Dominican RepublicCitizen Participation Group (ParticipacionCiudadania); Collective of Popular Organizations or COP; Foundationfor Institution-Building and Justice (FINJUS)
East TimorPopular Council for the Defense of the DemocraticRepublic of East Timor or CPD-RDTL [Antonio-Aitahan MATAK] islargest political pressure group; dissatisfied veterans of struggleagainst Indonesia, led by one-time government advisor Cornelio GAMA(also known as L-7), also play an important role in pressuringgovernment
EcuadorConfederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador orCONAIE [Luis MACAS, president]; Coordinator of Social Movements orCMS [F. Napoleon SANTOS]; Federation of Indigenous Evangelists ofEcuador or FEINE [Marco MURILLO, president]; National Federation ofIndigenous Afro-Ecuatorianos and Peasants or FENOCIN [Pedro DE LACRUZ, president]
Egyptdespite a constitutional ban against religious-based parties,the technically illegal Muslim Brotherhood constitutes HosniMUBARAK's potentially most significant political opposition; MUBARAKtolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for hisfirst two terms, but moved more aggressively since then to block itsinfluence; civic society groups are sanctioned, but constrained inpractical terms; trade unions and professional associations areofficially sanctioned
El Salvadorlabor organizations - Electrical Industry Union of ElSalvador or SIES; Federation of the Construction Industry, SimilarTransport and other activities, or FESINCONTRANS; NationalConfederation of Salvadoran Workers or CNTS; National Union ofSalvadoran Workers or UNTS; Port Industry Union of El Salvador orSIPES; Salvadoran Union of Ex-Petrolleros and Peasant Workers orUSEPOC; Salvadoran Workers Central or CTS; Workers Union ofElectrical Corporation or STCEL; business organizations - NationalAssociation of Small Enterprise or ANEP; Salvadoran AssemblyIndustry Association or ASIC; Salvadoran Industrial Association orASI
Equatorial GuineaNA
EritreaEritrean Islamic Jihad or EIJ (also including EritreanIslamic Jihad Movement or EIJM (also known as the Abu SihelMovement)); Eritrean Islamic Salvation or EIS (also known as theArafa Movement); Eritrean Liberation Front or ELF [ABDULLAHMuhammed]; Eritrean National Alliance or ENA (a coalition includingEIJ, EIS, ELF, and a number of ELF factions) [HERUY Tedla Biru];Eritrean Public Forum or EPF [ARADOM Iyob]
EstoniaNA
EthiopiaAfar Revolutionary Democratic Union Front or ARDUF; OromoLiberation Front or OLF [DAOUD Ibsa]; Oromo National LiberationFront or ONLF
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)none
Faroe IslandsNA
FijiNA
Francehistorically-Communist labor union (Confederation Generale duTravail) or CGT, approximately 700,000 members (claimed);left-leaning labor union (Confederation Francaise Democratique duTravail) or CFDT, approximately 889,000 members (claimed);independent labor union (Confederation Generale du Travail - ForceOuvriere) or FO, 300,000 members (est.); independent white-collarunion (Confederation Generale des Cadres) or CGC, 196,000 members(claimed); employers' union (Mouvement des Entreprises de France) orMEDEF, 750,000 companies as members (claimed)
French GuianaNA
French PolynesiaNA
GabonNA
Gambia, TheNA
GeorgiaGeorgian independent deputies from Abkhaz government inexile; separatists in the breakaway regions of Abkhazia and SouthOssetia; supporters of former President Zviad GAMSAKHURDYA ousted in1991
Germanybusiness associations, employers' organizations; expellee,refugee, trade unions, and veterans groups
GhanaNA
GibraltarChamber of Commerce; Gibraltar RepresentativesOrganization; Women's Association
GreeceGeneral Confederation of Greek Workers or GSEE [KhristosPOLYZOGOPOULOS]; Federation of Greek Industries or SEV [OdysseasKYRIAKOPOULOS]; Civil Servants Confederation or ADEDY [SpyrosPAPASPYROS]
GreenlandNA
GrenadaNA
GuadeloupeChristian Movement for the Liberation of Guadeloupe orKLPG; General Federation of Guadeloupe Workers or CGT-G; GeneralUnion of Guadeloupe Workers or UGTG; Movement for IndependentGuadeloupe or MPGI; The Socialist Renewal Movement
GuamNA
GuatemalaAgrarian Owners Group or UNAGRO; Alliance Against Impunityor AAI; Committee for Campesino Unity or CUC; Coordinating Committeeof Agricultural, Commercial, Industrial, and Financial Associationsor CACIF; Mutual Support Group or GAM
Guernseynone
GuineaStudent and teacher unions
Guinea-BissauNA
GuyanaAmerindian People's Association; Guyana Citizens Initiative;Guyana Bar Association; Guyana Human Rights Association; GuyanaPublic Service Union or GPSU; Private Sector Commission; TradesUnion Congress
HaitiAutonomous Organizations of Haitian Workers or CATH [FignoleST-CYR]; Confederation of Haitian Workers or CTH; Federation ofWorkers Trade Unions or FOS; Grand-Anse Resistance Committee, orKOREGA; Group of 184 Civil Society Organizations, or G-184 [AndyAPAID]; National Popular Assembly or APN; Papaye Peasants Movementor MPP [Chavannes JEAN-BAPTISTE]; Popular Organizations GatheringPower or PROP; Roman Catholic Church; Protestant Federation of Haiti
Holy See (Vatican City)none (exclusive of influence exercised bychurch officers)
HondurasCommittee for the Defense of Human Rights in Honduras orCODEH; Confederation of Honduran Workers or CTH; CoordinatingCommittee of Popular Organizations or CCOP; General WorkersConfederation or CGT; Honduran Council of Private Enterprise orCOHEP; National Association of Honduran Campesinos or ANACH;National Union of Campesinos or UNC; Popular Bloc or BP; UnitedConfederation of Honduran Workers or CUTH
Hong KongArticle 45 Concern Group (pro-democracy); Chinese GeneralChamber of Commerce (pro-China); Chinese Manufacturers' Associationof Hong Kong; Confederation of Trade Unions or CTU (pro-democracy)[LAU Chin-shek, president; LEE Cheuk-yan, general secretary];Federation of Hong Kong Industries; Federation of Trade Unions orFTU (pro-China) [CHENG Yiu-tong, executive councilor]; Hong KongAlliance in Support of the Patriotic Democratic Movement in China[Szeto WAH, chairman]; Hong Kong and Kowloon Trade Union Council(pro-Taiwan); Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce; Hong KongProfessional Teachers' Union [CHEUNG Man-kwong, president];Neighborhood and Workers' Service Center or NWSC (pro-democracy);The Alliance [Bernard CHAN, exco member]
HungaryNA
IcelandNA
Indianumerous religious or militant/chauvinistic organizations,including Vishwa Hindu Parishad, Bajrang Dal, and RashtriyaSwayamsevak Sangh; various separatist groups seeking greatercommunal and/or regional autonomy, including the All PartiesHurriyat Conference in the Kashmir Valley and the National SocialistCouncil of Nagaland in the Northeast
