MaldivesThe Maldives was long a sultanate, first under Dutch andthen under British protection. It became a republic in 1968, threeyears after independence. President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM dominatedthe islands' political scene for 30 years, elected to six successiveterms by single-party referendums. Following riots in the capitalMale in August 2004, the president and his government pledged toembark upon democratic reforms including a more representativepolitical system and expanded political freedoms. Progress wassluggish, however, and many promised reforms were slow to berealized. Nonetheless, political parties were legalized in 2005. InJune 2008, a constituent assembly - termed the "Special Majlis" -finalized a new constitution, which was ratified by the president inAugust. The first-ever presidential elections under amulti-candidate, multi-party system were held in October 2008.GAYOOM was defeated in a runoff poll by Mohamed NASHEED, a politicalactivist who had been jailed several years earlier by the formerregime. Challenges facing the new president include strengtheningdemocracy and combating poverty and drug abuse.
MaliThe Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of Francein 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only afew months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamedMali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 by amilitary coup - led by the current president Amadou TOURE - enablingMali's emergence as one of the strongest democracies on thecontinent. President Alpha KONARE won Mali's first democraticpresidential election in 1992 and was reelected in 1997. In keepingwith Mali's two-term constitutional limit, KONARE stepped down in2002 and was succeeded by Amadou TOURE, who was subsequently electedto a second term in 2007. The elections were widely judged to befree and fair.
MaltaGreat Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.The island staunchly supported the UK through both World Wars andremained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. Adecade later Malta became a republic. Since about the mid-1980s, theisland has transformed itself into a freight transshipment point, afinancial center, and a tourist destination. Malta became an EUmember in May 2004 and began to use the euro as currency in 2008.
Marshall IslandsAfter almost four decades under US administrationas the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the PacificIslands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under aCompact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as aresult of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and1962. The Marshall Islands hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA)Reagan Missile Test Site, a key installation in the US missiledefense network.
MauritaniaIndependent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed thesouthern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in1976, but relinquished it after three years of raids by thePolisario guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory.Maaouya Ould Sid Ahmed TAYA seized power in a coup in 1984 and ruledMauritania with a heavy hand for over two decades. A series ofpresidential elections that he held were widely seen as flawed. Abloodless coup in August 2005 deposed President TAYA and ushered ina military council that oversaw a transition to democratic rule.Independent candidate Sidi Ould Cheikh ABDALLAHI was inaugurated inApril 2007 as Mauritania's first freely and fairly electedpresident. His term ended prematurely in August 2008 when a coupdeposed him and ushered in a military council government. Meanwhile,the country continues to experience ethnic tensions among its blackpopulation (Afro-Mauritanians) and White and Black Moor(Arab-Berber) communities.
MauritiusAlthough known to Arab and Malay sailors as early as the10th century, Mauritius was first explored by the Portuguese in the16th century and subsequently settled by the Dutch - who named it inhonor of Prince Maurits van NASSAU - in the 17th century. The Frenchassumed control in 1715, developing the island into an importantnaval base overseeing Indian Ocean trade, and establishing aplantation economy of sugar cane. The British captured the island in1810, during the Napoleonic Wars. Mauritius remained a strategicallyimportant British naval base, and later an air station, playing animportant role during World War II for anti-submarine and convoyoperations, as well as the collection of signals intelligence.Independence from the UK was attained in 1968. A stable democracywith regular free elections and a positive human rights record, thecountry has attracted considerable foreign investment and has earnedone of Africa's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather,declining sugar prices, and declining textile and apparelproduction, have slowed economic growth, leading to some protestsover standards of living in the Creole community.
MayotteMayotte was ceded to France along with the other islands ofthe Comoros group in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelagothat voted in 1974 to retain its link with France and foregoindependence.
MexicoThe site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico cameunder Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independenceearly in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recessionin over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressiverecovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low realwages, underemployment for a large segment of the population,inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunitiesfor the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southernstates. The elections held in 2000 marked the first time since the1910 Mexican Revolution that an opposition candidate - Vicente FOXof the National Action Party (PAN) - defeated the party ingovernment, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). He wassucceeded in 2006 by another PAN candidate Felipe CALDERON.
Micronesia, Federated States ofIn 1979 the Federated States ofMicronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted aconstitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact ofFree Association with the US, which was amended and renewed in 2004.Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, andoverdependence on US aid.
MoldovaFormerly part of Romania, Moldova was incorporated into theSoviet Union at the close of World War II. Although independent fromthe USSR since 1991, Russian forces have remained on Moldovanterritory east of the Dniester River supporting the Slavic majoritypopulation, mostly Ukrainians and Russians, who have proclaimed a"Transnistria" republic. One of the poorest nations in Europe,Moldova became the first former Soviet state to elect a Communist asits president in 2001.
MonacoThe Genoese built a fortress on the site of present-dayMonaco in 1215. The current ruling Grimaldi family secured controlin the late 13th century, and a principality was established in1338. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century witha railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Since then,the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, and gamblingfacilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist and recreationcenter.
MongoliaThe Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when underChinggis KHAN they conquered a huge Eurasian empire. After his deaththe empire was divided into several powerful Mongol states, butthese broke apart in the 14th century. The Mongols eventuallyretired to their original steppe homelands and in the late 17thcentury came under Chinese rule. Mongolia won its independence in1921 with Soviet backing. A Communist regime was installed in 1924.Following a peaceful democratic revolution, the ex-CommunistMongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won elections in 1990and 1992, but was defeated by the Democratic Union Coalition (DUC)in the 1996 parliamentary election. Since then, parliamentaryelections returned the MPRP overwhelmingly to power in 2000, but2004 elections reduced MPRP representation and, therefore, itsauthority.
MontenegroThe use of the name Montenegro began in the 15th centurywhen the Crnojevic dynasty began to rule the Serbian principality ofZeta; over subsequent centuries Montenegro was able to maintain itsindependence from the Ottoman Empire. From the 16th to 19thcenturies, Montenegro became a theocracy ruled by a series of bishopprinces; in 1852, it was transformed into a secular principality.After World War I, Montenegro was absorbed by the Kingdom of Serbs,Croats, and Slovenes, which became the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in1929; at the conclusion of World War II, it became a constituentrepublic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. When thelatter dissolved in 1992, Montenegro federated with Serbia, first asthe Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and, after 2003, in a looserunion of Serbia and Montenegro. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked itsright under the Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro tohold a referendum on independence from the state union. The vote forsevering ties with Serbia exceeded 55% - the threshold set by the EU- allowing Montenegro to formally declare its independence on 3 June2006.
