MoroccoIn 788, about a century after the Arab conquest of NorthAfrica, successive Moorish dynasties began to rule in Morocco. Inthe 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under AhmadAL-MANSUR (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated agolden age. In 1860, Spain occupied northern Morocco and ushered ina half century of trade rivalry among European powers that sawMorocco's sovereignty steadily erode; in 1912, the French imposed aprotectorate over the country. A protracted independence strugglewith France ended successfully in 1956. The internationalized cityof Tangier and most Spanish possessions were turned over to the newcountry that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western Saharaduring the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of theterritory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the 1990sresulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature, whichfirst met in 1997. Lower house elections were last held held inSeptember 2002 and upper house elections were last held in September2006.
MozambiqueAlmost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to aclose with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration by whites,economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and aprolonged civil war hindered the country's development. The rulingFront for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) party formallyabandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the following yearprovided for multiparty elections and a free market economy. AUN-negotiated peace agreement between FRELIMO and rebel MozambiqueNational Resistance (RENAMO) forces ended the fighting in 1992. InDecember 2004, Mozambique underwent a delicate transition as JoaquimCHISSANO stepped down after 18 years in office. His newly electedsuccessor, Armando Emilio GUEBUZA, has promised to continue thesound economic policies that have encouraged foreign investment.
NamibiaSouth Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africaduring World War I and administered it as a mandate until afterWorld War II, when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the MarxistSouth-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla grouplaunched a war of independence for the area that was soon namedNamibia, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to endits administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entireregion. Namibia won its independence in 1990 and has been governedby SWAPO since. Hifikepunye POHAMBA was elected president inNovember 2004 in a landslide victory replacing Sam NUJOMA who ledthe country during its first 14 years of self rule.
NauruThe exact origins of the Nauruans are unclear, since theirlanguage does not resemble any other in the Pacific. The island wasannexed by Germany in 1888 and its phosphate deposits began to bemined early in the 20th century by a German-British consortium.Nauru was occupied by Australian forces in World War I andsubsequently became a League of Nations mandate. After the SecondWorld War - and a brutal occupation by Japan - Nauru became a UNtrust territory. It achieved its independence in 1968 and joined theUN in 1999 as the world's smallest independent republic.
Navassa IslandThis uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857for its guano. Mining took place between 1865 and 1898. Thelighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administrationof Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Departmentof the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the islanddescribed it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; thefollowing year it became a National Wildlife Refuge and annualscientific expeditions have continued.
NepalIn 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system ofrule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system ofgovernment. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracywithin the framework of a constitutional monarchy. A Maoistinsurgency, launched in 1996, gained traction and threatened tobring down the regime, especially after a negotiated cease-firebetween the Maoists and government forces broke down in August 2003.In 2001, the crown prince massacred ten members of the royal family,including the king and queen, and then took his own life. In October2002, the new king dismissed the prime minister and his cabinet for"incompetence" after they dissolved the parliament and weresubsequently unable to hold elections because of the ongoinginsurgency. While stopping short of reestablishing parliament, theking in June 2004 reinstated the most recently elected primeminister who formed a four-party coalition government. Citingdissatisfaction with the government's lack of progress in addressingthe Maoist insurgency and corruption, the king in February 2005dissolved the government, declared a state of emergency, imprisonedparty leaders, and assumed power. The king's government subsequentlyreleased party leaders and officially ended the state of emergencyin May 2005, but the monarch retained absolute power until April2006. After nearly three weeks of mass protests organized by theseven-party opposition and the Maoists, the king allowed parliamentto reconvene on 28 April 2006. In November 2006, the government andMaoists signed the Comprehensive Peace Accord to end the ten-yearinsurgency.
NetherlandsThe Dutch United Provinces declared their independencefrom Spain in 1579; during the 17th century, they became a leadingseafaring and commercial power, with settlements and colonies aroundthe world. After a 20-year French occupation, a Kingdom of theNetherlands was formed in 1815. In 1830 Belgium seceded and formed aseparate kingdom. The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I,but suffered invasion and occupation by Germany in World War II. Amodern, industrialized nation, the Netherlands is also a largeexporter of agricultural products. The country was a founding memberof NATO and the EEC (now the EU), and participated in theintroduction of the euro in 1999.
Netherlands AntillesOnce the center of the Caribbean slave trade,the island of Curacao was hard hit by the abolition of slavery in1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored inthe early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries toservice the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields. The island ofSaint Martin is shared with France; its southern portion is namedSint Maarten and is part of the Netherlands Antilles; its northernportion is called Saint-Martin and is part of Guadeloupe (France).
New CaledoniaSettled by both Britain and France during the firsthalf of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s ended inthe 1998 Noumea Accord, which over a period of 15 to 20 years willtransfer an increasing amount of governing responsibility fromFrance to New Caledonia. The agreement also commits France toconduct as many as three referenda between 2013 and 2018, to decidewhether New Caledonia should assume full sovereignty andindependence.
New ZealandThe Polynesian Maori reached New Zealand in about A.D.800. In 1840, their chieftains entered into a compact with Britain,the Treaty of Waitangi, in which they ceded sovereignty to QueenVictoria while retaining territorial rights. In that same year, theBritish began the first organized colonial settlement. A series ofland wars between 1843 and 1872 ended with the defeat of the nativepeoples. The British colony of New Zealand became an independentdominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars.New Zealand's full participation in a number of defense allianceslapsed by the 1980s. In recent years, the government has sought toaddress longstanding Maori grievances.
NicaraguaThe Pacific coast of Nicaragua was settled as a Spanishcolony from Panama in the early 16th century. Independence fromSpain was declared in 1821 and the country became an independentrepublic in 1838. Britain occupied the Caribbean Coast in the firsthalf of the 19th century, but gradually ceded control of the regionin subsequent decades. Violent opposition to governmentalmanipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 andresulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the MarxistSandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftistrebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinistacontra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990,1996, and 2001, saw the Sandinistas defeated, but voting in 2006announced the return of former Sandinista President Daniel ORTEGASaavedra. Nicaragua's infrastructure and economy - hard hit by theearlier civil war and by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 - are slowly beingrebuilt.