IndonesiaNA
Iranpolitical pressure groups conduct most of Iran's politicalactivities; groups that generally support the Islamic Republicinclude Ansar-e Hizballah, Muslim Students Following the Line of theImam, Tehran Militant Clergy Association (Ruhaniyat), IslamicCoalition Party (Motalefeh), and Islamic Engineers Society; activepro-reform student groups include the Office of Strengthening Unity(OSU); opposition groups include Freedom Movement of Iran, theNational Front, Marz-e Por Gohar, and various ethnic and Monarchistorganizations; armed political groups that have been almostcompletely repressed by the government include Mujahidin-e KhalqOrganization (MEK), People's Fedayeen, Democratic Party of IranianKurdistan, and Komala
Iraqan insurgency against the Iraqi Transitional Government andCoalition forces is primarily concentrated in Baghdad and in areaswest and north of the capital; the diverse, multigroup insurgency isled principally by Sunni Arabs whose only common denominator is ashared desire to oust the Coalition and end US influence in Iraq
IrelandNA
Isle of Mannone
IsraelIsraeli nationalists advocating Jewish settlement on the WestBank and Gaza Strip; Peace Now supports territorial concessions inthe West Bank and Gaza Strip; Yesha (settler) Council promotessettler interests and opposes territorial compromise; B'Tselemmonitors human rights abuses
ItalyItalian manufacturers and merchants associations(Confindustria, Confcommercio); organized farm groups(Confcoltivatori, Confagricoltura); Roman Catholic Church; threemajor trade union confederations (Confederazione Generale Italianadel Lavoro or CGIL [Guglielmo EPIFANI] which is left wing,Confederazione Italiana dei Sindacati Lavoratori or CISL [SavinoPEZZOTTA], which is Roman Catholic centrist, and Unione Italiana delLavoro or UIL [Luigi ANGELETTI] which is lay centrist)
JamaicaNew Beginnings Movement or NBM; Rastafarians (blackreligious/racial cultists, pan-Africanists)
JapanNA
Jerseynone
JordanAnti-Normalization Committee [Ali Abu SUKKAR, president vicechairman]; Jordan Bar Association [Hussein Mujalli, chairman];Jordanian Press Association [Sayf al-SHARIF, president]; MuslimBrotherhood [Salem AL-FALAHAT, secretary general]
KazakhstanAdil-Soz [Tamara KALEYEVA]; Almaty Helsinki Group [NinelFOKINA]; Confederation of Free Trade Unions [Sergei BELKIN]; For aJust Kazakhstan [Bolat ABILOV, Altynbek SARSENBAYEV]; For FairElections [Yevgeniy ZHOVTIS, Sabit ZHUSUPOV, Sergey DUVANOV, IbrashNUSUPBAYEV]; Kazakhstan International Bureau on Human Rights[Yevgeniy ZHOVTIS, executive director]; Pensioners Movement orPokoleniye [Irina SAVOSTINA, chairwoman]; Republican Network ofInternational Monitors [Dos KUSHIM]; Transparency International[Sergei ZLOTNIKOV]
Kenyahuman rights groups; labor unions; Muslim organizations;National Convention Executive Council or NCEC, a proreform coalitionof political parties and nongovernment organizations [KivuthaKIBWANA]; Protestant National Council of Churches of Kenya or NCCK[Mutava MUSYIMI]; Roman Catholic and other Christian churches;Supreme Council of Kenya Muslims or SUPKEM [Shaykh Abdul Gafural-BUSAIDY]
KiribatiNA
Korea, Northnone
Korea, SouthFederation of Korean Industries; Federation of KoreanTrade Unions; Korean Confederation of Trade Unions; Korean NationalCouncil of Churches; Korean Traders Association; Korean Veterans'Association; National Council of Labor Unions; National DemocraticAlliance of Korea; National Federation of Farmers' Associations;National Federation of Student Associations
Kuwaita number of political groups act as de facto parties; severallegislative blocs operate in the National Assembly: tribal groups,merchants, Shi'a activists, Islamists, and secular liberals
KyrgyzstanCouncil of Free Trade Unions; Kyrgyz Committee on HumanRights [Ramazan DYRYLDAYEV]; National Unity Democratic Movement;Union of Entrepreneurs
Laosnoncommunist political groups proscribed; most oppositionleaders fled the country in 1975
LatviaHeadquarters for the Protection of Russian Schools (SHTAB)[Aleksandr KAZAKOV]
Lebanonnone
LesothoNA
LiberiaNA
Libyavarious Arab nationalist movements with almost negligiblememberships may be functioning clandestinely, as well as someIslamic elements; an anti-QADHAFI Libyan exile movement exists,primarily based in London, but has little influence
LiechtensteinNA
LithuaniaNA
LuxembourgABBL (bankers' association); ALEBA (financial sectortrade union); Centrale Paysanne (federation of agriculturalproducers); CEP (professional sector chamber); CGFP (trade unionrepresenting civil service); Chambre de Commerce (Chamber ofCommerce); Chambre des Metiers (Chamber of Artisans); FEDIL(federation of industrialists); Greenpeace (environment protection);LCGP (center-right trade union); Mouvement Ecologique (protection ofecology); OGBL (center-left trade union)
MacauNA
MacedoniaCivic Movement of Macedonia [Gordana SILJANOVSKA]; WorldMacedonian Congress [Todor PETROV]
MadagascarCommittee for the Defense of Truth and Justice or KMMR;Committee for National Reconciliation or CRN [Albert Zafy]; NationalCouncil of Christian Churches or FFKM
MalawiNA
MalaysiaNA
Maldivesvarious unregistered political parties
MaliPatriotic Movement of the Ghanda Koye or MPGK; United Movementand Fronts of Azawad or MFUA
MaltaNA
Marshall IslandsNA
MartiniqueCaribbean Revolutionary Alliance or ARC; Central Unionfor Martinique Workers or CSTM [Marc PULVAR]; Frantz Fanon Circle;League of Workers and Peasants; Proletarian Action Group or GAP
MauritaniaArab nationalists; Ba'thists; General Confederation ofMauritanian Workers or CGTM [Abdallahi Ould MOHAMED, secretarygeneral]; Independent Confederation of Mauritanian Workers or CLTM[Samory Ould BEYE]; Islamists; Mauritanian Workers Union or UTM[Mohamed Ely Ould BRAHIM, secretary general]
Mauritiusvarious labor unions
MayotteNA
MexicoConfederation of Employers of the Mexican Republic orCOPARMEX; Confederation of Industrial Chambers or CONCAMIN;Confederation of Mexican Workers or CTM; Confederation of NationalChambers of Commerce or CONCANACO; Coordinator for Foreign TradeBusiness Organizations or COECE; Federation of Unions ProvidingGoods and Services or FESEBES; National Chamber of TransformationIndustries or CANACINTRA; National Peasant Confederation or CNC;National Union of Workers or UNT; Regional Confederation of MexicanWorkers or CROM; Revolutionary Confederation of Workers and Peasantsor CROC; Roman Catholic Church
MoldovaNA
MonacoNA
MongoliaNA
MontserratNA