MontserratEnglish and Irish colonists from St. Kitts first settledon Montserrat in 1632; the first African slaves arrived threedecades later. The British and French fought for possession of theisland for most of the 18th century, but it finally was confirmed asa British possession in 1783. The island's sugar plantation economywas converted to small farm landholdings in the mid 19th century.Much of this island was devastated and two-thirds of the populationfled abroad because of the eruption of the Soufriere Hills Volcanothat began on 18 July 1995. Montserrat has endured volcanic activitysince, with the last eruption occurring in July 2003.
MoroccoIn 788, about a century after the Arab conquest of NorthAfrica, successive Moorish dynasties began to rule in Morocco. Inthe 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under AhmadAL-MANSUR (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated agolden age. In 1860, Spain occupied northern Morocco and ushered ina half century of trade rivalry among European powers that sawMorocco's sovereignty steadily erode; in 1912, the French imposed aprotectorate over the country. A protracted independence strugglewith France ended successfully in 1956. The internationalized cityof Tangier and most Spanish possessions were turned over to the newcountry that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western Saharaduring the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of theterritory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the 1990sresulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature, whichfirst met in 1997. Improvements in human rights have occurred andthere is a largely free press. Despite the continuing reforms,ultimate authority remains in the hands of the monarch.
MozambiqueAlmost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to aclose with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration by whites,economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and aprolonged civil war hindered the country's development until the mid1990's. The ruling Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO)party formally abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution thefollowing year provided for multiparty elections and a free marketeconomy. A UN-negotiated peace agreement between FRELIMO and rebelMozambique National Resistance (RENAMO) forces ended the fighting in1992. In December 2004, Mozambique underwent a delicate transitionas Joaquim CHISSANO stepped down after 18 years in office. Hiselected successor, Armando Emilio GUEBUZA, promised to continue thesound economic policies that have encouraged foreign investment.Mozambique has seen very strong economic growth since the end of thecivil war largely due to post-conflict reconstruction.
NamibiaSouth Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africaduring World War I and administered it as a mandate until afterWorld War II, when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the MarxistSouth-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla grouplaunched a war of independence for the area that was soon namedNamibia, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to endits administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entireregion. Namibia has been governed by SWAPO since the country wonindependence in 1990. Hifikepunye POHAMBA was elected president inNovember 2004 in a landslide victory replacing Sam NUJOMA who ledthe country during its first 14 years of self rule.
NauruThe exact origins of the Nauruans are unclear, since theirlanguage does not resemble any other in the Pacific. The island wasannexed by Germany in 1888 and its phosphate deposits began to bemined early in the 20th century by a German-British consortium.Nauru was occupied by Australian forces in World War I andsubsequently became a League of Nations mandate. After the SecondWorld War - and a brutal occupation by Japan - Nauru became a UNtrust territory. It achieved its independence in 1968 and joined theUN in 1999 as the world's smallest independent republic.
Navassa IslandThis uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857for its guano. Mining took place between 1865 and 1898. Thelighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administrationof Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Departmentof the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the islanddescribed it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; thefollowing year it became a National Wildlife Refuge and annualscientific expeditions have continued.
NepalIn 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system ofrule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system ofgovernment. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracywithin the framework of a constitutional monarchy. An insurgency ledby Maoist extremists broke out in 1996. The ensuing nine-year civilwar between insurgents and government forces witnessed thedissolution of the cabinet and parliament and assumption of absolutepower by the king. Several weeks of mass protests in April 2006 werefollowed by several months of peace negotiations between the Maoistsand government officials, and culminated in a November 2006 peaceaccord and the promulgation of an interim constitution. The newlyformed interim parliament declared Nepal a democratic federalrepublic at its first meeting in May 2008, the king vacated thethrone in mid-June 2008, and parliament elected the country's firstpresident the following month.
NetherlandsThe Dutch United Provinces declared their independencefrom Spain in 1579; during the 17th century, they became a leadingseafaring and commercial power, with settlements and colonies aroundthe world. After a 20-year French occupation, a Kingdom of theNetherlands was formed in 1815. In 1830 Belgium seceded and formed aseparate kingdom. The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I,but suffered invasion and occupation by Germany in World War II. Amodern, industrialized nation, the Netherlands is also a largeexporter of agricultural products. The country was a founding memberof NATO and the EEC (now the EU), and participated in theintroduction of the euro in 1999.
Netherlands AntillesOnce the center of the Caribbean slave trade,the island of Curacao was hard hit by the abolition of slavery in1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored inthe early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries toservice the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields. The island ofSaint Martin is shared with France; its southern portion is namedSint Maarten and is part of the Netherlands Antilles; its northernportion, called Saint Martin, is an overseas collectivity of France.
New CaledoniaSettled by both Britain and France during the firsthalf of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s ended inthe 1998 Noumea Accord, which over a period of 15 to 20 years willtransfer an increasing amount of governing responsibility fromFrance to New Caledonia. The agreement also commits France toconduct as many as three referenda between 2013 and 2018, to decidewhether New Caledonia should assume full sovereignty andindependence.
New ZealandThe Polynesian Maori reached New Zealand in about A.D.800. In 1840, their chieftains entered into a compact with Britain,the Treaty of Waitangi, in which they ceded sovereignty to QueenVictoria while retaining territorial rights. In that same year, theBritish began the first organized colonial settlement. A series ofland wars between 1843 and 1872 ended with the defeat of the nativepeoples. The British colony of New Zealand became an independentdominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars.New Zealand's full participation in a number of defense allianceslapsed by the 1980s. In recent years, the government has sought toaddress longstanding Maori grievances.