NigerNiger became independent from France in 1960 and experiencedsingle-party and military rule until 1991, when Gen. Ali SAIBOU wasforced by public pressure to allow multiparty elections, whichresulted in a democratic government in 1993. Political infightingbrought the government to a standstill and in 1996 led to a coup byCol. Ibrahim BARE. In 1999 BARE was killed in a coup by militaryofficers who promptly restored democratic rule and held electionsthat brought Mamadou TANDJA to power in December of that year.TANDJA was reelected in 2004. Niger is one of the poorest countriesin the world with minimal government services and insufficient fundsto develop its resource base. The largely agrarian andsubsistence-based economy is frequently disrupted by extendeddroughts common to the Sahel region of Africa.
NigeriaBritish influence and control over what would become Nigeriagrew through the 19th century. A series of constitutions after WorldWar II granted Nigeria greater autonomy; independence came in 1960.Following nearly 16 years of military rule, a new constitution wasadopted in 1999, and a peaceful transition to civilian governmentwas completed. The president faces the daunting task of reforming apetroleum-based economy, whose revenues have been squandered throughcorruption and mismanagement, and institutionalizing democracy. Inaddition, the OBASANJO administration must defuse longstandingethnic and religious tensions, if it is to build a sound foundationfor economic growth and political stability. Although the April 2003elections were marred by some irregularities, Nigeria is currentlyexperiencing its longest period of civilian rule since independence.The general elections set for April 2007 would mark the firstcivilian-to-civilian transfer of power in the country's history.
NiueNiue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguisticdifferences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the restof the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered.The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200in 1966 to about 2,166 in 2006), with substantial emigration to NewZealand, 2,400 km to the southwest.
Norfolk IslandTwo British attempts at establishing the island as apenal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants ofthe Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.
Northern Mariana IslandsUnder US administration as part of the UNTrust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern MarianaIslands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead toforge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial statusbegan in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in politicalunion with the US was approved in 1975, and came into force on 24March 1976. A new government and constitution went into effect in1978.
NorwayTwo centuries of Viking raids into Europe tapered offfollowing the adoption of Christianity by King Olav TRYGGVASON in994. Conversion of the Norwegian kingdom occurred over the nextseveral decades. In 1397, Norway was absorbed into a union withDenmark that lasted more than four centuries. In 1814, Norwegiansresisted the cession of their country to Sweden and adopted a newconstitution. Sweden then invaded Norway but agreed to let Norwaykeep its constitution in return for accepting the union under aSwedish king. Rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led toa 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Although Norwayremained neutral in World War I, it suffered heavy losses to itsshipping. Norway proclaimed its neutrality at the outset of WorldWar II, but was nonetheless occupied for five years by Nazi Germany(1940-45). In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became amember of NATO. Discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in thelate 1960s boosted Norway's economic fortunes. The current focus ison containing spending on the extensive welfare system and planningfor the time when petroleum reserves are depleted. In referenda heldin 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU.
OmanThe inhabitants of the area of Oman have long prospered onIndian Ocean trade. In the late 18th century, a newly establishedsultanate in Muscat signed the first in a series of friendshiptreaties with Britain. Over time, Oman's dependence on Britishpolitical and military advisors increased, but it never became aBritish colony. In 1970, QABOOS bin Said al-Said overthrew therestrictive rule of his father; he has ruled as sultan ever since.His extensive modernization program has opened the country to theoutside world while preserving the longstanding close ties with theUK. Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought tomaintain good relations with all Middle Eastern countries.
Pacific OceanThe Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's fiveoceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, SouthernOcean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterwaysinclude the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, andTorres Straits. The decision by the International HydrographicOrganization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, theSouthern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60degrees south.
PakistanThe separation in 1947 of British India into the Muslimstate of Pakistan (with two sections West and East) and largelyHindu India was never satisfactorily resolved, and India andPakistan fought two wars - in 1947-48 and 1965 - over the disputedKashmir territory. A third war between these countries in 1971 - inwhich India capitalized on Islamabad's marginalization of Bengalisin Pakistani politics - resulted in East Pakistan becoming theseparate nation of Bangladesh. In response to Indian nuclear weaponstesting, Pakistan conducted its own tests in 1998. The dispute overthe state of Kashmir is ongoing, but discussions andconfidence-building measures have led to decreased tensions since2002.
PalauAfter three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of thePacific under US administration, this westernmost cluster of theCaroline Islands opted for independence in 1978 rather than join theFederated States of Micronesia. A Compact of Free Association withthe US was approved in 1986, but not ratified until 1993. It enteredinto force the following year, when the islands gained independence.
Palmyra AtollThe Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, andthe US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed thearchipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did notinclude Palmyra Atoll, which is now privately owned by the NatureConservancy. This organization is managing the atoll as a naturepreserve. The lagoons and surrounding waters within the 12 nauticalmile US territorial seas were transferred to the US Fish andWildlife Service and were designated a National Wildlife Refuge inJanuary 2001.
PanamaExplored and settled by the Spanish in the 16th century,Panama broke with Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Colombia,Venezuela, and Ecuador - named the Republic of Gran Colombia. Whenthe latter dissolved in 1830, Panama remained part of Colombia. WithUS backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 and promptly signeda treaty with the US allowing for the construction of a canal and USsovereignty over a strip of land on either side of the structure(the Panama Canal Zone). The Panama Canal was built by the US ArmyCorps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. In 1977, an agreement wassigned for the complete transfer of the Canal from the US to Panamaby the end of the century. Certain portions of the Zone andincreasing responsibility over the Canal were turned over in thesubsequent decades. With US help, dictator Manuel NORIEGA wasdeposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting theCanal, and remaining US military bases were transfered to Panama bythe end of 1999. In October 2006, Panamanians approved an ambitiousplan to expand the Canal. The project, which is to begin in 2007 andcould double the Canal's capacity, is expected to be completed in2014-15.
Papua New GuineaThe eastern half of the island of New Guinea -second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred toAustralia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during WorldWar I and continued to administer the combined areas untilindependence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the islandof Bougainville ended in 1997 after claiming some 20,000 lives.