MoroccoDemocratic Confederation of Labor or CDT [Noubir AMAOUI];General Union of Moroccan Workers or UGTM [Abderrazzak AFILAL];Moroccan Employers Association or CGEM [Hassan CHAMI]; NationalLabor Union of Morocco or UNMT [Abdelslam MAATI]; Union of MoroccanWorkers or UMT [Mahjoub BENSEDDIK]
MozambiqueInstitute for Peace and Democracy (Instituto para Paz eDemocracia) or IPADE [Raul DOMINGOS, president]; Etica [Abdul CARIMOIssa, chairman]; Movement for Peace and Citizenship (Movimento paraPaz e Cidadania); Mozambican League of Human Rights (LigaMocambicana dos Direitos Humanos) or LDH [Alice MABOTE, president];Human Rights and Development (Direitos Humanos e Desenvolvimento) orDHD [Artemisia FRANCO, secretary general]
NamibiaNA
NauruNA
NepalMaoist guerrilla-based insurgency [Pushpa Kamal DAHAL, alsoknown as PRACHANDA, chairman; Dr. Baburam BHATTARAI]; numeroussmall, left-leaning student groups in the capital; several small,radical Nepalese antimonarchist groups
NetherlandsNetherlands Trade Union Federation or FNV (consisting ofa merger of Socialist and Catholic trade unions); Christian TradeUnion Federation or CNV; Trade Union Federation of Middle and HighPersonnel or MHP; Federation of Catholic and Protestant EmployersAssociations; Interchurch Peace Council or IKV; large multinationalfirms; the nondenominational Federation of Netherlands Enterprises
Netherlands AntillesUnions (AVBO) and Employers Association (VBC)
New CaledoniaNA
New ZealandNA
NicaraguaNational Workers Front or FNT is a Sandinista umbrellagroup of eight labor unions including - Farm Workers Association orATC, Health Workers Federation or FETASALUD, Heroes and MartyrsConfederation of Professional Associations or CONAPRO, NationalAssociation of Educators of Nicaragua or ANDEN, National Union ofEmployees or UNE, National Union of Farmers and Ranchers or UNAG,Sandinista Workers Central or CST, and Union of Journalists ofNicaragua or UPN; Permanent Congress of Workers or CPT is anumbrella group of four non-Sandinista labor unions including -Autonomous Nicaraguan Workers Central or CTN-A, Confederation ofLabor Unification or CUS, Independent General Confederation of Laboror CGT-I, and Labor Action and Unity Central or CAUS; NicaraguanWorkers' Central or CTN is an independent labor union; SuperiorCouncil of Private Enterprise or COSEP is a confederation ofbusiness groups
NigerCoalition Against a High Cost of Living [Nouhou ARZIKA]
NigeriaNA
NiueNA
Norfolk Islandnone
Northern Mariana IslandsNA
NorwayNA
Omannone
Pakistanmilitary remains most important political force; ulema(clergy), landowners, industrialists, and small merchants alsoinfluential
PalauNA
PanamaChamber of Commerce; National Civic Crusade; National Councilof Organized Workers or CONATO; National Council of PrivateEnterprise or CONEP; National Union of Construction and SimilarWorkers (SUNTRACS); Panamanian Association of Business Executives orAPEDE; Panamanian Industrialists Society or SIP; WorkersConfederation of the Republic of Panama or CTRP
Papua New GuineaNA
ParaguayAhorristas Estafados or AE; National Coordinating Board ofCampesino Organizations or MCNOC [Luis AGUAYO]; National Federationof Campesinos or FNC [Odilon ESPINOLA]; National Workers Central orCNT [Secretary General Juan TORRALES]; Paraguayan WorkersConfederation or CPT; Roman Catholic Church; Unitary Workers Centralor CUT [Jorge Guzman ALVARENGA Malgarejo]
Peruleftist guerrilla groups include Shining Path [Abimael GUZMANReynoso (imprisoned), Gabriel MACARIO (top leader at-large)]; TupacAmaru Revolutionary Movement or MRTA [Victor POLAY (imprisoned),Hugo AVALLENEDA Valdez (top leader at-large)]
PhilippinesAKBAYAN [Reps. Etta ROSALES, Mario AGUJA, and RisaHONTIVEROS-BARAQUIEL]; ALAGAD [Rep. Rodante MARROLITA]; ALIF [Rep.Acmad TOMAWIS]; An Waray [Rep. Horencio NOEL]; Anak Mindanao [MujivHATAMIN]; ANAKPAWIS [Reps. Crispin BELTRAN and Rafael MARIANO]; APEC[Reps. Ernesto PABLO, Edgar VALDEZ]; Association of PhilippineElectric Cooperatives (APEC) [Reps. Edgar VALDEZ, Ernesto PABLO, andSunny Rose MADAMBA]; AVE [Rep. Eulogio MAGSAYSAY]; Bayan Muna [Reps.Satur OCAMPO, Joel VIRADOR, and Teodoro CASINO, Jr.]; BUHAY [Reps.Rene VELARDE and Hans Christian SENERES]; BUTIL [Rep. BenjaminCRUZ]; CIBAC [Rep. Emmanuel Joel VILLANUEVA]; COOP-NATCO [Rep.Guillermo CUA]; GABRIELA [Rep. Liza MAZA]; Partido Ng Manggagawa[Rep. Renato MAGTUBO]; Veterans Federation of the Philippines [Rep.Ernesto GIDAYA] (2006)
Pitcairn Islandsnone
PolandAll Poland Trade Union Alliance or OPZZ (trade union) [JanGUZ]; Roman Catholic Church [Cardinal Jozef GLEMP]; Solidarity TradeUnion [Janusz SNIADEK]
PortugalNA
Puerto RicoBoricua Popular Army or EPB (a revolutionary group alsoknown as Los Macheteros); note - the following radical groups areconsidered dormant by Federal law enforcement: Armed Forces forNational Liberation or FALN, Armed Forces of Popular Resistance,Volunteers of the Puerto Rican Revolution
Qatarnone
ReunionNA
Romaniavarious human rights and professional associations
RussiaNA
RwandaIBUKA - association of genocide survivors
Saint Helenanone
Saint Kitts and NevisNA
Saint LuciaNA
Saint Pierre and MiquelonNA
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesNA
SamoaNA
San MarinoNA
Sao Tome and PrincipeNA
Saudi Arabianone
Senegallabor; Muslim brotherhoods; students; teachers
SeychellesRoman Catholic Church; trade unions
Sierra Leonetrade unions and student unions
SingaporeNA
SlovakiaFederation of Employers' Associations of the SlovakRepublic; Association of Towns and Villages or ZMOS; Confederationof Trade Unions or KOZ
SloveniaNA
Solomon IslandsIsatabu Freedom Movement (IFM); Malaita Eagle Force(MEF); note - these rival armed ethnic factions crippled the SolomonIslands in a wave of violence from 1999 to 2003
Somalianumerous clan and sub-clan factions are currently vying forpower
South AfricaCongress of South African Trade Unions or COSATU[Zwelinzima VAVI, general secretary]; South African Communist Partyor SACP [Blade NZIMANDE, general secretary]; South African NationalCivics Organization or SANCO [Mlungisi HLONGWANE, nationalpresident]; note - COSATU and SACP are in a formal alliance with theANC
Spainbusiness and landowning interests; Catholic Church; free laborunions (authorized in April 1977); Socialist General Union ofWorkers or UGT and the smaller independent Workers Syndical Union orUSO; university students; Trade Union Confederation of Workers'Commissions or CC.OO.; Nunca Mas (Galician for "Never Again"; formedin response to the oil tanker Prestige oil spill)