NicaraguaThe Pacific coast of Nicaragua was settled as a Spanishcolony from Panama in the early 16th century. Independence fromSpain was declared in 1821 and the country became an independentrepublic in 1838. Britain occupied the Caribbean Coast in the firsthalf of the 19th century, but gradually ceded control of the regionin subsequent decades. Violent opposition to governmentalmanipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 andresulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the MarxistSandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftistrebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinistacontra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990,1996, and 2001, saw the Sandinistas defeated, but voting in 2006announced the return of former Sandinista President Daniel ORTEGASaavedra. Nicaragua's infrastructure and economy - hard hit by theearlier civil war and by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 - are slowly beingrebuilt.
NigerNiger became independent from France in 1960 and experiencedsingle-party and military rule until 1991, when Gen. Ali SAIBOU wasforced by public pressure to allow multiparty elections, whichresulted in a democratic government in 1993. Political infightingbrought the government to a standstill and in 1996 led to a coup byCol. Ibrahim BARE. In 1999 BARE was killed in a coup by militaryofficers who promptly restored democratic rule and held electionsthat brought Mamadou TANDJA to power in December of that year.TANDJA was reelected in 2004. Niger is one of the poorest countriesin the world with minimal government services and insufficient fundsto develop its resource base. The largely agrarian andsubsistence-based economy is frequently disrupted by extendeddroughts common to the Sahel region of Africa. A predominatelyTuareg ethnic group emerged in February 2007, the Nigerien Movementfor Justice (MNJ), and attacked several military targets in Niger'snorthern region throughout 2007. Events have since evolved into abudding insurrection.
NigeriaBritish influence and control over what would become Nigeriagrew through the 19th century. A series of constitutions after WorldWar II granted Nigeria greater autonomy; independence came in 1960.Following nearly 16 years of military rule, a new constitution wasadopted in 1999, and a peaceful transition to civilian governmentwas completed. The government continues to face the daunting task ofreforming a petroleum-based economy, whose revenues have beensquandered through corruption and mismanagement, andinstitutionalizing democracy. In addition, Nigeria continues toexperience longstanding ethnic and religious tensions. Although boththe 2003 and 2007 presidential elections were marred by significantirregularities and violence, Nigeria is currently experiencing itslongest period of civilian rule since independence. The generalelections of April 2007 marked the first civilian-to-civiliantransfer of power in the country's history.
NiueNiue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguisticdifferences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the restof the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered.The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200in 1966 to an estimated 1,444 in 2008), with substantial emigrationto New Zealand, 2,400 km to the southwest.
Norfolk IslandTwo British attempts at establishing the island as apenal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants ofthe Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.
Northern Mariana IslandsUnder US administration as part of the UNTrust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern MarianaIslands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead toforge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial statusbegan in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in politicalunion with the US was approved in 1975, and came into force on 24March 1976. A new government and constitution went into effect in1978.
NorwayTwo centuries of Viking raids into Europe tapered offfollowing the adoption of Christianity by King Olav TRYGGVASON in994. Conversion of the Norwegian kingdom occurred over the nextseveral decades. In 1397, Norway was absorbed into a union withDenmark that lasted more than four centuries. In 1814, Norwegiansresisted the cession of their country to Sweden and adopted a newconstitution. Sweden then invaded Norway but agreed to let Norwaykeep its constitution in return for accepting the union under aSwedish king. Rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led toa 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Although Norwayremained neutral in World War I, it suffered heavy losses to itsshipping. Norway proclaimed its neutrality at the outset of WorldWar II, but was nonetheless occupied for five years by Nazi Germany(1940-45). In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became amember of NATO. Discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in thelate 1960s boosted Norway's economic fortunes. The current focus ison containing spending on the extensive welfare system and planningfor the time when petroleum reserves are depleted. In referenda heldin 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU.
OmanThe inhabitants of the area of Oman have long prospered onIndian Ocean trade. In the late 18th century, a newly establishedsultanate in Muscat signed the first in a series of friendshiptreaties with Britain. Over time, Oman's dependence on Britishpolitical and military advisors increased, but it never became aBritish colony. In 1970, QABOOS bin Said al-Said overthrew therestrictive rule of his father; he has ruled as sultan ever since.His extensive modernization program has opened the country to theoutside world while preserving the longstanding close ties with theUK. Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought tomaintain good relations with all Middle Eastern countries.
Pacific OceanThe Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's fiveoceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, SouthernOcean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterwaysinclude the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, andTorres Straits. The decision by the International HydrographicOrganization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, theSouthern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60degrees south.
PakistanThe Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in theworld and dating back at least 5,000 years, spread over much of whatis presently Pakistan. During the second millennium B.C., remnantsof this culture fused with the migrating Indo-Aryan peoples. Thearea underwent successive invasions in subsequent centuries from thePersians, Greeks, Scythians, Arabs (who brought Islam), Afghans, andTurks. The Mughal Empire flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries;the British came to dominate the region in the 18th century. Theseparation in 1947 of British India into the Muslim state ofPakistan (with West and East sections) and largely Hindu India wasnever satisfactorily resolved, and India and Pakistan fought twowars - in 1947-48 and 1965 - over the disputed Kashmir territory. Athird war between these countries in 1971 - in which Indiacapitalized on Islamabad's marginalization of Bengalis in Pakistanipolitics - resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation ofBangladesh. In response to Indian nuclear weapons testing, Pakistanconducted its own tests in 1998. The dispute over the state ofKashmir is ongoing, but discussions and confidence-building measureshave led to decreased tensions since 2002. Mounting publicdissatisfaction with President MUSHARRAF, coupled with theassassination of the prominent and popular political leader, BenazirBHUTTO, in late 2007, and MUSHARRAF?s resignation in August 2008,led to the September presidential election of Asif ZARDARI, BHUTTO?swidower. Pakistani government and military leaders are struggling tocontrol Islamist militants, many of whom are located in the tribalareas adjacent to the border with Afghanistan. The Pakistanigovernment is also faced with a deteriorating economy as foreignexchange reserves decline, the currency depreciates, and the currentaccount deficit widens.
PalauAfter three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of thePacific under US administration, this westernmost cluster of theCaroline Islands opted for independence in 1978 rather than join theFederated States of Micronesia. A Compact of Free Association withthe US was approved in 1986, but not ratified until 1993. It enteredinto force the following year, when the islands gained independence.