Paracel IslandsThe Paracel Islands are surrounded by productivefishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932,French Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station onPattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor, Vietnam.China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troopsseized a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.The islands are claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam.
ParaguayIn the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70),Paraguay lost two-thirds of all adult males and much of itsterritory. It stagnated economically for the next half century. Inthe Chaco War of 1932-35, large, economically important areas werewon from Bolivia. The 35-year military dictatorship of AlfredoSTROESSNER was overthrown in 1989, and, despite a marked increase inpolitical infighting in recent years, relatively free and regularpresidential elections have been held since then.
PeruAncient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andeancivilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire wascaptured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independencewas declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces defeated in 1824.After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to democraticleadership in 1980, but experienced economic problems and the growthof a violent insurgency. President Alberto FUJIMORI's election in1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in theeconomy and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity.Nevertheless, the president's increasing reliance on authoritarianmeasures and an economic slump in the late 1990s generated mountingdissatisfaction with his regime, which led to his ouster in 2000. Acaretaker government oversaw new elections in the spring of 2001,which ushered in Alejandro TOLEDO as the new head of government -Peru's first democratically elected president of Native Americanethnicity. The presidential election of 2006 saw the return of AlanGARCIA who, after a disappointing presidential term from 1985 to1990, returned to the presidency with promises to improve socialconditions and maintain fiscal responsibility.
PhilippinesThe Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony duringthe 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following theSpanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became aself-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected President andwas tasked with preparing the country for independence after a10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japaneseoccupation during WWII, and US forces and Filipinos fought togetherduring 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 the Philippinesattained their independence. The 20-year rule of Ferdinand MARCOSended in 1986, when a widespread popular rebellion forced him intoexile and installed Corazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency washampered by several coup attempts, which prevented a return to fullpolitical stability and economic development. Fidel RAMOS waselected president in 1992 and his administration was marked bygreater stability and progress on economic reforms. In 1992, the USclosed its last military bases on the islands. Joseph ESTRADA waselected president in 1998, but was succeeded by his vice-president,Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, in January 2001 after ESTRADA's stormyimpeachment trial on corruption charges broke down and widespreaddemonstrations led to his ouster. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to asix-year term in May 2004. The Philippine Government faces threatsfrom an armed Communist insurgency and from Muslim separatists inthe south, as well as from impeachment attempts by political elitesand civil groups unhappy with the current administration.
Pitcairn IslandsPitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by theBritish and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and theirTahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to becomea British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige ofthat empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to NewZealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 toless than 50 today.
PolandPoland is an ancient nation that was conceived near themiddle of the 10th century. Its golden age occurred in the 16thcentury. During the following century, the strengthening of thegentry and internal disorders weakened the nation. In a series ofagreements between 1772 and 1795, Russia, Prussia, and Austriapartitioned Poland amongst themselves. Poland regained itsindependence in 1918 only to be overrun by Germany and the SovietUnion in World War II. It became a Soviet satellite state followingthe war, but its government was comparatively tolerant andprogressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of theindependent trade union "Solidarity" that over time became apolitical force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary elections andthe presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the early 1990senabled the country to transform its economy into one of the mostrobust in Central Europe, but Poland still faces the lingeringchallenges of high unemployment, underdeveloped and dilapidatedinfrastructure, and a poor rural underclass. Solidarity suffered amajor defeat in the 2001 parliamentary elections when it failed toelect a single deputy to the lower house of Parliament, and the newleaders of the Solidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to reducethe Trade Union's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and theEuropean Union in 2004. With its transformation to a democratic,market-oriented country largely completed, Poland is an increasinglyactive member of Euro-Atlantic organizations.
PortugalFollowing its heyday as a world power during the 15th and16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with thedestruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during theNapoleonic Wars, and the independence in 1822 of Brazil as a colony.A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; for most of the next sixdecades, repressive governments ran the country. In 1974, aleft-wing military coup installed broad democratic reforms. Thefollowing year, Portugal granted independence to all of its Africancolonies. Portugal is a founding member of NATO and entered the EC(now the EU) in 1986.
Puerto RicoPopulated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, theisland was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following COLUMBUS'second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonialrule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated andAfrican slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as aresult of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted UScitizenship in 1917. Popularly-elected governors have served since1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing for internalself government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998, voterschose not to alter the existing political status.
QatarRuled by the al-Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatartransformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly forpearling into an independent state with significant oil and naturalgas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatarieconomy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleumrevenues by the amir, who had ruled the country since 1972. His son,the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa al-Thani, overthrew him in abloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved its longstandingborder disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Oil and naturalgas revenues enable Qatar to have one of the highest per capitaincomes in the world.
RomaniaThe principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia - for centuriesunder the suzerainty of the Turkish Ottoman Empire - secured theirautonomy in 1856; they united in 1859 and a few years later adoptedthe new name of Romania. The country gained recognition of itsindependence in 1878. It joined the Allied Powers in World War I andacquired new territories - most notably Transylvania - following theconflict. In 1940, Romania allied with the Axis powers andparticipated in the 1941 German invasion of the USSR. Three yearslater, overrun by the Soviets, Romania signed an armistice. Thepost-war Soviet occupation led to the formation of a Communist"people's republic" in 1947 and the abdication of the king. Thedecades-long rule of dictator Nicolae CEAUSESCU, who took power in1965, and his Securitate police state became increasingly oppressiveand draconian through the 1980s. CEAUSESCU was overthrown andexecuted in late 1989. Former Communists dominated the governmentuntil 1996 when they were swept from power. Romania joined NATO in2004 and the EU in 2007.
