RwandaIn 1959, three years before independence from Belgium, themajority ethnic group, the Hutus, overthrew the ruling Tutsi king.Over the next several years, thousands of Tutsis were killed, andsome 150,000 driven into exile in neighboring countries. Thechildren of these exiles later formed a rebel group, the RwandanPatriotic Front (RPF), and began a civil war in 1990. The war, alongwith several political and economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnictensions, culminating in April 1994 in the genocide of roughly800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated theHutu regime and ended the killing in July 1994, but approximately 2million Hutu refugees - many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled toneighboring Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and the former Zaire. Sincethen, most of the refugees have returned to Rwanda, but about 10,000remain in neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo and haveformed an extremist insurgency bent on retaking Rwanda, much as theRPF tried in 1990. Despite substantial international assistance andpolitical reforms - including Rwanda's first local elections inMarch 1999 and its first post-genocide presidential and legislativeelections in August and September 2003 - the country continues tostruggle to boost investment and agricultural output, and ethnicreconciliation is complicated by the real and perceived Tutsipolitical dominance. Kigali's increasing centralization andintolerance of dissent, the nagging Hutu extremist insurgency acrossthe border, and Rwandan involvement in two wars in recent years inthe neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo continue to hinderRwanda's efforts to escape its bloody legacy.
Saint HelenaSaint Helena is a British Overseas Territory consistingof Saint Helena and Ascension Islands, and the island group ofTristan da Cunha.Saint Helena: Uninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in1502, Saint Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17thcentury. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE'sexile, from 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as aport of call declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.During the Anglo-Boer War in South Africa, several thousand Boerprisoners were confined on the island between 1900 and 1903.Ascension Island: This barren and uninhabited island was discoveredand named by the Portuguese in 1503. The British garrisoned theisland in 1815 to prevent a rescue of Napoleon from Saint Helena andit served as a provisioning station for the Royal Navy's West AfricaSquadron on anti-slavery patrol. The island remained under Admiraltycontrol until 1922, when it became a dependency of Saint Helena.During World War II, the UK permitted the US to construct anairfield on Ascension in support of trans-Atlantic flights to Africaand anti-submarine operations in the South Atlantic. In the 1960sthe island became an important space tracking station for the US. In1982, Ascension was an essential staging area for British forcesduring the Falklands War, and it remains a critical refueling pointin the air-bridge from the UK to the South Atlantic.Tristan da Cunha: The island group consists of the islands ofTristan da Cunha, Nightingale, Inaccessible, and Gough. Tristan daCunha is named after its Portuguese discoverer (1506); it wasgarrisoned by the British in 1816 to prevent any attempt to rescueNapoleon from Saint Helena. Gough and Inaccessible Islands have beendesignated World Heritage Sites. South Africa leases the site for ameteorological station on Gough Island.
Saint Kitts and NevisFirst settled by the British in 1623, theislands became an associated state with full internal autonomy in1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to secede in1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983. In 1998,a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from Saint Kitts fellshort of the two-thirds majority needed. Nevis continues in itsefforts to try and separate from Saint Kitts.
Saint LuciaThe island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,was contested between England and France throughout the 17th andearly 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finallyceded to the UK in 1814. Even after the abolition of slavery on itsplantations in 1834, Saint Lucia remained an agricultural island,dedicated to producing tropical commodity crops. Self-government wasgranted in 1967 and independence in 1979.
Saint Pierre and MiquelonFirst settled by the French in the early17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige ofFrance's once vast North American possessions.
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesResistance by native Caribsprevented colonization on St. Vincent until 1719. Disputed betweenFrance and the United Kingdom for most of the 18th century, theisland was ceded to the latter in 1783. Between 1960 and 1962, SaintVincent and the Grenadines was a separate administrative unit of theFederation of the West Indies. Autonomy was granted in 1969 andindependence in 1979.
SamoaNew Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoaat the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administerthe islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablishindependence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"from its name in 1997.
San MarinoThe third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy Seeand Monaco) also claims to be the world's oldest republic. Accordingto tradition, it was founded by a Christian stonemason named Marinoin 301 A.D. San Marino's foreign policy is aligned with that ofItaly. Social and political trends in the republic also trackclosely with those of its larger neighbor.
Sao Tome and PrincipeDiscovered and claimed by Portugal in the late15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffeeand cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slavelabor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. Althoughindependence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were notinstituted until the late 1980s. Though the first free electionswere held in 1991, the political environment has been one ofcontinued instability with frequent changes in leadership and coupattempts in 1995 and 2003. The recent discovery of oil in the Gulfof Guinea is likely to have a significant impact on the country'seconomy.
Saudi ArabiaIn 1902, ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman Al Saud capturedRiyadh and set out on a 30-year campaign to unify the ArabianPeninsula. A son of ABD AL-AZIZ rules the country today, and thecountry's Basic Law stipulates that the throne shall remain in thehands of the aging sons and grandsons of the kingdom's founder.Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia acceptedthe Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees while allowing Westernand Arab troops to deploy on its soil for the liberation of Kuwaitthe following year. The continuing presence of foreign troops onSaudi soil after Operation Desert Storm remained a source of tensionbetween the royal family and the public until the US military'snear-complete withdrawal to neighboring Qatar in 2003. The firstmajor terrorist attacks in Saudi Arabia in several years, whichoccurred in May and November 2003, prompted renewed efforts on thepart of the Saudi government to counter domestic terrorism andextremism, which also coincided with a slight upsurge in mediafreedom and announcement of government plans to phase in partialpolitical representation. As part of this effort, the governmentpermitted elections - held nationwide from February through April2005 - for half the members of 179 municipal councils. A burgeoningpopulation, aquifer depletion, and an economy largely dependent onpetroleum output and prices are all ongoing governmental concerns.
SenegalIndependent from France in 1960, Senegal was ruled by theSocialist Party for forty years until current President AbdoulayeWADE was elected in 2000. Senegal joined with The Gambia to form thenominal confederation of Senegambia in 1982, but the envisagedintegration of the two countries was never carried out, and theunion was dissolved in 1989. A southern separatist groupsporadically has clashed with government forces since 1982, butSenegal remains one of the most stable democracies in Africa.Senegal has a long history of participating in internationalpeacekeeping.
