Yugoslavia in The Hague to be tried for crimes againsthumanity. In 2001, the country's suspension from the UN was lifted,and it was once more accepted into UN organizations under the nameof the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Kosovo has been governed bythe UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) since June1999, under the authority of UN Security Council Resolution 1244,pending a determination by the international community of its futurestatus. In 2002, the Serbian and Montenegrin components ofYugoslavia began negotiations to forge a looser relationship. Thesetalks became a reality in February 2003 when lawmakers restructuredthe country into a loose federation of two republics called Serbiaand Montenegro. The Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegroincludes a provision that allows either republic to hold areferendum after three years that would allow for their independencefrom the state union.
SeychellesA lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain forthe islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a closewith a new constitution and free elections in 1993. The most recentpresidential elections were held in 2001; President RENE, who hadserved since 1977, was re-elected. In April 2004 RENE stepped downand Vice President James MICHEL was sworn in as president.
Sierra LeoneThe 1991 to 2002 civil war between the government andthe Revolutionary United Front (RUF) resulted in tens of thousandsof deaths and the displacement of more than 2 million people (aboutone-third of the population), many of whom are now refugees inneighboring countries. With the support of the UN peacekeeping forceand contributions from the World Bank and international community,demobilization and disarmament of the RUF and Civil Defense Forces(CDF) combatants has been completed. National elections were held inMay 2002 and the government continues to slowly reestablish itsauthority. However, the gradual withdrawal of most UN Mission inSierra Leone (UNAMSIL) peacekeepers in 2004 and early 2005,deteriorating political and economic conditions in Guinea, and thetenuous security situation in neighboring Liberia may presentchallenges to the continuation of Sierra Leone's stability.
SingaporeSingapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819.It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two yearslater and became independent. It subsequently became one of theworld's most prosperous countries with strong international tradinglinks (its port is one of the world's busiest in terms of tonnagehandled) and with per capita GDP equal to that of the leadingnations of Western Europe.
SlovakiaIn 1918 the Slovaks joined the closely related Czechs toform Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,Czechoslovakia became a Communist nation within Soviet-ruled EasternEurope. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 and Czechoslovakia oncemore became free. The Slovaks and the Czechs agreed to separatepeacefully on 1 January 1993. Slovakia joined both NATO and the EUin the spring of 2004.
SloveniaThe Slovene lands were part of the Holy Roman Empire andAustria until 1918 when the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats informing a new multinational state, renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. AfterWorld War II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia,which though Communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule.Dissatisfied with the exercise of power by the majority Serbs, theSlovenes succeeded in establishing their independence in 1991 aftera short 10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strongeconomy, and a stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia'stransformation to a modern state. Slovenia acceded to both NATO andthe EU in the spring of 2004.
Solomon IslandsThe UK established a protectorate over the SolomonIslands in the 1890s. Some of the bitterest fighting of World War IIoccurred on these islands. Self-government was achieved in 1976 andindependence two years later. Ethnic violence, governmentmalfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civilsociety. In June 2003, Prime Minister Sir Allen KEMAKEZA sought theassistance of Australia in reestablishing law and order; thefollowing month, an Australian-led multinational force arrived torestore peace and disarm ethnic militias. The Regional AssistanceMission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) has been very effective inrestoring law and order and rebuilding government institutions.
SomaliaThe regime of Mohamed SIAD Barre was ousted in January 1991;turmoil, factional fighting, and anarchy have followed in the yearssince. In May of 1991, northern clans declared an independentRepublic of Somaliland that now includes the administrative regionsof Awdal, Woqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag, and Sool. Although notrecognized by any government, this entity has maintained a stableexistence, aided by the overwhelming dominance of a ruling clan andeconomic infrastructure left behind by British, Russian, andAmerican military assistance programs. The regions of Bari andNugaal and northern Mudug comprise a neighboring self-declaredautonomous state of Puntland, which has been self-governing since1998, but does not aim at independence; it has also made stridestowards reconstructing a legitimate, representative government, buthas suffered some civil strife. Puntland disputes its border withSomaliland as it also claims portions of eastern Sool and Sanaag.Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily inthe south) was able to alleviate famine conditions, but when the UNwithdrew in 1995, having suffered significant casualties, orderstill had not been restored. The mandate of the TransitionalNational Government (TNG), created in August 2000 in Arta, Djibouti,expired in August 2003. New Somali President Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmedhas formed a new Transitional Federal Government (TFG) consisting ofa 275-member parliament. It was established in October 2004 toreplace the TNG but has not yet moved to Mogadishu. Discussionsregarding the establishment of a new government in Mogadishu areongoing in Kenya. Numerous warlords and factions are still fightingfor control of the capital city as well as for other southernregions. Suspicion of Somali links with global terrorism furthercomplicates the picture.
South AfricaAfter the British seized the Cape of Good Hope area in1806, many of the Dutch settlers (the Boers) trekked north to foundtheir own republics. The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold(1886) spurred wealth and immigration and intensified thesubjugation of the native inhabitants. The Boers resisted Britishencroachments, but were defeated in the Boer War (1899-1902). Theresulting Union of South Africa operated under a policy of apartheid- the separate development of the races. The 1990s brought an end toapartheid politically and ushered in black majority rule.
South Georgia and the South Sandwich IslandsThe islands lieapproximately 1,000 km east of the Falkland Islands and have beenunder British administration since 1908, except for a brief periodin 1982 when Argentina occupied them. Grytviken, on South Georgia,was a 19th and early 20th century whaling station. Famed explorerErnest SHACKLETON stopped there in 1914 en route to his ill-fatedattempt to cross Antarctica on foot. He returned some 20 monthslater with a few companions in a small boat and arranged asuccessful rescue for the rest of his crew, stranded off theAntarctic Peninsula. He died in 1922 on a subsequent expedition andis buried in Grytviken. Today, the station houses scientists fromthe British Antarctic Survey. The islands have large bird and sealpopulations, and, recognizing the importance of preserving themarine stocks in adjacent waters, the UK, in 1993, extended theexclusive fishing zone from 12 nm to 200 nm around each island.
Southern OceanA decision by the International HydrographicOrganization in the spring of 2000 delimited a fifth world ocean -the Southern Ocean - from the southern portions of the AtlanticOcean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extendsfrom the coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude,which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit. The Southern Oceanis now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after thePacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than theArctic Ocean).
SpainSpain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuriesultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequentfailure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions causedthe country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economicand political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II,but suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). In thesecond half of the 20th century, Spain has played a catch-up role inthe western international community; it joined the EU in 1986.Continuing challenges include Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA)terrorism and further reductions in unemployment.