RussiaFounded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy, wasable to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15thcenturies) and to gradually conquer and absorb surroundingprincipalities. In the early 17th century, a new Romanov Dynastycontinued this policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific.Under PETER I (ruled 1682-1725), hegemony was extended to the BalticSea and the country was renamed the Russian Empire. During the 19thcentury, more territorial acquisitions were made in Europe and Asia.Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 contributed to theRevolution of 1905, which resulted in the formation of a parliamentand other reforms. Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian armyin World War I led to widespread rioting in the major cities of theRussian Empire and to the overthrow in 1917 of the imperialhousehold. The Communists under Vladimir LENIN seized power soonafter and formed the USSR. The brutal rule of Iosif STALIN (1928-53)strengthened Communist rule and Russian dominance of the SovietUnion at a cost of tens of millions of lives. The Soviet economy andsociety stagnated in the following decades until General SecretaryMikhail GORBACHEV (1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) andperestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize Communism,but his initiatives inadvertently released forces that by December1991 splintered the USSR into Russia and 14 other independentrepublics. Since then, Russia has struggled in its efforts to builda democratic political system and market economy to replace thesocial, political, and economic controls of the Communist period.While some progress has been made on the economic front, andRussia's management of its windfall oil wealth has improved itsfinancial standing, recent years have seen a recentralization ofpower under Vladimir PUTIN and democratic institutions remain weak.Russia has severely disabled the Chechen rebel movement, althoughsporadic violence still occurs throughout the North Caucusus.
RwandaIn 1959, three years before independence from Belgium, themajority ethnic group, the Hutus, overthrew the ruling Tutsi king.Over the next several years, thousands of Tutsis were killed, andsome 150,000 driven into exile in neighboring countries. Thechildren of these exiles later formed a rebel group, the RwandanPatriotic Front (RPF), and began a civil war in 1990. The war, alongwith several political and economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnictensions, culminating in April 1994 in the genocide of roughly800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated theHutu regime and ended the killing in July 1994, but approximately 2million Hutu refugees - many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled toneighboring Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and the former Zaire. Sincethen, most of the refugees have returned to Rwanda, but severalthousand remain in neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo andformed an extremist insurgency bent on retaking Rwanda, much as theRPF tried in 1990. Despite substantial international assistance andpolitical reforms - including Rwanda's first local elections inMarch 1999 and its first post-genocide presidential and legislativeelections in August and September 2003 - the country continues tostruggle to boost investment and agricultural output, and ethnicreconciliation is complicated by the real and perceived Tutsipolitical dominance. Kigali's increasing centralization andintolerance of dissent, the nagging Hutu extremist insurgency acrossthe border, and Rwandan involvement in two wars in recent years inthe neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo continue to hinderRwanda's efforts to escape its bloody legacy.
Saint HelenaSaint Helena is a British Overseas Territory consistingof Saint Helena and Ascension Islands, and the island group ofTristan da Cunha.Saint Helena: Uninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in1502, Saint Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17thcentury. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE'sexile, from 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as aport of call declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.During the Anglo-Boer War in South Africa, several thousand Boerprisoners were confined on the island between 1900 and 1903.Ascension Island: This barren and uninhabited island was discoveredand named by the Portuguese in 1503. The British garrisoned theisland in 1815 to prevent a rescue of Napoleon from Saint Helena andit served as a provisioning station for the Royal Navy's West AfricaSquadron on anti-slavery patrol. The island remained under Admiraltycontrol until 1922, when it became a dependency of Saint Helena.During World War II, the UK permitted the US to construct anairfield on Ascension in support of trans-Atlantic flights to Africaand anti-submarine operations in the South Atlantic. In the 1960sthe island became an important space tracking station for the US. In1982, Ascension was an essential staging area for British forcesduring the Falklands War, and it remains a critical refueling pointin the air-bridge from the UK to the South Atlantic.Tristan da Cunha: The island group consists of the islands ofTristan da Cunha, Nightingale, Inaccessible, and Gough. Tristan daCunha is named after its Portuguese discoverer (1506); it wasgarrisoned by the British in 1816 to prevent any attempt to rescueNapoleon from Saint Helena. Gough and Inaccessible Islands have beendesignated World Heritage Sites. South Africa leases the site for ameteorological station on Gough Island.
Saint Kitts and NevisFirst settled by the British in 1623, theislands became an associated state with full internal autonomy in1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to secede in1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983. In 1998,a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from Saint Kitts fellshort of the two-thirds majority needed. Nevis continues in itsefforts to try and separate from Saint Kitts.
Saint LuciaThe island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,was contested between England and France throughout the 17th andearly 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finallyceded to the UK in 1814. Even after the abolition of slavery on itsplantations in 1834, Saint Lucia remained an agricultural island,dedicated to producing tropical commodity crops. Self-government wasgranted in 1967 and independence in 1979.
Saint Pierre and MiquelonFirst settled by the French in the early17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige ofFrance's once vast North American possessions.
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesResistance by native Caribsprevented colonization on St. Vincent until 1719. Disputed betweenFrance and the United Kingdom for most of the 18th century, theisland was ceded to the latter in 1783. Between 1960 and 1962, SaintVincent and the Grenadines was a separate administrative unit of theFederation of the West Indies. Autonomy was granted in 1969 andindependence in 1979.
SamoaNew Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoaat the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administerthe islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablishindependence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"from its name in 1997.
San MarinoThe third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy Seeand Monaco), San Marino also claims to be the world's oldestrepublic. According to tradition, it was founded by a Christianstonemason named Marino in A.D. 301. San Marino's foreign policy isaligned with that of Italy; social and political trends in therepublic also track closely with those of its larger neighbor.
Sao Tome and PrincipeDiscovered and claimed by Portugal in the late15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffeeand cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slavelabor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. Althoughindependence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were notinstituted until the late 1980s. Though the first free electionswere held in 1991, the political environment has been one ofcontinued instability with frequent changes in leadership and coupattempts in 1995 and 2003. The recent discovery of oil in the Gulfof Guinea is likely to have a significant impact on the country'seconomy.