Sri LankaBuddhist clergy; labor unions; Liberation Tigers of TamilEelam or LTTE [Velupillai PRABHAKARAN](insurgent group fighting fora separate state); radical chauvinist Sinhalese groups such as theNational Movement Against Terrorism; Sinhalese Buddhist lay groups
SudanUmma Party [Sadiq al-MAHDI]; Popular Congress Party or PCP[Hassan al-TURABI]
SurinameAssociation of Indigenous Village Chiefs [Ricardo PANE];Association of Saramaccan Authorities or Maroon [Head Captain WASE];Women's Parliament Forum or PVF [Iris GILLIAD]
SwazilandNA
SwedenNA
SwitzerlandNA
SyriaKurdish Democratic Alliance (includes several groups but hasno designated leader); Kurdish Democratic Front (includes severalgroups but has no designated leader); Muslim Brotherhood (operatesin exile in London) [Sadr al-Din al-BAYANUNI]; National DemocraticFront [Hassan Abd al-AZIM]
TaiwanTaiwan independence movement, various business andenvironmental groupsnote: debate on Taiwan independence has become acceptable within themainstream of domestic politics on Taiwan; political liberalizationand the increased representation of opposition parties in Taiwan'slegislature have opened public debate on the island's nationalidentity; a broad popular consensus has developed that Taiwancurrently enjoys de facto independence and - whatever the ultimateoutcome regarding reunification or independence - that Taiwan'speople must have the deciding voice; advocates of Taiwanindependence oppose the stand that the island will eventually unifywith mainland China; goals of the Taiwan independence movementinclude establishing a sovereign nation on Taiwan and entering theUN; other organizations supporting Taiwan independence include theWorld United Formosans for Independence and the Organization forTaiwan Nation Building
Tajikistanunregistered political parties: Agrarian Party[Hikmatullo NASREDDINOV]; Party of Justice [Abdurahim KARIMOV];People's Unity Party [Abdumalik ABDULLOJONOV]; Progressive Party[Sulton QUVVATOV]; Socialist Party [Mirhuseyn NAZRIYEV]; note - thisis the SPT that was disbanded, another pro-government SPT (listedabove under political parties) replaced it; Unity Party [HikmatulloSAIDOV]
TanzaniaNA
ThailandNA
TogoNA
Tokelaunone
TongaHuman Rights and Democracy Movement Tonga or HRDMT [Rev.Simote VEA, chairman]; Public Servant's Association [Finau TUTONE]
Trinidad and TobagoJamaat-al Muslimeen [Yasin BAKR]
Tunisiathe Islamic fundamentalist party, Al Nahda (Renaissance), isoutlawed
TurkeyConfederation of Public Sector Unions or KESK [Sami EVREN];Confederation of Revolutionary Workers Unions or DISK [SuleymanCELEBI]; Independent Industrialists' and Businessmen's Associationor MUSIAD [Omer BOLAT]; Moral Rights Workers Union or Hak-Is [SalimUSLU]; Turkish Confederation of Employers' Unions or TISK [RefikBAYDUR]; Turkish Confederation of Labor or Turk-Is [Salih KILIC];Turkish Confederation of Tradesmen and Craftsmen or TESK [DervisGUNDAY]; Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association orTUSIAD [Omer SABANCI]; Turkish Union of Chambers of Commerce andCommodity Exchanges or TOBB [M. Rifat HISARCIKLIOGLU]
TurkmenistanNA
Turks and Caicos IslandsNA
Tuvalunone
UgandaPopular Resistance Against a Life President or PRALP
UkraineCommittee of Voters of Ukraine [Ihor POPOV]
United Arab EmiratesNA
United KingdomCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament; Confederation ofBritish Industry; National Farmers' Union; Trades Union Congress
United StatesNA
UruguayArchitect's Society of Uruguay (professional organization);Catholic Church; Chamber of Uruguayan Industries (manufacturer'sassociation); Chemist and Pharmaceutical Association (professionalorganization); PIT-CNT (powerful federation of Uruguayan unions);Rural Association of Uruguay (rancher's association); students;Uruguayan Construction League
UzbekistanAgrarian and Entrepreneurs' Party [Marat ZAHIDOV]; Birlik(Unity) Movement [Abdurakhim POLAT, chairman]; Erk (Freedom)Democratic Party [Muhammad SOLIH, chairman] was banned 9 December1992; Ezgulik Human Rights Society [Vasilia INOYATOVA]; FreeFarmers' Party or Ozod Dehqonlar [Nigara KHIDOYATOVA]; Human RightsSociety of Uzbekistan [Tolib YAKUBOV, chairman]; Independent HumanRights Society of Uzbekistan [Mikhail ARDZINOV, chairman]; Mazlum;Sunshine Coalition [Sanjar UMAROV, chairman]
VanuatuNA
VenezuelaFEDECAMARAS, a conservative business group; VECINOSgroups; Venezuelan Confederation of Workers or CTV (labororganization dominated by the Democratic Action)
Vietnamnone
Virgin IslandsNA
Wallis and FutunaNA
Western Saharanone
YemenNA
ZambiaNA
ZimbabweCrisis in Zimbabwe Coalition [Wellington CHIBEBE]; NationalConstitutional Assembly or NCA [Lovemore MADHUKU]; Zimbabwe Congressof Trade Unions or ZCTU [Lovemore MATOMBO]
This page was last updated on 19 December, 2006
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@2116 Economy - overview
AfghanistanAfghanistan's economic outlook has improvedsignificantly since the fall of the Taliban regime in 2001 becauseof the infusion of over $8 billion in international assistance,recovery of the agricultural sector and growth of the servicesector, and the reestablishment of market institutions. Real GDPgrowth is estimated to have slowed in the last fiscal year primarilybecause adverse weather conditions cut agricultural production, butis expected to rebound over 2005-06 because of foreign donorreconstruction and service sector growth. Despite the progress ofthe past few years, Afghanistan remains extremely poor, landlocked,and highly dependent on foreign aid, farming, and trade withneighboring countries. It will probably take the remainder of thedecade and continuing donor aid and attention to significantly raiseAfghanistan's living standards from its current status, among thelowest in the world. Much of the population continues to suffer fromshortages of housing, clean water, electricity, medical care, andjobs, but the Afghan government and international donors remaincommitted to improving access to these basic necessities byprioritizing infrastructure development, education, housingdevelopment, jobs programs, and economic reform over the next year.Growing political stability and continued international commitmentto Afghan reconstruction create an optimistic outlook for continuingimprovements in the Afghan economy in 2006. Expanding poppycultivation and a growing opium trade may account for one-third ofGDP and looms as one of Kabul's most serious policy challenges.Other long-term challenges include: boosting the supply of skilledlabor, reducing vulnerability to severe natural disasters, expandinghealth services, and rebuilding a war torn infrastructure.