SerbiaThe Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. Occupation by NaziGermany in 1941 was resisted by various paramilitary bands thatfought each other as well as the invaders. The group headed by JosipTITO took full control of Yugoslavia upon German expulsion in 1945.Although Communist, his new government and its successors (he diedin 1980) managed to steer their own path between the Warsaw Pactnations and the West for the next four and a half decades. In theearly 1990s, post-TITO Yugoslavia began to unravel along ethniclines: Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina wererecognized as independent states in 1992. The remaining republics ofSerbia and Montenegro declared a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia(FRY) in April 1992 and, under President Slobodan MILOSEVIC, Serbialed various military intervention efforts to unite ethnic Serbs inneighboring republics into a "Greater Serbia." These actions led toYugoslavia being ousted from the UN in 1992, but Serbia continuedits campaign until signing the Dayton Peace Accords in 1995. In1998-99, massive expulsions by FRY forces and Serb paramilitaries ofethnic Albanians living in Kosovo provoked an internationalresponse, including the NATO bombing of Belgrade and the stationingof a NATO-led force (KFOR), in Kosovo. Federal elections in the fallof 2000, brought about the ouster of MILOSEVIC and installedVojislav KOSTUNICA as president. The arrest of MILOSEVIC in 2001allowed for his subsequent transfer to the International CriminalTribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in The Hague to be tried forcrimes against humanity. In 2001, the country's suspension from theUN was lifted, and it was once more accepted into UN organizationsunder the name of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Kosovo hasbeen governed by the UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo(UNMIK) since June 1999, under the authority of UN Security CouncilResolution 1244, pending a determination by the internationalcommunity of its future status. In 2002, the Serbian and Montenegrincomponents of Yugoslavia began negotiations to forge a looserrelationship. In February 2003 lawmakers restructured the countryinto a loose federation of two republics called Serbia andMontenegro. The Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegroincluded a provision that allowed either republic to hold areferendum after three years that would allow for their independencefrom the state union. In the spring of 2006, Montenegro tookadvantage of the provision to undertake a successful independencevote enabling it to secede on 3 June. Two days later, Serbiadeclared that it was the successor state to the union of Serbia andMontenegro.
SeychellesA lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain forthe islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a closewith a new constitution and free elections in 1993. The most recentpresidential elections were held in 2001; President RENE, who hadserved since 1977, was re-elected. In April 2004 RENE stepped downand Vice President James MICHEL was sworn in as president.
Sierra LeoneThe government is slowly reestablishing its authorityafter the 1991 to 2002 civil war that resulted in tens of thousandsof deaths and the displacement of more than 2 million people (aboutone-third of the population). The last UN peacekeepers withdrew inDecember 2005, leaving full responsibility for security withdomestic forces, but a new civilian UN office remains to support thegovernment. Mounting tensions related to planned 2007 elections,deteriorating political and economic conditions in Guinea, and thetenuous security situation in neighboring Liberia may presentchallenges to continuing progress in Sierra Leone's stability.
SingaporeSingapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819.It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two yearslater and became independent. Singapore subsequently became one ofthe world's most prosperous countries with strong internationaltrading links (its port is one of the world's busiest in terms oftonnage handled) and with per capita GDP equal to that of theleading nations of Western Europe.
SlovakiaThe dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the closeof World War I allowed the Slovaks to join the closely relatedCzechs to form Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,Czechoslovakia became a Communist nation within Soviet-ruled EasternEurope. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 and Czechoslovakia oncemore became free. The Slovaks and the Czechs agreed to separatepeacefully on 1 January 1993. Slovakia joined both NATO and the EUin the spring of 2004.
SloveniaThe Slovene lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empireuntil the latter's dissolution at the end of World War I. In 1918,the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats in forming a newmultinational state, which was named Yugoslavia in 1929. After WorldWar II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, whichthough Communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfiedwith the exercise of power by the majority Serbs, the Slovenessucceeded in establishing their independence in 1991 after a short10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, anda stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia's transformation to amodern state. Slovenia acceded to both NATO and the EU in the springof 2004.
Solomon IslandsThe UK established a protectorate over the SolomonIslands in the 1890s. Some of the bitterest fighting of World War IIoccurred on this archipelago. Self-government was achieved in 1976and independence two years later. Ethnic violence, governmentmalfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civilsociety. In June 2003, Prime Minister Sir Allen KEMAKEZA sought theassistance of Australia in reestablishing law and order; thefollowing month, an Australian-led multinational force arrived torestore peace and disarm ethnic militias. The Regional AssistanceMission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) has been very effective inrestoring law and order and rebuilding government institutions.
SomaliaBritain withdrew from British Somaliland in 1960 in order toallow its protectorate to join with Italian Somaliland and form thenew nation of Somalia. In 1969, a coup headed by Mohamed SIAD Barreushered in an authoritarian socialist rule that managed to impose adegree of stability in the country for a couple of decades. Afterthe regime's overthrow early in 1991, Somalia descended intoturmoil, factional fighting, and anarchy. In May of 1991, northernclans declared an independent Republic of Somaliland that nowincludes the administrative regions of Awdal, Woqooyi Galbeed,Togdheer, Sanaag, and Sool. Although not recognized by anygovernment, this entity has maintained a stable existence, aided bythe overwhelming dominance of a ruling clan and economicinfrastructure left behind by British, Russian, and Americanmilitary assistance programs. The regions of Bari, Nugaal, andnorthern Mudug comprise a neighboring self-declared autonomous stateof Puntland, which has been self-governing since 1998, but does notaim at independence; it has also made strides toward reconstructinga legitimate, representative government, but has suffered some civilstrife. Puntland disputes its border with Somaliland as it alsoclaims portions of eastern Sool and Sanaag. Beginning in 1993, atwo-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily in the south) was able toalleviate famine conditions, but when the UN withdrew in 1995,having suffered significant casualties, order still had not beenrestored. The mandate of the Transitional National Government (TNG),created in August 2000 in Arta, Djibouti, expired in August 2003. Atwo-year peace process, led by the Government of Kenya under theauspices of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD),concluded in October 2004 with the election of Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmedas Transitional Federal President of Somalia and the formation of atransitional government, known as the Somalia Transitional FederalInstitutions (TFIs). The Somalia TFIs include a 275-memberparliamentary body, known as the Transitional Federal Assembly(TFA), a transitional Prime Minister, Ali Mohamed GHEDI, and a90-member cabinet. The TFIs are currently divided between Mogadishuand Jowhar, but discussions to co-locate the TFIs in one city areongoing. Suspicion of Somali links with global terrorism furthercomplicates the picture.