Saudi ArabiaSaudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and home toIslam's two holiest shrines in Mecca and Medina, and the king'sofficial title is the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The modernSaudi state was founded in 1932 by ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman ALSAUD (Ibn Saud) after a 30-year campaign to unify most of theArabian Peninsula. A male descendent of Ibn Saud, his son ABDALLAHbin Abd al-Aziz, rules the country today as required by thecountry's 1992 Basic Law. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in1990, Saudi Arabia accepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000refugees while allowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on itssoil for the liberation of Kuwait the following year. The continuingpresence of foreign troops on Saudi soil after the liberation ofKuwait became a source of tension between the royal family and thepublic until all operational US troops left the country in 2003.Major terrorist attacks in May and November 2003 spurred a strongon-going campaign against domestic terrorism and extremism. KingABDALLAH has continued the cautious reform program begun when he wascrown prince. To promote increased political participation, thegovernment held elections nationwide from February through April2005 - for half the members of 179 municipal councils. In December2005, King ABDALLAH completed the process by appointing theremaining members of the advisory municipal councils. The countryremains a leading producer of oil and natural gas and holdsapproximately 25% of the world's proven oil reserves. The governmentcontinues to pursue economic reform and diversification,particularly since Saudi Arabia's accession to the WTO in December2005, and promotes foreign investment in the kingdom. A burgeoningpopulation, aquifer depletion, and an economy largely dependent onpetroleum output and prices are all ongoing governmental concerns.
SenegalIndependent from France in 1960, Senegal was ruled by theSocialist Party for forty years until current President AbdoulayeWADE was elected in 2000. Senegal joined with The Gambia to form thenominal confederation of Senegambia in 1982, but the envisagedintegration of the two countries was never carried out, and theunion was dissolved in 1989. A southern separatist groupsporadically has clashed with government forces since 1982, butSenegal remains one of the most stable democracies in Africa.Senegal has a long history of participating in internationalpeacekeeping.
Serbia The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in 1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. Various paramilitary bands resisted Nazi Germany's occupation and division of Yugoslavia from 1941 to 1945, but fought each other and ethnic opponents as much as the invaders. The military and political movement headed by Josip TITO (Partisans) took full control of Yugoslavia when German and Croatian separatist forces were defeated in 1945. Although Communist, Tito's new government and his successors (he died in 1980) managed to steer their own path between the Warsaw Pact nations and the West for the next four and a half decades. In 1989, Slobodan MILOSEVIC became president of the Serbian Republic and his ultranationalist calls for Serbian domination led to the violent breakup of Yugoslavia along ethnic lines. In 1991, Croatia, Slovenia, and Macedonia declared independence, followed by Bosnia in 1992. The remaining republics of Serbia and Montenegro declared a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) in April 1992 and under MILOSEVIC's leadership, Serbia led various military campaigns to unite ethnic Serbs in neighboring republics into a "Greater Serbia." These actions led to Yugoslavia being ousted from the UN in 1992, but Serbia continued its - ultimately unsuccesful - campaign until signing the Dayton Peace Accords in 1995. MILOSEVIC kept tight control over Serbia and eventually became president of the FRY in 1997. In 1998, a small-scale ethnic Albanian insurgency in the formerly autonomous Serbian province of Kosovo provoked a Serbian counterinsurgency campaign that resulted in massacres and massive expulsions of ethnic Albanians living in Kosovo by FRY forces and Serb paramilitaries. The MILOSEVIC government's rejection of a proposed international settlement led to NATO's bombing of Serbia in the spring of 1999 and to the eventual withdrawal of Serbian military and police forces from Kosovo in June 1999. UNSC Resolution 1244 in June 1999 authorized the stationing of a NATO-led force (KFOR) in Kosovo to provide a safe and secure environment for the region's ethnic communities, created a UN Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) to foster self-governing institutions, and reserved the issue of Kosovo's final status for an unspecified date in the future. In 2001, UNMIK promulgated a constitutional framework that allowed Kosovo to establish institutions of self-government and led to Kosovo's first parliamentary election. FRY elections in September 2000 led to the ouster of MILOSEVIC and installed Vojislav KOSTUNICA as president. A broad coalition of democratic reformist parties known as DOS (the Democratic Opposition of Serbia) was subsequently elected to parliament in December 2000 and took control of the government. The arrest of MILOSEVIC by DOS in 2001 allowed for his subsequent transfer to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in The Hague to be tried for crimes against humanity. (MILOSEVIC died at The Hague in March 2006 before the completion of his trial.) In 2001, the country's suspension from the UN was lifted, and it was once more accepted into UN organizations. In 2003, the FRY became Serbia and Montenegro, a loose federation of the two republics with a federal level parliament. Violent rioting in Kosovo in 2004 caused the international community to open negotiations on the future status of Kosovo in January 2006. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked its right under the Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro to hold a referendum on independence from the state union. The referendum was successful and Montenegro declared itself an independent nation on 3 June 2006. Two days later, Serbia declared that it was the successor state to the union of Serbia and Montenegro. In October 2006, the Serbian parliament unanimously approved - and a referendum confirmed - a new constitution for the country.
SeychellesA lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain forthe islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a closewith a new constitution and free elections in 1993. PresidentFrance-Albert RENE, who had served since 1977, was re-elected in2001, but stepped down in 2004. Vice President James MICHEL tookover the presidency and in July 2006 was elected to a new five-yearterm.
Sierra LeoneThe government is slowly reestablishing its authorityafter the 1991 to 2002 civil war that resulted in tens of thousandsof deaths and the displacement of more than 2 million people (aboutone-third of the population). The last UN peacekeepers withdrew inDecember 2005, leaving full responsibility for security withdomestic forces, but a new civilian UN office remains to support thegovernment. Mounting tensions related to planned 2007 elections,deteriorating political and economic conditions in Guinea, and thetenuous security situation in neighboring Liberia may presentchallenges to continuing progress in Sierra Leone's stability.
SingaporeSingapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819.It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two yearslater and became independent. Singapore subsequently became one ofthe world's most prosperous countries with strong internationaltrading links (its port is one of the world's busiest in terms oftonnage handled) and with per capita GDP equal to that of theleading nations of Western Europe.
SlovakiaThe dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the closeof World War I allowed the Slovaks to join the closely relatedCzechs to form Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,Czechoslovakia became a Communist nation within Soviet-ruled EasternEurope. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 and Czechoslovakia oncemore became free. The Slovaks and the Czechs agreed to separatepeacefully on 1 January 1993. Slovakia joined both NATO and the EUin the spring of 2004.
SloveniaThe Slovene lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empireuntil the latter's dissolution at the end of World War I. In 1918,the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats in forming a newmultinational state, which was named Yugoslavia in 1929. After WorldWar II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, whichthough Communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfiedwith the exercise of power by the majority Serbs, the Slovenessucceeded in establishing their independence in 1991 after a short10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, anda stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia's transformation to amodern state. Slovenia acceded to both NATO and the EU in the springof 2004.