AkrotiriEconomic activity is limited to providing services to themilitary and their families located in Akrotiri. All food andmanufactured goods must be imported.
AlbaniaLagging behind its Balkan neighbors, Albania is making thedifficult transition to a more modern open-market economy. Thegovernment has taken measures to curb violent crime and to spureconomic activity and trade. The economy is bolstered by annualremittances from abroad of $600-$800 million, mostly from Greece andItaly; this helps offset the towering trade deficit. Agriculture,which accounts for about one-quarter of GDP, is held back because offrequent drought and the need to modernize equipment, to clarifyproperty rights, and to consolidate small plots of land. Energyshortages and antiquated and inadequate infrastructure contribute toAlbania's poor business environment, which make it difficult toattract and sustain foreign investment. The planned construction ofa new thermal power plant near Vlore and improved transmission anddistribution facilities will help relieve the energy shortages.Also, the government is moving slowly to improve the poor nationalroad and rail network, a long-standing barrier to sustained economicgrowth. On the positive side: growth was strong in 2003-05 andinflation is not a problem.
AlgeriaThe hydrocarbons sector is the backbone of the economy,accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over95% of export earnings. Algeria has the seventh-largest reserves ofnatural gas in the world and is the second-largest gas exporter; itranks 14th in oil reserves. Sustained high oil prices in recentyears, along with macroeconomic policy reforms supported by the IMF,have helped improve Algeria's financial and macroeconomicindicators. Algeria is running substantial trade surpluses andbuilding up record foreign exchange reserves. Real GDP has risen dueto higher oil output and increased government spending. Thegovernment's continued efforts to diversify the economy byattracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energysector, however, has had little success in reducing highunemployment and improving living standards. The population isbecoming increasingly restive due to the lack of jobs and housingand frequently stages protests, which have resulted in arrests andinjuries, including some deaths as government forces intervened torestore order. Structural reform within the economy, such asdevelopment of the banking sector and the construction ofinfrastructure, moves ahead slowly hampered by corruption andbureaucratic resistance.
American SamoaAmerican Samoa has a traditional Polynesian economyin which more than 90% of the land is communally owned. Economicactivity is strongly linked to the US with which American Samoaconducts most of its foreign trade. Tuna fishing and tuna processingplants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna theprimary export. Transfers from the US Government add substantiallyto American Samoa's economic well being. Attempts by the governmentto develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa'sremote location, its limited transportation, and its devastatinghurricanes. Tourism is a promising developing sector.
AndorraTourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy,accounts for more than 80% of GDP. An estimated 11.6 milliontourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status andby its summer and winter resorts. Andorra's comparative advantagehas recently eroded as the economies of neighboring France and Spainhave been opened up, providing broader availability of goods andlower tariffs. The banking sector, with its partial "tax haven"status, also contributes substantially to the economy. Agriculturalproduction is limited - only 2% of the land is arable - and mostfood has to be imported. The principal livestock activity is sheepraising. Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars,and furniture. Andorra is a member of the EU Customs Union and istreated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs)and as a non-EU member for agricultural products.
AngolaAngola's high growth rate is driven by its oil sector, withrecord oil prices and rising petroleum production. Oil productionand its supporting activities contribute about half of GDP and 90%of exports. Increased oil production supported 12% growth in 2004and 19% growth in 2005. A postwar reconstruction boom andresettlement of displaced persons has led to high rates of growth inconstruction and agriculture as well. Much of the country'sinfrastructure is still damaged or undeveloped from the 27-year-longcivil war. Remnants of the conflict such as widespread land minesstill mar the countryside even though an apparently durable peacewas established after the death of rebel leader Jonas SAVIMBI inFebruary 2002. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihoodfor half of the population, but half of the country's food muststill be imported. In 2005, the government started using a $2billion line of credit from China to rebuild Angola's publicinfrastructure, and several large-scale projects are scheduled forcompletion by 2006. The central bank in 2003 implemented an exchangerate stabilization program using foreign exchange reserves to buykwanzas out of circulation, a policy that was more sustainable in2005 because of strong oil export earnings, and has significantlyreduced inflation. Consumer inflation declined from 325% in 2000 toabout 18% in 2005, but the stabilization policy places pressure oninternational net liquidity. To fully take advantage of its richnational resources - gold, diamonds, extensive forests, Atlanticfisheries, and large oil deposits - Angola will need to continuereforming government policies and to reduce corruption. Thegovernment has made sufficient progress on reforms recommended bythe IMF such as promoting greater transparency in governmentspending but continues to be without a formal monitoring agreementwith the institution.
AnguillaAnguilla has few natural resources, and the economy dependsheavily on luxury tourism, offshore banking, lobster fishing, andremittances from emigrants. Increased activity in the tourismindustry, which has spurred the growth of the construction sector,has contributed to economic growth. Anguillan officials have putsubstantial effort into developing the offshore financial sector,which is small, but growing. In the medium term, prospects for theeconomy will depend largely on the tourism sector and, therefore, onrevived income growth in the industrialized nations as well as onfavorable weather conditions.
AntarcticaFishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad,account for Antarctica's limited economic activity. Antarcticfisheries in 2003-04 (1 July-30 June) reported landing 136,262metric tons (estimated fishing from the area covered by theConvention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources(CCAMLR), which extends slightly beyond the Antarctic Treaty area).Unregulated fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish, is aserious problem. The CCAMLR determines the recommended catch limitsfor marine species. A total of 23,175 tourists visited in the2004-05 Antarctic summer, up from the 19,486 visitors the previousyear. Nearly all of them were passengers on commercial(nongovernmental) ships and several yachts that make trips duringthe summer. Most tourist trips last approximately two weeks.
Antigua and BarbudaTourism continues to dominate the economy,accounting for more than half of GDP. Weak tourist arrival numberssince early 2000 have slowed the economy, however, and pressed thegovernment into a tight fiscal corner. The dual-island nation'sagricultural production is focused on the domestic market andconstrained by a limited water supply and a labor shortage stemmingfrom the lure of higher wages in tourism and construction.Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with majorproducts being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components.Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue todepend on income growth in the industrialized world, especially inthe US, which accounts for slightly more than one-third of touristarrivals.
Arctic OceanEconomic activity is limited to the exploitation ofnatural resources, including petroleum, natural gas, fish, and seals.
ArgentinaArgentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highlyliterate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and adiversified industrial base. Over the past decade, however, thecountry has suffered problems of inflation, external debt, capitalflight, and budget deficits. Growth in 2000 was a negative 0.8%, asboth domestic and foreign investors remained skeptical of thegovernment's ability to pay debts and maintain the peso's fixedexchange rate with the US dollar. The economic situation worsened in2001 with the widening of spreads on Argentine bonds, massivewithdrawals from the banks, and a further decline in consumer andinvestor confidence. Government efforts to achieve a "zero deficit,"to stabilize the banking system, and to restore economic growthproved inadequate in the face of the mounting economic problems. Thepeso's peg to the dollar was abandoned in January 2002, and the pesowas floated in February. The exchange rate plunged and real GDP fellby 10.9% in 2002, but by mid-year the economy had stabilized, albeitat a lower level. GDP expanded by about 9% per year from 2003 to2005. Growth is being led by a revival in domestic demand, solidexports, and favorable external conditions. The government boostedspending ahead of the October 2005 midterm congressional elections,but strong revenue performance allowed Argentina to maintain abudget surplus. Inflation has been rising steadily and reached 12.3percent in 2005.
ArmeniaUnder the old Soviet central planning system, Armenia haddeveloped a modern industrial sector, supplying machine tools,textiles, and other manufactured goods to sister republics inexchange for raw materials and energy. Since the implosion of theUSSR in December 1991, Armenia has switched to small-scaleagriculture away from the large agroindustrial complexes of theSoviet era. The agricultural sector has long-term needs for moreinvestment and updated technology. The privatization of industry hasbeen at a slower pace, but has been given renewed emphasis by thecurrent administration. Armenia is a food importer, and its mineraldeposits (copper, gold, bauxite) are small. The ongoing conflictwith Azerbaijan over the ethnic Armenian-dominated region ofNagorno-Karabakh and the breakup of the centrally directed economicsystem of the former Soviet Union contributed to a severe economicdecline in the early 1990s. By 1994, however, the ArmenianGovernment had launched an ambitious IMF-sponsored economicliberalization program that resulted in positive growth rates in1995-2005. Armenia joined the WTO in January 2003. Armenia also hasmanaged to slash inflation, stabilize its currency, and privatizemost small- and medium-sized enterprises. Armenia's unemploymentrate, however, remains high, despite strong economic growth. Thechronic energy shortages Armenia suffered in the early and mid-1990shave been offset by the energy supplied by one of its nuclear powerplants at Metsamor. Armenia is now a net energy exporter, althoughit does not have sufficient generating capacity to replace Metsamor,which is under international pressure to close. The electricitydistribution system was privatized in 2002. Armenia's severe tradeimbalance has been offset somewhat by international aid, remittancesfrom Armenians working abroad, and foreign direct investment.Economic ties with Russia remain close, especially in the energysector. The government made some improvements in tax and customsadministration in 2005, but anti-corruption measures will be moredifficult to implement. Investment in the construction andindustrial sectors is expected to continue in 2006 and will help toensure annual average real GDP growth of about 13.9%.
ArubaTourism is the mainstay of the small, open Aruban economy,with offshore banking and oil refining and storage also important.The rapid growth of the tourism sector over the last decade hasresulted in a substantial expansion of other activities. Over 1.5million tourists per year visit Aruba, with 75% of those from theUS. Construction continues to boom, with hotel capacity five timesthe 1985 level. In addition, the reopening of the country's oilrefinery in 1993, a major source of employment and foreign exchangeearnings, has further spurred growth. Tourist arrivals haverebounded strongly following a dip after the 11 September 2001attacks. The island experiences only a brief low season, and hoteloccupancy in 2004 averaged 80%, compared to 68% throughout the restof the Caribbean. The newly re-elected government has made cuttingthe budget and trade deficits a high priority.
Ashmore and Cartier Islandsno economic activity
Atlantic OceanThe Atlantic Ocean provides some of the world's mostheavily trafficked sea routes, between and within the Eastern andWestern Hemispheres. Other economic activity includes theexploitation of natural resources, e.g., fishing, dredging ofaragonite sands (The Bahamas), and production of crude oil andnatural gas (Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and North Sea).
AustraliaAustralia has an enviable Western-style capitalist economywith a per capita GDP on par with the four dominant West Europeaneconomies. Rising output in the domestic economy, robust businessand consumer confidence, and rising exports of raw materials andagricultural products are fueling the economy. Australia's emphasison reforms, low inflation, and growing ties with China are other keyfactors behind the economy's strength. The impact of drought, weakforeign demand, and strong import demand pushed the trade deficit upfrom $8 billion in 2002, to $18 billion in 2003, $13 billion in2004, and nearly $17 billion in 2005. Housing prices probably peakedin 2005, diminishing the prospect that interest rates would beraised to prevent a speculative bubble. Conservative fiscal policieshave kept Australia's budget in surplus from 2002 to 2005.