PanamaExplored and settled by the Spanish in the 16th century,Panama broke with Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Colombia,Ecuador, and Venezuela - named the Republic of Gran Colombia. Whenthe latter dissolved in 1830, Panama remained part of Colombia. WithUS backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 and promptly signeda treaty with the US allowing for the construction of a canal and USsovereignty over a strip of land on either side of the structure(the Panama Canal Zone). The Panama Canal was built by the US ArmyCorps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. In 1977, an agreement wassigned for the complete transfer of the Canal from the US to Panamaby the end of the century. Certain portions of the Zone andincreasing responsibility over the Canal were turned over in thesubsequent decades. With US help, dictator Manuel NORIEGA wasdeposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting theCanal, and remaining US military bases were transferred to Panama bythe end of 1999. In October 2006, Panamanians approved an ambitiousplan to expand the Canal. The project, which began in 2007 and coulddouble the Canal's capacity, is expected to be completed in 2014-15.
Papua New GuineaThe eastern half of the island of New Guinea -second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred toAustralia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during WorldWar I and continued to administer the combined areas untilindependence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the islandof Bougainville ended in 1997 after claiming some 20,000 lives.
Paracel IslandsThe Paracel Islands are surrounded by productivefishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932,French Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station onPattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor, Vietnam.China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troopsseized a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.China built a military installation on Mischief Reef in 1999. Theislands are claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam.
ParaguayIn the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70) -between Paraguay and Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay - Paraguay losttwo-thirds of all adult males and much of its territory. Itstagnated economically for the next half century. In the Chaco Warof 1932-35, Paraguay won large, economically important areas fromBolivia. The 35-year military dictatorship of Alfredo STROESSNERended in 1989, and, despite a marked increase in politicalinfighting in recent years, Paraguay has held relatively free andregular presidential elections since then.
PeruAncient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andeancivilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire wascaptured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independencewas declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces defeated in 1824.After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to democraticleadership in 1980, but experienced economic problems and the growthof a violent insurgency. President Alberto FUJIMORI's election in1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in theeconomy and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity.Nevertheless, the president's increasing reliance on authoritarianmeasures and an economic slump in the late 1990s generated mountingdissatisfaction with his regime, which led to his ouster in 2000. Acaretaker government oversaw new elections in the spring of 2001,which ushered in Alejandro TOLEDO as the new head of government -Peru's first democratically elected president of Native Americanethnicity. The presidential election of 2006 saw the return of AlanGARCIA who, after a disappointing presidential term from 1985 to1990, returned to the presidency with promises to improve socialconditions and maintain fiscal responsibility.
PhilippinesThe Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony duringthe 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following theSpanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became aself-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected president andwas tasked with preparing the country for independence after a10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japaneseoccupation during World War II, and US forces and Filipinos foughttogether during 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 theRepublic of the Philippines attained its independence. The 20-yearrule of Ferdinand MARCOS ended in 1986, when a "people power"movement in Manila ("EDSA 1") forced him into exile and installedCorazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency was hampered by severalcoup attempts, which prevented a return to full political stabilityand economic development. Fidel RAMOS was elected president in 1992and his administration was marked by greater stability and progresson economic reforms. In 1992, the US closed its last military baseson the islands. Joseph ESTRADA was elected president in 1998, butwas succeeded by his vice-president, Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, inJanuary 2001 after ESTRADA's stormy impeachment trial on corruptioncharges broke down and another "people power" movement ("EDSA 2")demanded his resignation. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to a six-yearterm as president in May 2004. The Philippine Government facesthreats from three terrorist groups on the US Government's ForeignTerrorist Organization list, but in 2006 and 2007 scored some majorsuccesses in capturing or killing key wanted terrorists. Decades ofMuslim insurgency in the southern Philippines have led to a peaceaccord with one group and an ongoing cease-fire and peace talks withanother.
Pitcairn IslandsPitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by theBritish and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and theirTahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to becomea British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige ofthat empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to NewZealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 toless than 50 today.
PolandPoland is an ancient nation that was conceived near themiddle of the 10th century. Its golden age occurred in the 16thcentury. During the following century, the strengthening of thegentry and internal disorders weakened the nation. In a series ofagreements between 1772 and 1795, Russia, Prussia, and Austriapartitioned Poland amongst themselves. Poland regained itsindependence in 1918 only to be overrun by Germany and the SovietUnion in World War II. It became a Soviet satellite state followingthe war, but its government was comparatively tolerant andprogressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of theindependent trade union "Solidarity" that over time became apolitical force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary elections andthe presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the early 1990senabled the country to transform its economy into one of the mostrobust in Central Europe, but Poland still faces the lingeringchallenges of high unemployment, underdeveloped and dilapidatedinfrastructure, and a poor rural underclass. Solidarity suffered amajor defeat in the 2001 parliamentary elections when it failed toelect a single deputy to the lower house of Parliament, and the newleaders of the Solidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to reducethe Trade Union's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and theEuropean Union in 2004. With its transformation to a democratic,market-oriented country largely completed, Poland is an increasinglyactive member of Euro-Atlantic organizations.
PortugalFollowing its heyday as a world power during the 15th and16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with thedestruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during theNapoleonic Wars, and the independence in 1822 of Brazil as a colony.A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; for most of the next sixdecades, repressive governments ran the country. In 1974, aleft-wing military coup installed broad democratic reforms. Thefollowing year, Portugal granted independence to all of its Africancolonies. Portugal is a founding member of NATO and entered the EC(now the EU) in 1986.
Puerto RicoPopulated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, theisland was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following COLUMBUS'second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonialrule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated andAfrican slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as aresult of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted UScitizenship in 1917. Popularly-elected governors have served since1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing for internalself government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998, voterschose not to alter the existing political status.
QatarRuled by the Al-Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatartransformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly forpearling into an independent state with significant oil and naturalgas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatarieconomy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleumrevenues by the Amir, who had ruled the country since 1972. His son,the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa Al-Thani, overthrew him in abloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved its longstandingborder disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. As of 2007, oiland natural gas revenues had enabled Qatar to attain the highest percapita income in the world.