South AfricaAfter the British seized the Cape of Good Hope area in1806, many of the Dutch settlers (the Boers) trekked north to foundtheir own republics. The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold(1886) spurred wealth and immigration and intensified thesubjugation of the native inhabitants. The Boers resisted Britishencroachments, but were defeated in the Boer War (1899-1902). Theresulting Union of South Africa operated under a policy of apartheid- the separate development of the races. The 1990s brought an end toapartheid politically and ushered in black majority rule.
South Georgia and the South Sandwich IslandsThe islands, which havelarge bird and seal populations, lie approximately 1,000 km east ofthe Falkland Islands and have been under British administrationsince 1908 - except for a brief period in 1982 when Argentinaoccupied them. Grytviken, on South Georgia, was a 19th and early20th century whaling station. Famed explorer Ernest SHACKLETONstopped there in 1914 en route to his ill-fated attempt to crossAntarctica on foot. He returned some 20 months later with a fewcompanions in a small boat and arranged a successful rescue for therest of his crew, stranded off the Antarctic Peninsula. He died in1922 on a subsequent expedition and is buried in Grytviken. Today,the station houses scientists from the British Antarctic Survey.Recognizing the importance of preserving the marine stocks inadjacent waters, the UK, in 1993, extended the exclusive fishingzone from 12 nm to 200 nm around each island.
Southern OceanA large body of recent oceanographic research hasshown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), an ocean currentthat flows from west to east around Antarctica, plays a crucial rolein global ocean circulation. The region where the cold waters of theACC meet and mingle with the warmer waters of the north defines adistinct border - the Antarctic Convergence - which fluctuates withthe seasons, but which encompasses a discrete body of water and aunique ecologic region. The Convergence concentrates nutrients,which promotes marine plant life, and which in turn allows for agreater abundance of animal life. In the spring of 2000, theInternational Hydrographic Organization decided to delimit thewaters within the Convergence as a fifth world ocean - the SouthernOcean - by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean,Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from thecoast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude, whichcoincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit and which approximates theextent of the Antarctic Convergence. As such, the Southern Ocean isnow the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the PacificOcean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the ArcticOcean). It should be noted that inclusion of the Southern Ocean doesnot imply recognition of this feature as one of the world's primaryoceans by the US Government.
SpainSpain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuriesultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequentfailure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions causedthe country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economicand political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II,but suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). A peacefultransition to democracy following the death of dictator FranciscoFRANCO in 1975, and rapid economic modernization (Spain joined theEU in 1986), have given Spain one of the most dynamic economies inEurope and made it a global champion of freedom. Continuingchallenges include Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) terrorism andrelatively high unemployment.
Spratly IslandsThe Spratly Islands consist of more than 100 smallislands or reefs. They are surrounded by rich fishing grounds andpotentially by gas and oil deposits. They are claimed in theirentirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, while portions are claimedby Malaysia and the Philippines. About 45 islands are occupied byrelatively small numbers of military forces from China, Malaysia,the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Brunei has established afishing zone that overlaps a southern reef, but has not made anyformal claim.
Sri LankaThe Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6th centuryB.C., probably from northern India. Buddhism was introducedbeginning in about the mid-third century B.C., and a greatcivilization developed at the cities of Anuradhapura (kingdom fromcirca 200 B.C. to circa A.D. 1000) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070to 1200). In the 14th century, a south Indian dynasty seized powerin the north and established a Tamil kingdom. Occupied by thePortuguese in the 16th century and by the Dutch in the 17th century,the island was ceded to the British in 1796, became a crown colonyin 1802, and was united under British rule by 1815. As Ceylon, itbecame independent in 1948; its name was changed to Sri Lanka in1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority and Tamil separatistserupted into war in 1983. Tens of thousands have died in an ethnicconflict that continues to fester. After two decades of fighting,the government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam formalized acease-fire in February 2002, with Norway brokering peacenegotiations.
SudanMilitary regimes favoring Islamic-oriented governments havedominated national politics since independence from the UK in 1956.Sudan was embroiled in two prolonged civil wars during most of theremainder of the 20th century. These conflicts were rooted innorthern economic, political, and social domination of largelynon-Muslim, non-Arab southern Sudanese. The first civil war ended in1972, but broke out again in 1983. The second war and famine-relatedeffects resulted in more than 4 million people displaced and,according to rebel estimates, more than 2 million deaths over aperiod of two decades. Peace talks gained momentum in 2002-04 withthe signing of several accords; a final Naivasha peace treaty ofJanuary 2005 granted the southern rebels autonomy for six years,after which a referendum for independence is scheduled to be held. Aseparate conflict that broke out in the western region of Darfur in2003 has resulted in at least 200,000 deaths and nearly 2 milliondisplaced; as of late 2005, peacekeeping troops were struggling tostabilize the situation. Sudan also has faced large refugee influxesfrom neighboring countries, primarily Ethiopia and Chad, and armedconflict, poor transport infrastructure, and lack of governmentsupport have chronically obstructed the provision of humanitarianassistance to affected populations.
SurinameFirst explored by the Spaniards in the 16th century andthen settled by the English in the mid-17th century, Suriname becamea Dutch colony in 1667. With the abolition of slavery in 1863,workers were brought in from India and Java. Independence from theNetherlands was granted in 1975. Five years later the civiliangovernment was replaced by a military regime that soon declared asocialist republic. It continued to exert control through asuccession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, wheninternational pressure finally forced a democratic election. In1990, the military overthrew the civilian leadership, but ademocratically elected government - a four-party New Front coalition- returned to power in 1991 and has ruled since.
SvalbardFirst discovered by the Norwegians in the 12th century, theislands served as an international whaling base during the 17th and18th centuries. Norway's sovereignty was recognized in 1920; fiveyears later it officially took over the territory.
SwazilandAutonomy for the Swazis of southern Africa was guaranteedby the British in the late 19th century; independence was granted in1968. Student and labor unrest during the 1990s pressured themonarchy (one of the oldest on the continent) to grudgingly allowpolitical reform and greater democracy. Swaziland recently surpassedBotswana as the country with the world's highest known rates ofHIV/AIDS infection.