Solomon IslandsThe UK established a protectorate over the SolomonIslands in the 1890s. Some of the bitterest fighting of World War IIoccurred on this archipelago. Self-government was achieved in 1976and independence two years later. Ethnic violence, governmentmalfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civilsociety. In June 2003, Prime Minister Sir Allen KEMAKEZA sought theassistance of Australia in reestablishing law and order; thefollowing month, an Australian-led multinational force arrived torestore peace and disarm ethnic militias. The Regional AssistanceMission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) has been very effective inrestoring law and order and rebuilding government institutions.
Somalia Britain withdrew from British Somaliland in 1960 in order to allow its protectorate to join with Italian Somaliland and form the new nation of Somalia. In 1969, a coup headed by Mohamed SIAD Barre ushered in an authoritarian socialist rule that managed to impose a degree of stability in the country for a couple of decades. After the regime's overthrow early in 1991, Somalia descended into turmoil, factional fighting, and anarchy. In May of 1991, northern clans declared an independent Republic of Somaliland that now includes the administrative regions of Awdal, Woqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag, and Sool. Although not recognized by any government, this entity has maintained a stable existence, aided by the overwhelming dominance of a ruling clan and economic infrastructure left behind by British, Russian, and American military assistance programs. The regions of Bari, Nugaal, and northern Mudug comprise a neighboring self-declared autonomous state of Puntland, which has been self-governing since 1998, but does not aim at independence; it has also made strides toward reconstructing a legitimate, representative government, but has suffered some civil strife. Puntland disputes its border with Somaliland as it also claims portions of eastern Sool and Sanaag. Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily in the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions, but when the UN withdrew in 1995, having suffered significant casualties, order still had not been restored. The mandate of the Transitional National Government (TNG), created in August 2000 in Arta, Djibouti, expired in August 2003. A two-year peace process, led by the Government of Kenya under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), concluded in October 2004 with the election of Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmed as President of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia and the formation of a transitional government, known as the Somalia Transitional Federal Institutions (TFIs). The Somalia TFIs include a 275-member parliamentary body, known as the Transitional Federal Assembly (TFA), a transitional Prime Minister, Ali Mohamed GEDI, and a 90-member cabinet. The Transitional Federal Government (TFG) has been deeply divided since just after its creation and until late December 2006 controlled only the town of Baidoa. In June 2006, a loose coalition of clerics, business leaders, and Islamic court militias ? known as the Supreme Council of Islamic Courts (SCIC) ? defeated powerful Mogadishu warlords and took control of the capital. The Courts continued to expand, spreading their influence throughout much of southern Somalia and threatening to overthrow the TFG in Baidoa. Ethiopian and TFG forces ? concerned over suspected links between some SCIC factions and al-Qa?ida ? in late December 2006 drove the SCIC from power, but the joint forces continue to fight remnants of SCIC militia in the southwestern corner of Somalia near the Kenyan border. The TFG, backed by Ethiopian forces, in late December 2006 moved into Mogadishu, but continues to struggle to exert control over the capital and to prevent the reemergence of warlord rule that typified Mogadishu before the rise of the SCIC.
South AfricaAfter the British seized the Cape of Good Hope area in1806, many of the Dutch settlers (the Boers) trekked north to foundtheir own republics. The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold(1886) spurred wealth and immigration and intensified thesubjugation of the native inhabitants. The Boers resisted Britishencroachments, but were defeated in the Boer War (1899-1902). Theresulting Union of South Africa operated under a policy of apartheid- the separate development of the races. The 1990s brought an end toapartheid politically and ushered in black majority rule.
South Georgia and the South Sandwich IslandsThe islands, which havelarge bird and seal populations, lie approximately 1,000 km east ofthe Falkland Islands and have been under British administrationsince 1908 - except for a brief period in 1982 when Argentinaoccupied them. Grytviken, on South Georgia, was a 19th and early20th century whaling station. Famed explorer Ernest SHACKLETONstopped there in 1914 en route to his ill-fated attempt to crossAntarctica on foot. He returned some 20 months later with a fewcompanions in a small boat and arranged a successful rescue for therest of his crew, stranded off the Antarctic Peninsula. He died in1922 on a subsequent expedition and is buried in Grytviken. Today,the station houses scientists from the British Antarctic Survey.Recognizing the importance of preserving the marine stocks inadjacent waters, the UK, in 1993, extended the exclusive fishingzone from 12 nm to 200 nm around each island.
Southern OceanA large body of recent oceanographic research hasshown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), an ocean currentthat flows from west to east around Antarctica, plays a crucial rolein global ocean circulation. The region where the cold waters of theACC meet and mingle with the warmer waters of the north defines adistinct border - the Antarctic Convergence - which fluctuates withthe seasons, but which encompasses a discrete body of water and aunique ecologic region. The Convergence concentrates nutrients,which promotes marine plant life, and which in turn allows for agreater abundance of animal life. In the spring of 2000, theInternational Hydrographic Organization decided to delimit thewaters within the Convergence as a fifth world ocean - the SouthernOcean - by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean,Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from thecoast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude, whichcoincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit and which approximates theextent of the Antarctic Convergence. As such, the Southern Ocean isnow the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the PacificOcean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the ArcticOcean). It should be noted that inclusion of the Southern Ocean doesnot imply recognition of this feature as one of the world's primaryoceans by the US Government.
SpainSpain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuriesultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequentfailure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions causedthe country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economicand political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II,but suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). A peacefultransition to democracy following the death of dictator FranciscoFRANCO in 1975, and rapid economic modernization (Spain joined theEU in 1986), have given Spain one of the most dynamic economies inEurope and made it a global champion of freedom. Continuingchallenges include Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) terrorism andrelatively high unemployment.
Spratly IslandsThe Spratly Islands consist of more than 100 smallislands or reefs. They are surrounded by rich fishing grounds andpotentially by gas and oil deposits. They are claimed in theirentirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, while portions are claimedby Malaysia and the Philippines. About 45 islands are occupied byrelatively small numbers of military forces from China, Malaysia,the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Brunei has established afishing zone that overlaps a southern reef, but has not made anyformal claim.