RomaniaThe principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia - for centuriesunder the suzerainty of the Turkish Ottoman Empire - secured theirautonomy in 1856; they united in 1859 and a few years later adoptedthe new name of Romania. The country gained recognition of itsindependence in 1878. It joined the Allied Powers in World War I andacquired new territories - most notably Transylvania - following theconflict. In 1940, Romania allied with the Axis powers andparticipated in the 1941 German invasion of the USSR. Three yearslater, overrun by the Soviets, Romania signed an armistice. Thepost-war Soviet occupation led to the formation of a Communist"people's republic" in 1947 and the abdication of the king. Thedecades-long rule of dictator Nicolae CEAUSESCU, who took power in1965, and his Securitate police state became increasingly oppressiveand draconian through the 1980s. CEAUSESCU was overthrown andexecuted in late 1989. Former Communists dominated the governmentuntil 1996 when they were swept from power. Romania joined NATO in2004 and the EU in 2007.
RussiaFounded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy, wasable to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15thcenturies) and to gradually conquer and absorb surroundingprincipalities. In the early 17th century, a new Romanov Dynastycontinued this policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific.Under PETER I (ruled 1682-1725), hegemony was extended to the BalticSea and the country was renamed the Russian Empire. During the 19thcentury, more territorial acquisitions were made in Europe and Asia.Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 contributed to theRevolution of 1905, which resulted in the formation of a parliamentand other reforms. Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian armyin World War I led to widespread rioting in the major cities of theRussian Empire and to the overthrow in 1917 of the imperialhousehold. The Communists under Vladimir LENIN seized power soonafter and formed the USSR. The brutal rule of Iosif STALIN (1928-53)strengthened Communist rule and Russian dominance of the SovietUnion at a cost of tens of millions of lives. The Soviet economy andsociety stagnated in the following decades until General SecretaryMikhail GORBACHEV (1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) andperestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize Communism,but his initiatives inadvertently released forces that by December1991 splintered the USSR into Russia and 14 other independentrepublics. Since then, Russia has shifted its post-Soviet democraticambitions in favor of a centralized semi-authoritarian state whoselegitimacy is buttressed, in part, by carefully managed nationalelections, former President PUTIN's genuine popularity, and theprudent management of Russia's windfall energy wealth. Russia hasseverely disabled a Chechen rebel movement, although violence stilloccurs throughout the North Caucasus.
RwandaIn 1959, three years before independence from Belgium, themajority ethnic group, the Hutus, overthrew the ruling Tutsi king.Over the next several years, thousands of Tutsis were killed, andsome 150,000 driven into exile in neighboring countries. Thechildren of these exiles later formed a rebel group, the RwandanPatriotic Front (RPF), and began a civil war in 1990. The war, alongwith several political and economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnictensions, culminating in April 1994 in the genocide of roughly800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated theHutu regime and ended the killing in July 1994, but approximately 2million Hutu refugees - many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled toneighboring Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire. Since then, mostof the refugees have returned to Rwanda, but several thousandremained in the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC;the former Zaire) and formed an extremist insurgency bent onretaking Rwanda, much as the RPF tried in 1990. Despite substantialinternational assistance and political reforms - including Rwanda'sfirst local elections in March 1999 and its first post-genocidepresidential and legislative elections in August and September 2003- the country continues to struggle to boost investment andagricultural output, and ethnic reconciliation is complicated by thereal and perceived Tutsi political dominance. Kigali's increasingcentralization and intolerance of dissent, the nagging Hutuextremist insurgency across the border, and Rwandan involvement intwo wars in recent years in the neighboring DRC continue to hinderRwanda's efforts to escape its bloody legacy.
Saint BarthelemyDiscovered in 1493 by Christopher COLUMBUS whonamed it for his brother Bartolomeo, St. Barthelemy was firstsettled by the French in 1648. In 1784, the French sold the islandto Sweden, who renamed the largest town Gustavia, after the SwedishKing GUSTAV III, and made it a free port; the island prospered as atrade and supply center during the colonial wars of the 18thcentury. France repurchased the island in 1878 and placed it underthe administration of Guadeloupe. St. Barthelemy retained its freeport status along with various Swedish appelations such as Swedishstreet and town names, and the three-crown symbol on the coat ofarms. In 2003, the populace of the island voted to secede fromGuadeloupe and in 2007, the island became a French overseascollectivity.
Saint HelenaSaint Helena is a British Overseas Territory consistingof Saint Helena and Ascension Islands, and the island group ofTristan da Cunha.Saint Helena: Uninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in1502, Saint Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17thcentury. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE'sexile, from 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as aport of call declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.During the Anglo-Boer War in South Africa, several thousand Boerprisoners were confined on the island between 1900 and 1903.Ascension Island: This barren and uninhabited island was discoveredand named by the Portuguese in 1503. The British garrisoned theisland in 1815 to prevent a rescue of Napoleon from Saint Helena andit served as a provisioning station for the Royal Navy's West AfricaSquadron on anti-slavery patrol. The island remained under Admiraltycontrol until 1922, when it became a dependency of Saint Helena.During World War II, the UK permitted the US to construct anairfield on Ascension in support of trans-Atlantic flights to Africaand anti-submarine operations in the South Atlantic. In the 1960sthe island became an important space tracking station for the US. In1982, Ascension was an essential staging area for British forcesduring the Falklands War, and it remains a critical refueling pointin the air-bridge from the UK to the South Atlantic.Tristan da Cunha: The island group consists of the islands ofTristan da Cunha, Nightingale, Inaccessible, and Gough. Tristan daCunha is named after its Portuguese discoverer (1506); it wasgarrisoned by the British in 1816 to prevent any attempt to rescueNapoleon from Saint Helena. Gough and Inaccessible Islands have beendesignated World Heritage Sites. South Africa leases a site for ameteorological station on Gough Island.
Saint Kitts and NevisFirst settled by the British in 1623, theislands became an associated state with full internal autonomy in1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to secede in1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983. In 1998,a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from Saint Kitts fellshort of the two-thirds majority needed. Nevis continues in itsefforts to try and separate from Saint Kitts.