SwedenA military power during the 17th century, Sweden has notparticipated in any war in almost two centuries. An armed neutralitywas preserved in both World Wars. Sweden's long-successful economicformula of a capitalist system interlarded with substantial welfareelements was challenged in the 1990s by high unemployment and in2000-02 by the global economic downturn, but fiscal discipline overthe past several years has allowed the country to weather economicvagaries. Indecision over the country's role in the political andeconomic integration of Europe delayed Sweden's entry into the EUuntil 1995, and waived the introduction of the euro in 1999.
SwitzerlandThe Swiss Confederation was founded in 1291 as adefensive alliance among three cantons. In succeeding years, otherlocalities joined the original three. The Swiss Confederationsecured its independence from the Holy Roman Empire in 1499.Switzerland's sovereignty and neutrality have long been honored bythe major European powers, and the country was not involved ineither of the two World Wars. The political and economic integrationof Europe over the past half century, as well as Switzerland's rolein many UN and international organizations, has strengthenedSwitzerland's ties with its neighbors. However, the country did notofficially become a UN member until 2002. Switzerland remains activein many UN and international organizations, but retains a strongcommitment to neutrality.
SyriaFollowing the breakup of the Ottoman Empire during World WarI, France administered Syria until its independence in 1946. Thecountry lacked political stability, however, and experienced aseries of military coups during its first decades. Syria united withEgypt in February 1958 to form the United Arab Republic, but inSeptember 1961 the two entities separated and the Syrian ArabRepublic was reestablished. In November 1970, Hafiz al-ASAD, amember of the Socialist Ba'th Party and the minority Alawite sect,seized power in a bloodless coup and brought political stability tothe country. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost the GolanHeights to Israel, and over the past decade Syria and Israel haveheld occasional peace talks over its return. Following the death ofPresident al-ASAD in July 2000, his son, Bashar al-ASAD, wasapproved as president by popular referendum. Syrian troops -stationed in Lebanon since 1976 in an ostensible peacekeeping role -were withdrawn in April of 2005.
TaiwanIn 1895, military defeat forced China to cede Taiwan toJapan. Taiwan reverted to Chinese control after World War II.Following the Communist victory on the mainland in 1949, 2 millionNationalists fled to Taiwan and established a government using the1946 constitution drawn up for all of China. Over the next fivedecades, the ruling authorities gradually democratized andincorporated the native population within the governing structure.In 2000, Taiwan underwent its first peaceful transfer of power fromthe Nationalist to the Democratic Progressive Party. Throughout thisperiod, the island prospered and became one of East Asia's economic"Tigers." The dominant political issues continue to be therelationship between Taiwan and China - specifically the question ofeventual unification - as well as domestic political and economicreform.
TajikistanThe Tajik people came under Russian rule in the 1860s and1870s, but Russia's hold on Central Asia weakened following theRevolution of 1917. Bolshevik control of the area was fiercelycontested and not fully reestablished until 1925. Tajikistan becameindependent in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union, andit is now in the process of strengthening its democracy andtransitioning to a free market economy after its 1992-1997 civilwar. There have been no major security incidents in recent years,although the country remains the poorest in the former Sovietsphere. Attention by the international community in the wake of thewar in Afghanistan has brought increased economic developmentassistance, which could create jobs and increase stability in thelong term. Tajikistan is in the early stages of seeking World TradeOrganization membership and has joined NATO's Partnership for Peace.
TanzaniaShortly after achieving independence from Britain in theearly 1960s, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the nation ofTanzania in 1964. One-party rule came to an end in 1995 with thefirst democratic elections held in the country since the 1970s.Zanzibar's semi-autonomous status and popular opposition have led totwo contentious elections since 1995, which the ruling party wondespite international observers' claims of voting irregularities.
ThailandA unified Thai kingdom was established in the mid-14thcentury. Known as Siam until 1939, Thailand is the only SoutheastAsian country never to have been taken over by a European power. Abloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional monarchy. Inalliance with Japan during World War II, Thailand became a US allyfollowing the conflict. Thailand is currently facing armed violencein its three Muslim-majority southernmost provinces.
TogoFrench Togoland became Togo in 1960. Gen. Gnassingbe EYADEMA,installed as military ruler in 1967, continued to rule well into the21st century. Despite the facade of multiparty elections institutedin the early 1990s, the government continued to be dominated byPresident EYADEMA, whose Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) partyhas maintained power almost continually since 1967. Togo has comeunder fire from international organizations for human rights abusesand is plagued by political unrest. While most bilateral andmultilateral aid to Togo remains frozen, the EU initiated a partialresumption of cooperation and development aid to Togo in late 2004based upon commitments by Togo to expand opportunities for politicalopposition and liberalize portions of the economy. Upon his death inFebruary 2005, President EYADEMA was succeeded by his son FaureGNASSINGBE. The succession, supported by the military and incontravention of the nation's constitution, was challenged bypopular protest and a threat of sanctions from regional leaders.GNASSINGBE succumbed to pressure and in April 2005 held electionsthat legitimized his succession.
TokelauOriginally settled by Polynesian emigrants from surroundingisland groups, the Tokelau Islands were made a British protectoratein 1889. They were transferred to New Zealand administration in 1925.
TongaTonga - unique among Pacific nations - never completely lostits indigenous governance. The archipelagos of "The FriendlyIslands" were united into a Polynesian kingdom in 1845. Tonga becamea constitutional monarchy in 1875 and a British protectorate in1900; it withdrew from the protectorate and joined the Commonwealthof Nations in 1970. Tonga remains the only monarchy in the Pacific.
Trinidad and TobagoFirst colonized by the Spanish, the islands cameunder British control in the early 19th century. The islands' sugarindustry was hurt by the emancipation of the slaves in 1834.Manpower was replaced with the importation of contract laborers fromIndia between 1845 and 1917, which boosted sugar production as wellas the cocoa industry. The discovery of oil on Trinidad in 1910added another important export. Independence was attained in 1962.The country is one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean thankslargely to petroleum and natural gas production and processing.Tourism, mostly in Tobago, is targeted for expansion and is growing.
Tromelin IslandFirst explored by the French in 1776, the islandcame under the jurisdiction of Reunion in 1814. At present, itserves as a sea turtle sanctuary and is the site of an importantmeteorological station.