Sri LankaThe Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6th centuryB.C., probably from northern India. Buddhism was introducedbeginning in about the mid-third century B.C., and a greatcivilization developed at the cities of Anuradhapura (kingdom fromcirca 200 B.C. to circa A.D. 1000) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070to 1200). In the 14th century, a south Indian dynasty seized powerin the north and established a Tamil kingdom. Occupied by thePortuguese in the 16th century and by the Dutch in the 17th century,the island was ceded to the British in 1796, became a crown colonyin 1802, and was united under British rule by 1815. As Ceylon, itbecame independent in 1948; its name was changed to Sri Lanka in1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority and Tamil separatistserupted into war in 1983. Tens of thousands have died in the ethnicconflict that continues to fester. After two decades of fighting,the government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)formalized a cease-fire in February 2002, with Norway brokeringpeace negotiations. Violence between the LTTE and government forcesintensified in 2006, but neither side has formally withdrawn fromthe cease-fire.
SudanMilitary regimes favoring Islamic-oriented governments havedominated national politics since independence from the UK in 1956.Sudan was embroiled in two prolonged civil wars during most of theremainder of the 20th century. These conflicts were rooted innorthern economic, political, and social domination of largelynon-Muslim, non-Arab southern Sudanese. The first civil war ended in1972, but broke out again in 1983. The second war and famine-relatedeffects resulted in more than 4 million people displaced and,according to rebel estimates, more than 2 million deaths over aperiod of two decades. Peace talks gained momentum in 2002-04 withthe signing of several accords; a final Naivasha peace treaty ofJanuary 2005 granted the southern rebels autonomy for six years,after which a referendum for independence is scheduled to be held. Aseparate conflict that broke out in the western region of Darfur in2003 has resulted in at least 200,000 deaths and nearly 2 milliondisplaced; as of late 2005, peacekeeping troops were struggling tostabilize the situation. Sudan also has faced large refugee influxesfrom neighboring countries, primarily Ethiopia and Chad, and armedconflict, poor transport infrastructure, and lack of governmentsupport have chronically obstructed the provision of humanitarianassistance to affected populations.
SurinameFirst explored by the Spaniards in the 16th century andthen settled by the English in the mid-17th century, Suriname becamea Dutch colony in 1667. With the abolition of slavery in 1863,workers were brought in from India and Java. Independence from theNetherlands was granted in 1975. Five years later the civiliangovernment was replaced by a military regime that soon declared asocialist republic. It continued to exert control through asuccession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, wheninternational pressure finally forced a democratic election. In1990, the military overthrew the civilian leadership, but ademocratically elected government - a four-party New Front coalition- returned to power in 1991 and has ruled since, expanding to eightparties in 2005.
SvalbardFirst discovered by the Norwegians in the 12th century, theislands served as an international whaling base during the 17th and18th centuries. Norway's sovereignty was recognized in 1920; fiveyears later it officially took over the territory.
SwazilandAutonomy for the Swazis of southern Africa was guaranteedby the British in the late 19th century; independence was granted in1968. Student and labor unrest during the 1990s pressured KingMswati III, the world's last absolute monarch, to grudgingly allowpolitical reform and greater democracy, although he has backslid onthese promises in recent years. Swaziland recently surpassedBotswana as the country with the world's highest known rates ofHIV/AIDS infection.
SwedenA military power during the 17th century, Sweden has notparticipated in any war in almost two centuries. An armed neutralitywas preserved in both World Wars. Sweden's long-successful economicformula of a capitalist system interlarded with substantial welfareelements was challenged in the 1990s by high unemployment and in2000-02 by the global economic downturn, but fiscal discipline overthe past several years has allowed the country to weather economicvagaries. Sweden joined the EU in 1995, but the public rejected theintroduction of the euro in a 2003 referendum.
SwitzerlandThe Swiss Confederation was founded in 1291 as adefensive alliance among three cantons. In succeeding years, otherlocalities joined the original three. The Swiss Confederationsecured its independence from the Holy Roman Empire in 1499.Switzerland's sovereignty and neutrality have long been honored bythe major European powers, and the country was not involved ineither of the two World Wars. The political and economic integrationof Europe over the past half century, as well as Switzerland's rolein many UN and international organizations, has strengthenedSwitzerland's ties with its neighbors. However, the country did notofficially become a UN member until 2002. Switzerland remains activein many UN and international organizations, but retains a strongcommitment to neutrality.
SyriaFollowing the breakup of the Ottoman Empire during World WarI, France administered Syria until its independence in 1946. Thecountry lacked political stability, however, and experienced aseries of military coups during its first decades. Syria united withEgypt in February 1958 to form the United Arab Republic, but inSeptember 1961 the two entities separated and the Syrian ArabRepublic was reestablished. In November 1970, Hafiz al-ASAD, amember of the Socialist Ba'th Party and the minority Alawite sect,seized power in a bloodless coup and brought political stability tothe country. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost the GolanHeights to Israel, and during the 1990s Syria and Israel heldoccasional peace talks over its return. Following the death ofPresident al-ASAD, his son, Bashar al-ASAD, was approved aspresident by popular referendum in July 2000. Syrian troops -stationed in Lebanon since 1976 in an ostensible peacekeeping role -were withdrawn in April 2005. During the July-August 2006 conflictbetween Israel and Hizballah, Syria placed its military forces onalert but did not intervene directly on behalf of its ally Hizballah.
TaiwanIn 1895, military defeat forced China to cede Taiwan toJapan. Taiwan reverted to Chinese control after World War II.Following the Communist victory on the mainland in 1949, 2 millionNationalists fled to Taiwan and established a government using the1946 constitution drawn up for all of China. Over the next fivedecades, the ruling authorities gradually democratized andincorporated the local population within the governing structure. In2000, Taiwan underwent its first peaceful transfer of power from theNationalist to the Democratic Progressive Party. Throughout thisperiod, the island prospered and became one of East Asia's economic"Tigers." The dominant political issues continue to be therelationship between Taiwan and China - specifically the question ofeventual unification - as well as domestic political and economicreform.