AustriaAustria, with its well-developed market economy and highstandard of living, is closely tied to other EU economies,especially Germany's. The Austrian economy also benefits greatlyfrom strong commercial relations, especially in the banking andinsurance sectors, with central, eastern, and southeastern Europe.The economy features a large service sector, a sound industrialsector, and a small, but highly developed agricultural sector.Membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investorsattracted by Austria's access to the single European market andproximity to the new EU economies. The current government hassuccessfully pursued a comprehensive economic reform program, aimedat streamlining government, creating a more competitive businessenvironment, further strengthening Austria's attractiveness as aninvestment location, pursuing a balanced budget, and implementingeffective pension reforms. Weak domestic consumption and slow growthin Europe have held the economy to growth rates of 0.4% in 2002,1.4% in 2003, 2.4% in 2004, and 1.8% in 2005. To meet increasedcompetition from both EU and Central European countries,particularly the new EU members, Austria will need to continuerestructuring, emphasizing knowledge-based sectors of the economy,and encouraging greater labor flexibility and greater laborparticipation by its aging population.
AzerbaijanAzerbaijan's number one export is oil. Azerbaijan's oilproduction declined through 1997, but has registered an increaseevery year since. Negotiation of production-sharing arrangements(PSAs) with foreign firms, which have thus far committed $60 billionto long-term oilfield development, should generate the funds neededto spur future industrial development. Oil production under thefirst of these PSAs, with the Azerbaijan International OperatingCompany, began in November 1997. A consortium of Western oilcompanies is scheduled to begin pumping 1 million barrels a day froma large offshore field in early 2006, through a $4 billion pipelineit built from Baku to Turkey's Mediterranean port of Ceyhan.Economists estimate that by 2010 revenues from this project willdouble the country's current GDP. Azerbaijan shares all theformidable problems of the former Soviet republics in making thetransition from a command to a market economy, but its considerableenergy resources brighten its long-term prospects. Baku has onlyrecently begun making progress on economic reform, and old economicties and structures are slowly being replaced. Several otherobstacles impede Azerbaijan's economic progress: the need forstepped up foreign investment in the non-energy sector, thecontinuing conflict with Armenia over the Nagorno-Karabakh region,and the pervasive corruption. Trade with Russia and the other formerSoviet republics is declining in importance while trade is buildingwith Turkey and the nations of Europe. Long-term prospects willdepend on world oil prices, the location of new pipelines in theregion, and Azerbaijan's ability to manage its oil wealth.
Bahamas, TheThe Bahamas is a stable, developing nation with aneconomy heavily dependent on tourism and offshore banking. Tourismtogether with tourism-driven construction and manufacturing accountsfor approximately 60% of GDP and directly or indirectly employs halfof the archipelago's labor force. Steady growth in tourism receiptsand a boom in construction of new hotels, resorts, and residenceshad led to solid GDP growth in recent years, but the slowdown in theUS economy and the attacks of 11 September 2001 held back growth inthese sectors in 2001-03. The current government has presided over aperiod of economic recovery and an upturn in large-scale privatesector investments in tourism. Financial services constitute thesecond-most important sector of the Bahamian economy, accounting forabout 15% of GDP. However, since December 2000, when the governmentenacted new regulations on the financial sector, many internationalbusinesses have left The Bahamas. Manufacturing and agriculturetogether contribute approximately a tenth of GDP and show littlegrowth, despite government incentives aimed at those sectors.Overall growth prospects in the short run rest heavily on thefortunes of the tourism sector, which depends on growth in the US,the source of more than 80% of the visitors.
BahrainPetroleum production and refining account for about 60% ofBahrain's export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% ofGDP. With its highly developed communication and transportfacilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms withbusiness in the Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleumproducts made from refining imported crude. Construction proceeds onseveral major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially amongthe young, and the depletion of oil and underground water resourcesare major long-term economic problems. In 2005 Bahrain and the USratified a Free Trade Agreement (FTA), the first FTA between the USand a Gulf state.
Baker Islandno economic activity
BangladeshDespite sustained domestic and international efforts toimprove economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains apoor, overpopulated, and inefficiently-governed nation. Althoughhalf of GDP is generated through the service sector, nearlytwo-thirds of Bangladeshis are employed in the agriculture sector,with rice as the single-most-important product. Major impediments togrowth include frequent cyclones and floods, inefficient state-ownedenterprises, inadequate port facilities, a rapidly growing laborforce that cannot be absorbed by agriculture, delays in exploitingenergy resources (natural gas), insufficient power supplies, andslow implementation of economic reforms. Reform is stalled in manyinstances by political infighting and corruption at all levels ofgovernment. Progress also has been blocked by opposition from thebureaucracy, public sector unions, and other vested interest groups.The BNP government, led by Prime Minister Khaleda ZIA, has theparliamentary strength to push through needed reforms, but theparty's political will to do so has been lacking in key areas. Oneencouraging note: growth has been a steady 5% for the past severalyears.
BarbadosHistorically, the Barbadian economy had been dependent onsugarcane cultivation and related activities, but production inrecent years has diversified into light industry and tourism.Offshore finance and information services are important foreignexchange earners. The government continues its efforts to reduceunemployment, to encourage direct foreign investment, and toprivatize remaining state-owned enterprises. The economy contractedin 2002-03 mainly due to a decline in tourism. Growth was positivein 2005, as economic conditions in the US and Europe moderatelyimproved.
Bassas da Indiano economic activity
BelarusBelarus's economy in 2005 posted 8% growth. The governmenthas succeeded in lowering inflation over the past several years.Trade with Russia - by far its largest single trade partner -decreased in 2005, largely as a result of a change in the way theValue Added Tax (VAT) on trade was collected. Trade with Europeancountries increased. Belarus has seen little structural reform since1995, when President LUKASHENKO launched the country on the path of"market socialism." In keeping with this policy, LUKASHENKOreimposed administrative controls over prices and currency exchangerates and expanded the state's right to intervene in the managementof private enterprises. During 2005, the government re-nationalizeda number of private companies. In addition, businesses have beensubject to pressure by central and local governments, e.g.,arbitrary changes in regulations, numerous rigorous inspections,retroactive application of new business regulations, and arrests of"disruptive" businessmen and factory owners. A wide range ofredistributive policies has helped those at the bottom of theladder; the Gini coefficient is among the lowest in the world.Because of these restrictive economic policies, Belarus has hadtrouble attracting foreign investment, which remains low. Growth hasbeen strong in recent years, despite the roadblocks in a tough,centrally directed economy with a high, but decreasing, rate ofinflation. Belarus continues to receive heavily discounted oil andnatural gas from Russia. Much of Belarus' growth can be attributedto the re-export of Russian oil at market prices.