TunisiaRivalry between French and Italian interests in Tunisiaculminated in a French invasion in 1881 and the creation of aprotectorate. Agitation for independence in the decades followingWorld War I was finally successful in getting the French torecognize Tunisia as an independent state in 1956. The country'sfirst president, Habib BOURGUIBA, established a strict one-partystate. He dominated the country for 31 years, repressing Islamicfundamentalism and establishing rights for women unmatched by anyother Arab nation. Tunisia has long taken a moderate, non-alignedstance in its foreign relations. Domestically, it has sought todefuse rising pressure for a more open political society.
TurkeyModern Turkey was founded in 1923 from the Anatolian remnantsof the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero Mustafa KEMAL, whowas later honored with the title Ataturk, or "Father of the Turks."Under his authoritarian leadership, the country adopted wide-rangingsocial, legal, and political reforms. After a period of one-partyrule, an experiment with multi-party politics led to the 1950election victory of the opposition Democratic Party and the peacefultransfer of power. Since then, Turkish political parties havemultiplied, but democracy has been fractured by periods ofinstability and intermittent military coups (1960, 1971, 1980),which in each case eventually resulted in a return of politicalpower to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer theouster - popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the thenIslamic-oriented government. Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprusin 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the island and has sinceacted as patron state to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,"which only Turkey recognizes. A separatist insurgency begun in 1984by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) - now known as the People'sCongress of Kurdistan or Kongra-Gel (KGK) - has dominated theTurkish military's attention and claimed more than 30,000 lives.After the capture of the group's leader in 1999, the insurgentslargely withdrew from Turkey, mainly to northern Iraq. In 2004, KGKannounced an end to its ceasefire and attacks attributed to the KGKincreased. Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and in 1952 it became amember of NATO. In 1964, Turkey became an associate member of theEuropean Community; over the past decade, it has undertaken manyreforms to strengthen its democracy and economy, enabling it tobegin accession membership talks with the European Union.
TurkmenistanAnnexed by Russia between 1865 and 1885, Turkmenistanbecame a Soviet republic in 1924. It achieved its independence uponthe dissolution of the USSR in 1991. President Saparmurat NIYAZOVretains absolute control over the country and opposition is nottolerated. Extensive hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves could prove aboon to this underdeveloped country if extraction and deliveryprojects were to be expanded. The Turkmenistan Government isactively seeking to develop alternative petroleum transportationroutes in order to break Russia's pipeline monopoly.
Turks and Caicos IslandsThe islands were part of the UK's Jamaicancolony until 1962, when they assumed the status of a separate crowncolony upon Jamaica's independence. The governor of The Bahamasoversaw affairs from 1965 to 1973. With Bahamian independence, theislands received a separate governor in 1973. Although independencewas agreed upon for 1982, the policy was reversed and the islandsremain a British overseas territory.
TuvaluIn 1974, ethnic differences within the British colony of theGilbert and Ellice Islands caused the Polynesians of the ElliceIslands to vote for separation from the Micronesians of the GilbertIslands. The following year, the Ellice Islands became the separateBritish colony of Tuvalu. Independence was granted in 1978. In 2000,Tuvalu negotiated a contract leasing its Internet domain name ".tv"for $50 million in royalties over a 12-year period.
UgandaThe colonial boundaries created by Britain to delimit Ugandagrouped together a wide range of ethnic groups with differentpolitical systems and cultures. These differences prevented theestablishment of a working political community after independencewas achieved in 1962. The dictatorial regime of Idi AMIN (1971-79)was responsible for the deaths of some 300,000 opponents; guerrillawar and human rights abuses under Milton OBOTE (1980-85) claimed atleast another 100,000 lives. The rule of Yoweri MUSEVENI since 1986has brought relative stability and economic growth to Uganda. Duringthe 1990s, the government promulgated non-party presidential andlegislative elections.
UkraineUkraine was the center of the first eastern Slavic state,Kyivan Rus, which during the 10th and 11th centuries was the largestand most powerful state in Europe. Weakened by internecine quarrelsand Mongol invasions, Kyivan Rus was incorporated into the GrandDuchy of Lithuania and eventually into the Polish-LithuanianCommonwealth. The cultural and religious legacy of Kyivan Rus laidthe foundation for Ukrainian nationalism through subsequentcenturies. A new Ukrainian state, the Cossack Hetmanate, wasestablished during the mid-17th century after an uprising againstthe Poles. Despite continuous Muscovite pressure, the Hetmanatemanaged to remain autonomous for well over 100 years. During thelatter part of the 18th century, most Ukrainian ethnographicterritory was absorbed by the Russian Empire. Following the collapseof czarist Russia in 1917, Ukraine was able to bring about ashort-lived period of independence (1917-20), but was reconqueredand forced to endure a brutal Soviet rule that engineered twoartificial famines (1921-22 and 1932-33) in which over 8 milliondied. In World War II, German and Soviet armies were responsible forsome 7 to 8 million more deaths. Although final independence forUkraine was achieved in 1991 with the dissolution of the USSR,democracy remained elusive as the legacy of state control andendemic corruption stalled efforts at economic reform,privatization, and civil liberties. A peaceful mass protest "OrangeRevolution" in the closing months of 2004 forced the authorities tooverturn a rigged presidential election and to allow a newinternationally monitored vote that swept into power a reformistslate under Viktor YUSHCHENKO. Subsequent internal squabbles in theYUSHCHENKO camp allowed his rival Viktor YANUKOVYCH to stage acomeback in parliamentary elections and become prime minister inAugust of 2006.
United Arab EmiratesThe Trucial States of the Persian Gulf coastgranted the UK control of their defense and foreign affairs in 19thcentury treaties. In 1971, six of these states - Abu Zaby, 'Ajman,Al Fujayrah, Ash Shariqah, Dubayy, and Umm al Qaywayn - merged toform the United Arab Emirates (UAE). They were joined in 1972 byRa's al Khaymah. The UAE's per capita GDP is on par with those ofleading West European nations. Its generosity with oil revenues andits moderate foreign policy stance have allowed the UAE to play avital role in the affairs of the region.