Saint LuciaThe island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,was contested between England and France throughout the 17th andearly 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finallyceded to the UK in 1814. Even after the abolition of slavery on itsplantations in 1834, Saint Lucia remained an agricultural island,dedicated to producing tropical commodity crops. Self-government wasgranted in 1967 and independence in 1979.
Saint MartinAlthough sighted by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 andclaimed for Spain, it was the Dutch who occupied the island in 1631and set about exploiting its salt deposits. The Spanish retook theisland in 1633, but continued to be harassed by the Dutch. TheSpanish finally relinquished St. Martin to the French and Dutch, whodivided it amongst themselves in 1648. The cultivation of sugar caneintroduced slavery to the island in the late 18th century; thepractice was not abolished until 1848. The island became a free portin 1939; the tourism industry was dramatically expanded during the1970s and 1980s. In 2003, the populace of St. Martin voted to secedefrom Guadeloupe and in 2007, the northern portion of the islandbecame a French overseas collectivity.
Saint Pierre and MiquelonFirst settled by the French in the early17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige ofFrance's once vast North American possessions.
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesResistance by native Caribsprevented colonization on St. Vincent until 1719. Disputed betweenFrance and the United Kingdom for most of the 18th century, theisland was ceded to the latter in 1783. Between 1960 and 1962, SaintVincent and the Grenadines was a separate administrative unit of theFederation of the West Indies. Autonomy was granted in 1969 andindependence in 1979.
SamoaNew Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoaat the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administerthe islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablishindependence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"from its name in 1997.
San MarinoThe third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy Seeand Monaco), San Marino also claims to be the world's oldestrepublic. According to tradition, it was founded by a Christianstonemason named Marinus in A.D. 301. San Marino's foreign policy isaligned with that of Italy; social and political trends in therepublic also track closely with those of its larger neighbor.
Sao Tome and PrincipeDiscovered and claimed by Portugal in the late15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffeeand cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slavelabor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. Whileindependence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were notinstituted until the late 1980s. The country held its first freeelections in 1991, but frequent internal wrangling between thevarious political parties precipitated repeated changes inleadership and two failed coup attempts in 1995 and 2003. The recentdiscovery of oil in the Gulf of Guinea promises to attract increasedattention to the small island nation.
Saudi ArabiaSaudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and home toIslam's two holiest shrines in Mecca and Medina. The king's officialtitle is the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The modern Saudistate was founded in 1932 by ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman AL SAUD(Ibn Saud) after a 30-year campaign to unify most of the ArabianPeninsula. A male descendent of Ibn Saud, his son ABDALLAH bin Abdal-Aziz, rules the country today as required by the country's 1992Basic Law. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabiaaccepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees whileallowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for theliberation of Kuwait the following year. The continuing presence offoreign troops on Saudi soil after the liberation of Kuwait became asource of tension between the royal family and the public until alloperational US troops left the country in 2003. Major terroristattacks in May and November 2003 spurred a strong on-going campaignagainst domestic terrorism and extremism. King ABDALLAH hascontinued the cautious reform program begun when he was crownprince. To promote increased political participation, the governmentheld elections nationwide from February through April 2005 for halfthe members of 179 municipal councils. In December 2005, KingABDALLAH completed the process by appointing the remaining membersof the advisory municipal councils. The country remains a leadingproducer of oil and natural gas and holds more than 20% of theworld's proven oil reserves. The government continues to pursueeconomic reform and diversification, particularly since SaudiArabia's accession to the WTO in December 2005, and promotes foreigninvestment in the kingdom. A burgeoning population, aquiferdepletion, and an economy largely dependent on petroleum output andprices are all ongoing governmental concerns.
SenegalThe French colonies of Senegal and the French Sudan weremerged in 1959 and granted their independence as the Mali Federationin 1960. The union broke up after only a few months. Senegal joinedwith The Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in1982, but the envisaged integration of the two countries was nevercarried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. The Movement ofDemocratic Forces in the Casamance (MFDC) has led a low-levelseparatist insurgency in southern Senegal since the 1980s, andseveral peace deals have failed to resolve the conflict.Nevertheless, Senegal remains one of the most stable democracies inAfrica. Senegal was ruled by a Socialist Party for 40 years untilcurrent President Abdoulaye WADE was elected in 2000. He wasreelected in February 2007, but complaints of fraud led oppositionparties to boycott June 2007 legislative polls. Senegal has a longhistory of participating in international peacekeeping.
Serbia The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in 1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. Various paramilitary bands resisted Nazi Germany's occupation and division of Yugoslavia from 1941 to 1945, but fought each other and ethnic opponents as much as the invaders. The military and political movement headed by Josip TITO (Partisans) took full control of Yugoslavia when German and Croatian separatist forces were defeated in 1945. Although Communist, TITO's new government and his successors (he died in 1980) managed to steer their own path between the Warsaw Pact nations and the West for the next four and a half decades. In 1989, Slobodan MILOSEVIC became president of the Serbian Republic and his ultranationalist calls for Serbian domination led to the violent breakup of Yugoslavia along ethnic lines. In 1991, Croatia, Slovenia, and Macedonia declared independence, followed by Bosnia in 1992. The remaining republics of Serbia and Montenegro declared a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) in April 1992 and under MILOSEVIC's leadership, Serbia led various military campaigns to unite ethnic Serbs in neighboring republics into a "Greater Serbia." These actions led to Yugoslavia being ousted from the UN in 1992, but Serbia continued its - ultimately unsuccessful - campaign until signing the Dayton Peace Accords in 1995. MILOSEVIC kept tight control over Serbia and eventually became president of the FRY in 1997. In 1998, an ethnic Albanian insurgency in the formerly autonomous Serbian province of Kosovo provoked a Serbian counterinsurgency campaign that resulted in massacres and massive expulsions of ethnic Albanians living in Kosovo. The MILOSEVIC government's rejection of a proposed international settlement led to NATO's bombing of Serbia in the spring of 1999 and to the eventual withdrawal of Serbian military and police forces from Kosovo in June 1999. UNSC Resolution 1244 in June 1999 authorized the stationing of a NATO-led force (KFOR) in Kosovo to provide a safe and secure environment for the region's ethnic communities, created a UN interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) to foster self-governing institutions, and reserved the issue of Kosovo's final status for an unspecified date in the future. In 2001, UNMIK promulgated a constitutional framework that allowed Kosovo to establish institutions of self-government and led to Kosovo's first parliamentary election. FRY elections in September 2000 led to the ouster of MILOSEVIC and installed Vojislav KOSTUNICA as president. A broad coalition of democratic reformist parties known as DOS (the Democratic Opposition of Serbia) was subsequently elected to parliament in December 2000 and took control of the government. DOS arrested MILOSEVIC in 2001 and allowed for him to be tried in The Hague for crimes against humanity. (MILOSEVIC died in March 2006 before the completion of his trial.) In 2001, the country's suspension from the UN was lifted. In 2003, the FRY became Serbia and Montenegro, a loose federation of the two republics with a federal level parliament. Widespread violence predominantly targeting ethnic Serbs in Kosovo in March 2004 caused the international community to open negotiations on the future status of Kosovo in January 2006. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked its right to secede from the federation and - following a successful referendum - it declared itself an independent nation on 3 June 2006. Two days later, Serbia declared that it was the successor state to the union of Serbia and Montenegro. A new Serbian constitution was approved in October 2006 and adopted the following month. After 15 months of inconclusive negotiations mediated by the UN and four months of further inconclusive negotiations mediated by the US, EU, and Russia, on 17 February 2008, the UNMIK-administered province of Kosovo declared itself independent of Serbia.