BelgiumThis modern, private-enterprise economy has capitalized onits central geographic location, highly developed transport network,and diversified industrial and commercial base. Industry isconcentrated mainly in the populous Flemish area in the north. Withfew natural resources, Belgium must import substantial quantities ofraw materials and export a large volume of manufactures, making itseconomy unusually dependent on the state of world markets. Roughlythree-quarters of its trade is with other EU countries. Public debtis nearly 100% of GDP. On the positive side, the government hassucceeded in balancing its budget, and income distribution isrelatively equal. Belgium began circulating the euro currency inJanuary 2002. Economic growth in 2001-03 dropped sharply because ofthe global economic slowdown, with moderate recovery in 2004-05.
BelizeIn this small, essentially private-enterprise economy thetourism industry is the number one foreign exchange earner followedby marine products, citrus, cane sugar, bananas, and garments. Thegovernment's expansionary monetary and fiscal policies, initiated inSeptember 1998, led to sturdy GDP growth averaging nearly 5% in1999-2005. Major concerns continue to be the sizable trade deficitand foreign debt. A key short-term objective remains the reductionof poverty with the help of international donors.
BeninThe economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent onsubsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade.Growth in real output has averaged around 5% in the past six years,but rapid population growth has offset much of this increase.Inflation has subsided over the past several years. In order toraise growth still further, Benin plans to attract more foreigninvestment, place more emphasis on tourism, facilitate thedevelopment of new food processing systems and agriculturalproducts, and encourage new information and communicationtechnology. Many of these proposals are included in Benin'sapplication to receive Millennium Challenge Account funding - forwhich it was a finalist in 2004-05. The 2001 privatization policycontinues in telecommunications, water, electricity, and agriculturein spite of government reluctance. The Paris Club and bilateralcreditors have eased the external debt situation, with Beninbenefiting from a G8 debt reduction announced in July 2005, whilepressing for more rapid structural reforms. Benin continues to behurt by Nigerian trade protection that bans imports of a growinglist of products from Benin and elsewhere, which has resulted inincreased smuggling and criminality in the border region.
BermudaBermuda enjoys the highest per capita income in the world,more than 50% higher than that of the US. Its economy is primarilybased on providing financial services for international business andluxury facilities for tourists. A number of reinsurance companiesrelocated to the island following 11 September 2001 and again afterHurricane Katrina, contributing to the expansion of an alreadyrobust international business sector. Bermuda's tourism industry -which derives over 80% of its visitors from the US - continues tostruggle but remains the island's number two industry. Most capitalequipment and food must be imported. Bermuda's industrial sector issmall, although construction continues to be important; the averagecost of a house in June 2003 had risen to $976,000. Agriculture islimited with only 20% of the land being arable.
BhutanThe economy, one of the world's smallest and least developed,is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the mainlivelihood for more than 90% of the population. Agriculture consistslargely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Ruggedmountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads andother infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closelyaligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links anddependence on India's financial assistance. The industrial sector istechnologically backward, with most production of the cottageindustry type. Most development projects, such as road construction,rely on Indian migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and itsattraction for tourists are key resources. Model education, social,and environment programs are underway with support from multilateraldevelopment organizations. Each economic program takes into accountthe government's desire to protect the country's environment andcultural traditions. For example, the government, in its cautiousexpansion of the tourist sector, encourages visits by upscale,environmentally conscientious tourists. Detailed controls anduncertain policies in areas like industrial licensing, trade, labor,and finance continue to hamper foreign investment.
BoliviaBolivia, long one of the poorest and least developed LatinAmerican countries, reformed its economy after suffering adisastrous economic crisis in the early 1980s. The reforms spurredreal GDP growth, which averaged 4% in the 1990s, and poverty ratesfell. Economic growth, however, lagged again beginning in 1999because of a global slowdown and homegrown factors such as politicalturmoil, civil unrest, and soaring fiscal deficits, all of whichhurt investor confidence. In 2003, violent protests against thepro-foreign investment economic policies of President SANCHEZ DELOZADA led to his resignation and the cancellation of plans toexport Bolivia's newly discovered natural gas reserves to largenorthern hemisphere markets. In 2005, the government passed acontroversial natural gas law that imposes on the oil and gas firmssignificantly higher taxes as well as new contracts that give thestate control of their operations. Bolivian officials are in theprocess of implementing the law; meanwhile, foreign investors havestopped investing and have taken the first legal steps to securetheir investments. Real GDP growth in 2003-05 - helped by increaseddemand for natural gas in neighboring Brazil - was positive, butstill below the levels seen during the 1990s. Bolivia's fiscalposition has improved in recent years, but the country remainsdependent on foreign aid from multilateral lenders and foreigngovernments to meet budget shortfalls. In 2005, the G8 announced a$2 billion debt-forgiveness plan over the next few decades thatshould help reduce some fiscal pressures on the government in thenear term.
Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia and Herzegovina ranked next toMacedonia as the poorest republic in the old Yugoslav federation.Although agriculture is almost all in private hands, farms are smalland inefficient, and the republic traditionally is a net importer offood. Industry remains greatly overstaffed, a holdover from thesocialist economic structure of Yugoslavia. TITO had pushed thedevelopment of military industries in the republic with the resultthat Bosnia was saddled with a host of industrial firms with littlecommercial potential. The interethnic warfare in Bosnia causedproduction to plummet by 80% from 1992 to 1995 and unemployment tosoar. With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered in 1996-99 athigh percentage rates from a low base; but output growth slowed in2000-02. Part of the lag in output was made up in 2003-05.National-level statistics are limited and do not capture the largeshare of black market activity. The konvertibilna marka (convertiblemark or BAM)- the national currency introduced in 1998 - is peggedto the euro, and confidence in the currency and the banking sectorhas increased. Implementation of privatization, however, has beenslow, and local entities only reluctantly support national-levelinstitutions. Banking reform accelerated in 2001 as all theCommunist-era payments bureaus were shut down; foreign banks,primarily from Western Europe, now control most of the bankingsector. A sizeable current account deficit and high unemploymentrate remain the two most serious economic problems. The countryreceives substantial amounts of reconstruction assistance andhumanitarian aid from the international community but will have toprepare for an era of declining assistance.
BotswanaBotswana has maintained one of the world's highest economicgrowth rates since independence in 1966. Through fiscal disciplineand sound management, Botswana has transformed itself from one ofthe poorest countries in the world to a middle-income country with aper capita GDP of $10,000 in 2005. Two major investment servicesrank Botswana as the best credit risk in Africa. Diamond mining hasfueled much of the expansion and currently accounts for more thanone-third of GDP and for 70-80% of export earnings. Tourism,financial services, subsistence farming, and cattle raising areother key sectors. On the downside, the government must deal withhigh rates of unemployment and poverty. Unemployment officially is23.8%, but unofficial estimates place it closer to 40%. HIV/AIDSinfection rates are the second highest in the world and threatenBotswana's impressive economic gains. An expected leveling off indiamond mining production overshadows long-term prospects.