United KingdomAs the dominant industrial and maritime power of the19th century, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland playeda leading role in developing parliamentary democracy and inadvancing literature and science. At its zenith, the British Empirestretched over one-fourth of the earth's surface. The first half ofthe 20th century saw the UK's strength seriously depleted in twoWorld Wars and the Irish republic withdraw from the union. Thesecond half witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UKrebuilding itself into a modern and prosperous European nation. Asone of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, a foundingmember of NATO, and of the Commonwealth, the UK pursues a globalapproach to foreign policy; it currently is weighing the degree ofits integration with continental Europe. A member of the EU, itchose to remain outside the Economic and Monetary Union for the timebeing. Constitutional reform is also a significant issue in the UK.The Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, and theNorthern Ireland Assembly were established in 1999, but the latteris suspended due to wrangling over the peace process.
United StatesBritain's American colonies broke with the mothercountry in 1776 and were recognized as the new nation of the UnitedStates of America following the Treaty of Paris in 1783. During the19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13as the nation expanded across the North American continent andacquired a number of overseas possessions. The two most traumaticexperiences in the nation's history were the Civil War (1861-65) andthe Great Depression of the 1930s. Buoyed by victories in World WarsI and II and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the US remains theworld's most powerful nation state. The economy is marked by steadygrowth, low unemployment and inflation, and rapid advances intechnology.
United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges The following US Pacific island territories constitute the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex and as such are managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of Interior. These remote refuges are the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country's jurisdiction. They protect many endemic species including corals, fish, shellfish, marine mammals, seabirds, water birds, land birds, insects, and vegetation not found elsewhere. Baker Island: The US took possession of the island in 1857, and its guano deposits were mined by US and British companies during the second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization began on this island but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned. The island was established as a National Wildlife Refuge in 1974. Howland Island: Discovered by the US early in the 19th century, the island was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and British companies mined for guano until about 1890. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization began on this island, similar to the effort on nearby Baker Island, but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned. The famed American aviatrix Amelia EARHART disappeared while seeking out Howland Island as a refueling stop during her 1937 round-the-world flight; Earhart Light, a day beacon near the middle of the west coast, was named in her memory. The island was established as a National Wildlife Refuge in 1974. Jarvis Island: First discovered by the British in 1821, the uninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858, but abandoned in 1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the island in 1889, but never carried out plans for further exploitation. The US occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935 until it was abandoned in 1942 during World War II. The island was established as a National Wildlife Refuge in 1974. Johnston Atoll: Both the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexed Johnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guano deposits until the late 1880s. Johnston and Sand Islands were designated wildlife refuges in 1926. The US Navy took over the atoll in 1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948. The site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and 1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storage and disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction is now complete. Cleanup and closure of the facility was completed by May 2005. The Fish and Wildlife Service and the US Air Force are currently discussing future management options; in the interim, Johnston Atoll and the three-mile Naval Defensive Sea around it remain under the jurisdiction and administrative control of the US Air Force. Kingman Reef: The US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoon served as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoa flights during the late 1930s. There are no terrestrial plants on the reef, which is frequently awash, but it does support abundant and diverse marine fauna and flora. In 2001, the waters surrounding the reef out to 12 nm were designated a US National Wildlife Refuge. Midway Islands: The US took formal possession of the islands in 1867. The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed through the islands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and 1947, Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights. The US naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was one of the turning points of World War II. The islands continued to serve as a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands are a National Wildlife Refuge and are the site of the world's largest Laysan albatross colony. Palmyra Atoll: The Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, and the US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed the archipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did not include Palmyra Atoll, which is now partly privately owned by the Nature Conservancy with the rest owned by the Federal government and managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. These organizations are managing the atoll as a wildlife refuge. The lagoons and surrounding waters within the 12 nm US territorial seas were transferred to the US Fish and Wildlife Service and designated as a National Wildlife Refuge in January 2001.
UruguayMontevideo, founded by the Spanish in 1726 as a militarystronghold, soon took advantage of its natural harbor to become animportant commercial center. Annexed by Brazil as a separateprovince in 1821, Uruguay declared its independence four years laterand secured its freedom in 1828 after a three-year struggle. Theadministrations of President Jose BATLLE in the early 20th centuryestablished widespread political, social, and economic reforms. Aviolent Marxist urban guerrilla movement named the Tupamaros,launched in the late 1960s, led Uruguay's president to agree tomilitary control of his administration in 1973. By yearend, therebels had been crushed, but the military continued to expand itshold throughout the government. Civilian rule was not restored until1985. In 2004, the left-of-center EP-FA Coalition won nationalelections that effectively ended 170 years of political controlpreviously held by the Colorado and Blanco parties. Uruguay'spolitical and labor conditions are among the freest on the continent.
UzbekistanRussia conquered Uzbekistan in the late 19th century.Stiff resistance to the Red Army after World War I was eventuallysuppressed and a socialist republic set up in 1924. During theSoviet era, intensive production of "white gold" (cotton) and grainled to overuse of agrochemicals and the depletion of water supplies,which have left the land poisoned and the Aral Sea and certainrivers half dry. Independent since 1991, the country seeks togradually lessen its dependence on agriculture while developing itsmineral and petroleum reserves. Current concerns include terrorismby Islamic militants, economic stagnation, and the curtailment ofhuman rights and democratization.
VanuatuMultiple waves of colonizers, each speaking a distinctlanguage, migrated to the New Hebrides in the millennia preceedingEuropean exploration in the 18th century. This settlement patternaccounts for the complex linguistic diversity found on thearchipelago to this day. The British and French, who settled the NewHebrides in the 19th century, agreed in 1906 to an Anglo-FrenchCondominium, which administered the islands until independence in1980, when the new name of Vanuatu was adopted.
VenezuelaVenezuela was one of three countries that emerged from thecollapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others being Ecuador and NewGranada, which became Colombia). For most of the first half of the20th century, Venezuela was ruled by generally benevolent militarystrongmen, who promoted the oil industry and allowed for some socialreforms. Democratically elected governments have held sway since1959. Hugo CHAVEZ, president since 1999, has promoted acontroversial policy of "democratic socialism," which purports toalleviate social ills while at the same time attacking globalizationand undermining regional stability. Current concerns include: aweakening of democratic institutions, political polarization, apoliticized military, drug-related violence along the Colombianborder, increasing internal drug consumption, overdependence on thepetroleum industry with its price fluctuations, and irresponsiblemining operations that are endangering the rain forest andindigenous peoples.