SeychellesA lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain forthe islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a closewith a new constitution and free elections in 1993. PresidentFrance-Albert RENE, who had served since 1977, was re-elected in2001, but stepped down in 2004. Vice President James MICHEL tookover the presidency and in July 2006 was elected to a new five-yearterm.
Sierra LeoneDemocracy is slowly being reestablished after the civilwar from 1991 to 2002 that resulted in tens of thousands of deathsand the displacement of more than 2 million people (about one-thirdof the population). The military, which took over fullresponsibility for security following the departure of UNpeacekeepers at the end of 2005, is increasingly developing as aguarantor of the country's stability. The armed forces remained onthe sideline during the 2007 presidential election, but still lookto the UN Integrated Office in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) - a civilianUN mission - to support efforts to consolidate peace. The newgovernment's priorities include furthering development, creatingjobs, and stamping out endemic corruption.
SingaporeSingapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819.It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two yearslater and became independent. Singapore subsequently became one ofthe world's most prosperous countries with strong internationaltrading links (its port is one of the world's busiest in terms oftonnage handled) and with per capita GDP equal to that of theleading nations of Western Europe.
SlovakiaThe dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the closeof World War I allowed the Slovaks to join the closely relatedCzechs to form Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,Czechoslovakia became a Communist nation within Soviet-dominatedEastern Europe. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 andCzechoslovakia once more became free. The Slovaks and the Czechsagreed to separate peacefully on 1 January 1993. Slovakia joinedboth NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
SloveniaThe Slovene lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empireuntil the latter's dissolution at the end of World War I. In 1918,the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats in forming a newmultinational state, which was named Yugoslavia in 1929. After WorldWar II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, whichthough Communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfiedwith the exercise of power by the majority Serbs, the Slovenessucceeded in establishing their independence in 1991 after a short10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, anda stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia's transformation to amodern state. Slovenia acceded to both NATO and the EU in the springof 2004.
Solomon IslandsThe UK established a protectorate over the SolomonIslands in the 1890s. Some of the bitterest fighting of World War IIoccurred on this archipelago. Self-government was achieved in 1976and independence two years later. Ethnic violence, governmentmalfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civilsociety. In June 2003, then Prime Minister Sir Allan KEMAKEZA soughtthe assistance of Australia in reestablishing law and order; thefollowing month, an Australian-led multinational force arrived torestore peace and disarm ethnic militias. The Regional AssistanceMission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) has generally been effectivein restoring law and order and rebuilding government institutions.
SomaliaBritain withdrew from British Somaliland in 1960 to allowits protectorate to join with Italian Somaliland and form the newnation of Somalia. In 1969, a coup headed by Mohamed SIAD Barreushered in an authoritarian socialist rule that managed to impose adegree of stability in the country for a couple of decades. Afterthe regime's collapse early in 1991, Somalia descended into turmoil,factional fighting, and anarchy. In May 1991, northern clansdeclared an independent Republic of Somaliland that now includes theadministrative regions of Awdal, Woqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag,and Sool. Although not recognized by any government, this entity hasmaintained a stable existence and continues efforts to establish aconstitutional democracy, including holding municipal,parliamentary, and presidential elections. The regions of Bari,Nugaal, and northern Mudug comprise a neighboring self-declaredautonomous state of Puntland, which has been self-governing since1998 but does not aim at independence; it has also made stridestoward reconstructing a legitimate, representative government buthas suffered some civil strife. Puntland disputes its border withSomaliland as it also claims portions of eastern Sool and Sanaag.Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily inthe south) was able to alleviate famine conditions, but when the UNwithdrew in 1995, having suffered significant casualties, orderstill had not been restored. A two-year peace process, led by theGovernment of Kenya under the auspices of the IntergovernmentalAuthority on Development (IGAD), concluded in October 2004 with theelection of Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmed as President of the TransitionalFederal Government (TFG) of Somalia and the formation of an interimgovernment, known as the Somalia Transitional Federal Institutions(TFIs). The Somalia TFIs include a 275-member parliamentary body,known as the Transitional Federal Assembly (TFA), a transitionalPrime Minister, Nur "Adde" Hassan HUSSEIN, and a 90-member cabinet.The TFIs are based on the Transitional Federal Charter, whichoutlines a five-year mandate leading to the establishment of a newSomali constitution and a transition to a representative governmentfollowing national elections. While its institutions remain weak,the TFG continues to reach out to Somali stakeholders and work withinternational donors to help build the governance capacity of theTFIs and work towards national elections in 2009. In June 2006, aloose coalition of clerics, business leaders, and Islamic courtmilitias known as the Council of Islamic Courts (CIC) defeatedpowerful Mogadishu warlords and took control of the capital. TheCourts continued to expand militarily throughout much of southernSomalia and threatened to overthrow the TFG in Baidoa. Ethiopian andTFG forces, concerned over links between some CIC factions and theal-Qaida East Africa network and the al-Qaida operatives responsiblefor the bombings of the US embassies in Tanzania and Kenya in 1998,intervened in late December 2006, resulting in the collapse of theCIC as an organization. However, the TFG continues to face violentresistance from extremist elements, such as the al-Shabaab militiapreviously affiliated with the now-defunct CIC.