TajikistanThe Tajik people came under Russian rule in the 1860s and1870s, but Russia's hold on Central Asia weakened following theRevolution of 1917. Bolshevik control of the area was fiercelycontested and not fully reestablished until 1925. Tajikistan becameindependent in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union, andit is now in the process of strengthening its democracy andtransitioning to a free market economy after its 1992-1997 civilwar. There have been no major security incidents in recent years,although the country remains the poorest in the former Sovietsphere. Attention by the international community in the wake of thewar in Afghanistan has brought increased economic developmentassistance, which could create jobs and increase stability in thelong term. Tajikistan is in the early stages of seeking World TradeOrganization membership and has joined NATO's Partnership for Peace.
TanzaniaShortly after achieving independence from Britain in theearly 1960s, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the nation ofTanzania in 1964. One-party rule came to an end in 1995 with thefirst democratic elections held in the country since the 1970s.Zanzibar's semi-autonomous status and popular opposition have led totwo contentious elections since 1995, which the ruling party wondespite international observers' claims of voting irregularities.
ThailandA unified Thai kingdom was established in the mid-14thcentury. Known as Siam until 1939, Thailand is the only SoutheastAsian country never to have been taken over by a European power. Abloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional monarchy. Inalliance with Japan during World War II, Thailand became a US allyfollowing the conflict. Thailand is currently facing separatistviolence in its southern ethnic Malay-Muslim provinces.
TogoFrench Togoland became Togo in 1960. Gen. Gnassingbe EYADEMA,installed as military ruler in 1967, continued to rule well into the21st century. Despite the facade of multiparty elections institutedin the early 1990s, the government continued to be dominated byPresident EYADEMA, whose Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) partyhas maintained power almost continually since 1967. Togo has comeunder fire from international organizations for human rights abusesand is plagued by political unrest. While most bilateral andmultilateral aid to Togo remains frozen, the EU initiated a partialresumption of cooperation and development aid to Togo in late 2004based upon commitments by Togo to expand opportunities for politicalopposition and liberalize portions of the economy. Upon his death inFebruary 2005, President EYADEMA was succeeded by his son FaureGNASSINGBE. The succession, supported by the military and incontravention of the nation's constitution, was challenged bypopular protest and a threat of sanctions from regional leaders.GNASSINGBE succumbed to pressure and in April 2005 held electionsthat legitimized his succession. Legislative elections are scheduledfor June 2007.
TokelauOriginally settled by Polynesian emigrants from surroundingisland groups, the Tokelau Islands were made a British protectoratein 1889. They were transferred to New Zealand administration in 1925.
TongaTonga - unique among Pacific nations - never completely lostits indigenous governance. The archipelagos of "The FriendlyIslands" were united into a Polynesian kingdom in 1845. Tonga becamea constitutional monarchy in 1875 and a British protectorate in1900; it withdrew from the protectorate and joined the Commonwealthof Nations in 1970. Tonga remains the only monarchy in the Pacific.
Trinidad and TobagoFirst colonized by the Spanish, the islands cameunder British control in the early 19th century. The islands' sugarindustry was hurt by the emancipation of the slaves in 1834.Manpower was replaced with the importation of contract laborers fromIndia between 1845 and 1917, which boosted sugar production as wellas the cocoa industry. The discovery of oil on Trinidad in 1910added another important export. Independence was attained in 1962.The country is one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean thankslargely to petroleum and natural gas production and processing.Tourism, mostly in Tobago, is targeted for expansion and is growing.
Tromelin IslandFirst explored by the French in 1776, the islandcame under the jurisdiction of Reunion in 1814. At present, itserves as a sea turtle sanctuary and is the site of an importantmeteorological station.
TunisiaRivalry between French and Italian interests in Tunisiaculminated in a French invasion in 1881 and the creation of aprotectorate. Agitation for independence in the decades followingWorld War I was finally successful in getting the French torecognize Tunisia as an independent state in 1956. The country'sfirst president, Habib BOURGUIBA, established a strict one-partystate. He dominated the country for 31 years, repressing Islamicfundamentalism and establishing rights for women unmatched by anyother Arab nation. Tunisia has long taken a moderate, non-alignedstance in its foreign relations. Domestically, it has sought todefuse rising pressure for a more open political society.
TurkeyModern Turkey was founded in 1923 from the Anatolian remnantsof the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero Mustafa KEMAL, whowas later honored with the title Ataturk, or "Father of the Turks."Under his authoritarian leadership, the country adopted wide-rangingsocial, legal, and political reforms. After a period of one-partyrule, an experiment with multi-party politics led to the 1950election victory of the opposition Democratic Party and the peacefultransfer of power. Since then, Turkish political parties havemultiplied, but democracy has been fractured by periods ofinstability and intermittent military coups (1960, 1971, 1980),which in each case eventually resulted in a return of politicalpower to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer theouster - popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the thenIslamic-oriented government. Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprusin 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the island and has sinceacted as patron state to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,"which only Turkey recognizes. A separatist insurgency begun in 1984by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) - now known as the People'sCongress of Kurdistan or Kongra-Gel (KGK) - has dominated theTurkish military's attention and claimed more than 30,000 lives.After the capture of the group's leader in 1999, the insurgentslargely withdrew from Turkey, mainly to northern Iraq. In 2004, KGKannounced an end to its ceasefire and attacks attributed to the KGKincreased. Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and in 1952 it became amember of NATO. In 1964, Turkey became an associate member of theEuropean Community; over the past decade, it has undertaken manyreforms to strengthen its democracy and economy, enabling it tobegin accession membership talks with the European Union.
TurkmenistanAnnexed by Russia between 1865 and 1885, Turkmenistanbecame a Soviet republic in 1924. It achieved its independence uponthe dissolution of the USSR in 1991. President Saparmurat NIYAZOVretains absolute control over the country and opposition is nottolerated. Extensive hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves could prove aboon to this underdeveloped country if extraction and deliveryprojects were to be expanded. The Turkmenistan Government isactively seeking to develop alternative petroleum transportationroutes in order to break Russia's pipeline monopoly.