VietnamThe conquest of Vietnam by France began in 1858 and wascompleted by 1884. It became part of French Indochina in 1887.Vietnam declared independence after World War II, but Francecontinued to rule until its 1954 defeat by Communist forces under HoChi MINH. Under the Geneva Accords of 1954, Vietnam was divided intothe Communist North and anti-Communist South. US economic andmilitary aid to South Vietnam grew through the 1960s in an attemptto bolster the government, but US armed forces were withdrawnfollowing a cease-fire agreement in 1973. Two years later, NorthVietnamese forces overran the South reuniting the country underCommunist rule. Despite the return of peace, for over a decade thecountry experienced little economic growth because of conservativeleadership policies. However, since the enactment of Vietnam's "doimoi" (renovation) policy in 1986, Vietnamese authorities havecommitted to increased economic liberalization and enactedstructural reforms needed to modernize the economy and to producemore competitive, export-driven industries. The country continues toexperience protests from various groups - such as the ProtestantMontagnard ethnic minority population of the Central Highlands andthe Hoa Hao Buddhists in southern Vietnam over religiouspersecution. Montagnard grievances also include the loss of land toVietnamese settlers.
Virgin Islands During the 17th century, the archipelago was divided into two territorial units, one English and the other Danish. Sugarcane, produced by slave labor, drove the islands' economy during the 18th and early 19th centuries. In 1917, the US purchased the Danish portion, which had been in economic decline since the abolition of slavery in 1848.
Wake IslandThe US annexed Wake Island in 1899 for a cable station.An important air and naval base was constructed in 1940-41. InDecember 1941, the island was captured by the Japanese and helduntil the end of World War II. In subsequent years, Wake wasdeveloped as a stopover and refueling site for military andcommercial aircraft transiting the Pacific. Since 1974, the island'sairstrip has been used by the US military, as well as for emergencylandings. All operations on the island were suspended and allpersonnel evacuated in August 2006 with the approach of supertyphoon Loke (category 5), which struck the island with sustainedwinds of 250 kph and a 6 m storm surge inflicting major damage. A USAir Force assessment and repair team returned to the island inSeptember and restored limited function to the airfield andfacilities. The future status of activities on the island will bedetermined upon completion of the survey and assessment.
Wallis and FutunaThe Futuna island group was discovered by theDutch in 1616 and Wallis by the British in 1767, but it was theFrench who declared a protectorate over the islands in 1842. In1959, the inhabitants of the islands voted to become a Frenchoverseas territory.
West BankThe Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on InterimSelf-Government Arrangements (the DOP), signed in Washington on 13September 1993, provided for a transitional period not exceedingfive years of Palestinian interim self-government in the Gaza Stripand the West Bank. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to transfer certainpowers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority (PA) aspart of the interim self-governing arrangements in the West Bank andGaza Strip. A transfer of powers and responsibilities for the GazaStrip and Jericho took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4 May 1994Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area and inadditional areas of the West Bank pursuant to the Israel-PLO 28September 1995 Interim Agreement, the Israel-PLO 15 January 1997Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron, the Israel-PLO 23October 1998 Wye River Memorandum, and the 4 September 1999 Sharmel-Sheikh Agreement. The DOP provided that Israel would retainresponsibility during the transitional period for external andinternal security and for public order of settlements and Israelicitizens. Direct negotiations to determine the permanent status ofGaza and West Bank began in September 1999 after a three-yearhiatus, but were derailed by a second intifada that broke out inSeptember 2000. In April 2003 the Quartet (US, EU, UN, and Russia)presented a roadmap to a final settlement of the conflict by 2005based on reciprocal steps by the two parties leading to two states,Israel and a democratic Palestine. The proposed date for a permanentstatus agreement has been postponed indefinitely due to violence andaccusations that both sides have not followed through on theircommitments. Longtime Palestinian leader Yasir ARAFAT died inNovember 2004 and Mahmud ABBAS was elected PA President in January2005, bringing hope of a turning point in the conflict. Israel andthe PA agreed in February 2005 to the Sharm el-Sheikh Commitments,focused on security issues, in an effort to move the peace processforward. Progress has been slow because of different interpretationsof the verbal agreement by the two sides.
Western SaharaMorocco virtually annexed the northern two-thirds ofWestern Sahara (formerly Spanish Sahara) in 1976, and the rest ofthe territory in 1979, following Mauritania's withdrawal. Aguerrilla war with the Polisario Front contesting Rabat'ssovereignty ended in a 1991 UN-brokered cease-fire; a UN-organizedreferendum on final status has been repeatedly postponed.
WorldGlobally, the 20th century was marked by: (a) two devastatingworld wars; (b) the Great Depression of the 1930s; (c) the end ofvast colonial empires; (d) rapid advances in science and technology,from the first airplane flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina (US) tothe landing on the moon; (e) the Cold War between the Westernalliance and the Warsaw Pact nations; (f) a sharp rise in livingstandards in North America, Europe, and Japan; (g) increasedconcerns about the environment, including loss of forests, shortagesof energy and water, the decline in biological diversity, and airpollution; (h) the onset of the AIDS epidemic; and (i) the ultimateemergence of the US as the only world superpower. The planet'spopulation continues to explode: from 1 billion in 1820, to 2billion in 1930, 3 billion in 1960, 4 billion in 1974, 5 billion in1988, and 6 billion in 2000. For the 21st century, the continuedexponential growth in science and technology raises both hopes(e.g., advances in medicine) and fears (e.g., development of evenmore lethal weapons of war).
YemenNorth Yemen became independent of the Ottoman Empire in 1918.The British, who had set up a protectorate area around the southernport of Aden in the 19th century, withdrew in 1967 from what becameSouth Yemen. Three years later, the southern government adopted aMarxist orientation. The massive exodus of hundreds of thousands ofYemenis from the south to the north contributed to two decades ofhostility between the states. The two countries were formallyunified as the Republic of Yemen in 1990. A southern secessionistmovement in 1994 was quickly subdued. In 2000, Saudi Arabia andYemen agreed to a delimitation of their border.
ZambiaThe territory of Northern Rhodesia was administered by the[British] South Africa Company from 1891 until it was taken over bythe UK in 1923. During the 1920s and 1930s, advances in miningspurred development and immigration. The name was changed to Zambiaupon independence in 1964. In the 1980s and 1990s, declining copperprices and a prolonged drought hurt the economy. Elections in 1991brought an end to one-party rule, but the subsequent vote in 1996saw blatant harassment of opposition parties. The election in 2001was marked by administrative problems with three parties filing alegal petition challenging the election of ruling party candidateLevy MWANAWASA. The new president launched an anti-corruptioncampaign in 2002, which resulted in the prosecution of formerPresident Frederick CHILUBA and some officials of his administration.