South AfricaDutch traders landed at the southern tip of modern daySouth Africa in 1652 and established a stopover point on the spiceroute between the Netherlands and the East, founding the city ofCape Town. After the British seized the Cape of Good Hope area in1806, many of the Dutch settlers (the Boers) trekked north to foundtheir own republics. The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold(1886) spurred wealth and immigration and intensified thesubjugation of the native inhabitants. The Boers resisted Britishencroachments but were defeated in the Boer War (1899-1902);however, the British and the Afrikaners, as the Boers became known,ruled together under the Union of South Africa. In 1948, theNational Party was voted into power and instituted a policy ofapartheid - the separate development of the races. The firstmulti-racial elections in 1994 brought an end to apartheid andushered in black majority rule.
South Georgia and the South Sandwich IslandsThe islands, which havelarge bird and seal populations, lie approximately 1,000 km east ofthe Falkland Islands and have been under British administrationsince 1908 - except for a brief period in 1982 when Argentinaoccupied them. Grytviken, on South Georgia, was a 19th and early20th century whaling station. Famed explorer Ernest SHACKLETONstopped there in 1914 en route to his ill-fated attempt to crossAntarctica on foot. He returned some 20 months later with a fewcompanions in a small boat and arranged a successful rescue for therest of his crew, stranded off the Antarctic Peninsula. He died in1922 on a subsequent expedition and is buried in Grytviken. Today,the station houses scientists from the British Antarctic Survey.Recognizing the importance of preserving the marine stocks inadjacent waters, the UK, in 1993, extended the exclusive fishingzone from 12 nm to 200 nm around each island.
Southern OceanA large body of recent oceanographic research hasshown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), an ocean currentthat flows from west to east around Antarctica, plays a crucial rolein global ocean circulation. The region where the cold waters of theACC meet and mingle with the warmer waters of the north defines adistinct border - the Antarctic Convergence - which fluctuates withthe seasons, but which encompasses a discrete body of water and aunique ecologic region. The Convergence concentrates nutrients,which promotes marine plant life, and which in turn allows for agreater abundance of animal life. In the spring of 2000, theInternational Hydrographic Organization decided to delimit thewaters within the Convergence as a fifth world ocean - the SouthernOcean - by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean,Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from thecoast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude, whichcoincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit and which approximates theextent of the Antarctic Convergence. As such, the Southern Ocean isnow the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the PacificOcean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the ArcticOcean). It should be noted that inclusion of the Southern Ocean doesnot imply recognition of this feature as one of the world's primaryoceans by the US Government.
SpainSpain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuriesultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequentfailure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions causedthe country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economicand political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and IIbut suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). A peacefultransition to democracy following the death of dictator FranciscoFRANCO in 1975, and rapid economic modernization (Spain joined theEU in 1986) have given Spain one of the most dynamic economies inEurope and made it a global champion of freedom. Continuingchallenges include Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) terrorism,illegal immigration, and slowing economic growth.
Spratly IslandsThe Spratly Islands consist of more than 100 smallislands or reefs. They are surrounded by rich fishing grounds andpotentially by gas and oil deposits. They are claimed in theirentirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, while portions are claimedby Malaysia and the Philippines. About 45 islands are occupied byrelatively small numbers of military forces from China, Malaysia,the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Brunei has established afishing zone that overlaps a southern reef but has not made anyformal claim.
Sri LankaThe first Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6thcentury B.C. probably from northern India. Buddhism was introducedin about the mid-third century B.C., and a great civilizationdeveloped at the cities of Anuradhapura (kingdom from circa 200 B.C.to circa A.D. 1000) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070 to 1200). Inthe 14th century, a south Indian dynasty established a Tamil kingdomin northern Sri Lanka. The coastal areas of the island werecontrolled by the Portuguese in the 16th century and by the Dutch inthe 17th century. The island was ceded to the British in 1796,became a crown colony in 1802, and was united under British rule by1815. As Ceylon, it became independent in 1948; its name was changedto Sri Lanka in 1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority andTamil separatists erupted into war in 1983. Tens of thousands havedied in the ethnic conflict that continues to fester. After twodecades of fighting, the government and Liberation Tigers of TamilEelam (LTTE) formalized a cease-fire in February 2002 with Norwaybrokering peace negotiations. Violence between the LTTE andgovernment forces intensified in 2006 and the government regainedcontrol of the Eastern Province in 2007. In January 2008, thegovernment officially withdrew from the ceasefire, and has begunengaging the LTTE in the northern portion of the country.
SudanMilitary regimes favoring Islamic-oriented governments havedominated national politics since independence from the UK in 1956.Sudan was embroiled in two prolonged civil wars during most of theremainder of the 20th century. These conflicts were rooted innorthern economic, political, and social domination of largelynon-Muslim, non-Arab southern Sudanese. The first civil war ended in1972 but broke out again in 1983. The second war and famine-relatedeffects resulted in more than four million people displaced and,according to rebel estimates, more than two million deaths over aperiod of two decades. Peace talks gained momentum in 2002-04 withthe signing of several accords. The final North/South ComprehensivePeace Agreement (CPA), signed in January 2005, granted the southernrebels autonomy for six years. After which, a referendum forindependence is scheduled to be held. A separate conflict, whichbroke out in the western region of Darfur in 2003, has displacednearly two million people and caused an estimated 200,000 to 400,000deaths. The UN took command of the Darfur peacekeeping operationfrom the African Union on 31 December 2007. As of early 2008,peacekeeping troops were struggling to stabilize the situation,which has become increasingly regional in scope, and has broughtinstability to eastern Chad, and Sudanese incursions into theCentral African Republic. Sudan also has faced large refugeeinfluxes from neighboring countries, primarily Ethiopia and Chad.Armed conflict, poor transport infrastructure, and lack ofgovernment support have chronically obstructed the provision ofhumanitarian assistance to affected populations.