ZimbabweThe UK annexed Southern Rhodesia from the [British] SouthAfrica Company in 1923. A 1961 constitution was formulated thatfavored whites in power. In 1965 the government unilaterallydeclared its independence, but the UK did not recognize the act anddemanded more complete voting rights for the black African majorityin the country (then called Rhodesia). UN sanctions and a guerrillauprising finally led to free elections in 1979 and independence (asZimbabwe) in 1980. Robert MUGABE, the nation's first prime minister,has been the country's only ruler (as president since 1987) and hasdominated the country's political system since independence. Hischaotic land redistribution campaign, which began in 2000, caused anexodus of white farmers, crippled the economy, and ushered inwidespread shortages of basic commodities. Ignoring internationalcondemnation, MUGABE rigged the 2002 presidential election to ensurehis reelection. Opposition and labor strikes in 2003 wereunsuccessful in pressuring MUGABE to retire early; security forcescontinued their brutal repression of regime opponents. The rulingZANU-PF party used fraud and intimidation to win a two-thirdsmajority in the March 2005 parliamentary election, allowing it toamend the constitution at will and recreate the Senate, which hadbeen abolished in the late 1980s. In April 2005, Harare embarked onOperation Restore Order, ostensibly an urban rationalizationprogram, which resulted in the destruction of the homes orbusinesses of 700,000 mostly poor supporters of the opposition,according to UN estimates.
This page was last updated on 19 December, 2006
======================================================================
@2030 Airports - with paved runways
Afghanistan total: 11 over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Albania total: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 (2006)
Algeriatotal: 52over 3,047 m: 102,438 to 3,047 m: 271,524 to 2,437 m: 10914 to 1,523 m: 4under 914 m: 1 (2006)
American Samoatotal: 2over 3,047 m: 1914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2006)
Angolatotal: 31over 3,047 m: 52,438 to 3,047 m: 81,524 to 2,437 m: 12914 to 1,523 m: 5under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Anguilla total: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2006)
Antigua and Barbuda total: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Argentina total: 154 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 26 1,524 to 2,437 m: 65 914 to 1,523 m: 50 under 914 m: 9 (2006)
Armeniatotal: 11over 3,047 m: 22,438 to 3,047 m: 21,524 to 2,437 m: 4914 to 1,523 m: 3 (2006)
Aruba total: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (2006)
Australiatotal: 311over 3,047 m: 102,438 to 3,047 m: 121,524 to 2,437 m: 133914 to 1,523 m: 143under 914 m: 13 (2006)
Austriatotal: 25over 3,047 m: 12,438 to 3,047 m: 51,524 to 2,437 m: 1914 to 1,523 m: 3under 914 m: 15 (2006)
Azerbaijantotal: 27over 3,047 m: 12,438 to 3,047 m: 71,524 to 2,437 m: 13914 to 1,523 m: 4under 914 m: 2 (2006)
Bahamas, Thetotal: 29over 3,047 m: 22,438 to 3,047 m: 31,524 to 2,437 m: 14914 to 1,523 m: 9under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Bahrain total: 3 over 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2006)
Bangladesh total: 15 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 5 (2006)
Barbados total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (2006)
Belarustotal: 41over 3,047 m: 22,438 to 3,047 m: 221,524 to 2,437 m: 4914 to 1,523 m: 1under 914 m: 12 (2006)
Belgiumtotal: 25over 3,047 m: 62,438 to 3,047 m: 71,524 to 2,437 m: 3914 to 1,523 m: 2under 914 m: 7 (2006)
Belizetotal: 51,524 to 2,437 m: 1914 to 1,523 m: 2under 914 m: 2 (2006)
Benintotal: 11,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2006)
Bermudatotal: 12,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (2006)
Bhutantotal: 11,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2006)
Boliviatotal: 16over 3,047 m: 42,438 to 3,047 m: 41,524 to 2,437 m: 5914 to 1,523 m: 3 (2006)
Bosnia and Herzegovinatotal: 82,438 to 3,047 m: 41,524 to 2,437 m: 1under 914 m: 3 (2006)
Botswanatotal: 102,438 to 3,047 m: 21,524 to 2,437 m: 7914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2006)
Braziltotal: 714over 3,047 m: 82,438 to 3,047 m: 241,524 to 2,437 m: 164914 to 1,523 m: 464under 914 m: 54 (2006)
British Indian Ocean Territory total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (2006)
British Virgin Islands total: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Brunei total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (2006)
Bulgariatotal: 132over 3,047 m: 12,438 to 3,047 m: 191,524 to 2,437 m: 15914 to 1,523 m: 1under 914 m: 96 (2006)
Burkina Fasototal: 2over 3,047 m: 12,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (2006)
Burmatotal: 21over 3,047 m: 82,438 to 3,047 m: 71,524 to 2,437 m: 4914 to 1,523 m: 1under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Burundi total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (2006)
Cambodia total: 6 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2006)
Cameroontotal: 11over 3,047 m: 22,438 to 3,047 m: 41,524 to 2,437 m: 3914 to 1,523 m: 1under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Canadatotal: 509over 3,047 m: 182,438 to 3,047 m: 151,524 to 2,437 m: 151914 to 1,523 m: 248under 914 m: 77 (2006)
Cape Verde total: 7 over 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 4 under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Cayman Islands total: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 (2006)
Central African Republic total: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 (2006)
Chadtotal: 7over 3,047 m: 22,438 to 3,047 m: 31,524 to 2,437 m: 1under 914 m: 1 (2006)
Chiletotal: 73over 3,047 m: 52,438 to 3,047 m: 71,524 to 2,437 m: 22914 to 1,523 m: 22under 914 m: 17 (2006)
Chinatotal: 403over 3,047 m: 562,438 to 3,047 m: 1271,524 to 2,437 m: 138914 to 1,523 m: 22under 914 m: 60 (2006)
Christmas Islandtotal: 11,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2006)
Cocos (Keeling) Islandstotal: 11,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2006)
Colombiatotal: 101over 3,047 m: 22,438 to 3,047 m: 91,524 to 2,437 m: 38914 to 1,523 m: 40under 914 m: 12 (2006)