Gambia, TheThe Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965.Geographically surrounded by Senegal, it formed a short-livedfederation of Senegambia between 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the twonations signed a friendship and cooperation treaty, but tensionshave flared up intermittently since then. Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH leda military coup in 1994 that overthrew the president and bannedpolitical activity. A new constitution and presidential elections in1996, followed by parliamentary balloting in 1997, completed anominal return to civilian rule. JAMMEH has been elected presidentin all subsequent elections, including most recently in late 2006.
Gaza Strip The September 1993 Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements provided for a transitional period of Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Under a series of agreements signed between May 1994 and September 1999, Israel transferred to the Palestinian Authority (PA) security and civilian responsibility for Palestinian-populated areas of the West Bank and Gaza. Negotiations to determine the permanent status of the West Bank and Gaza stalled following the outbreak of an intifada in September 2000, as Israeli forces reoccupied most Palestinian-controlled areas. In April 2003, the Quartet (US, EU, UN, and Russia) presented a roadmap to a final settlement of the conflict by 2005 based on reciprocal steps by the two parties leading to two states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. The proposed date for a permanent status agreement was postponed indefinitely due to violence and accusations that both sides had not followed through on their commitments. Following Palestinian leader Yasir ARAFAT's death in late 2004, Mahmud ABBAS was elected PA president in January 2005. A month later, Israel and the PA agreed to the Sharm el-Sheikh Commitments in an effort to move the peace process forward. In September 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew all its settlers and soldiers and dismantled its military facilities in the Gaza Strip and withdrew settlers and redeployed soldiers from four small northern West Bank settlements. Nonetheless, Israel controls maritime, airspace, and most access to the Gaza Strip. A November 2005 PA-Israeli agreement authorized the reopening of the Rafah border crossing between the Gaza Strip and Egypt under joint PA and Egyptian control. In January 2006, the Islamic Resistance Movement, HAMAS, won control of the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC). The international community refused to accept the HAMAS-led government because it did not recognize Israel, would not renounce violence, and refused to honor previous peace agreements between Israel and the PA. HAMAS took control of the PA government in March 2006, but President ABBAS had little success negotiating with HAMAS to present a political platform acceptable to the international community so as to lift economic sanctions on Palestinians. The PLC was unable to convene throughout most of 2006 as a result of Israel's detention of many HAMAS PLC members and Israeli-imposed travel restrictions on other PLC members. Violent clashes took place between Fatah and HAMAS supporters in the Gaza Strip in 2006 and early 2007, resulting in numerous Palestinian deaths and injuries. ABBAS and HAMAS Political Bureau Chief MISHAL in February 2007 signed the Mecca Agreement in Saudi Arabia that resulted in the formation of a Palestinian National Unity Government (NUG) headed by HAMAS member Ismail HANIYA. However, fighting continued in the Gaza Strip, and in June, HAMAS militants succeeded in a violent takeover of all military and governmental institutions in the Gaza Strip. ABBAS dismissed the NUG and through a series of Presidential decrees formed a PA government in the West Bank led by independent Salam FAYYAD. HAMAS rejected the NUG's dismissal and has called for resuming talks with Fatah, but ABBAS has ruled out negotiations until HAMAS agrees to a return of PA control over the Gaza Strip and recognizes the FAYYAD-led government. FAYYAD and his PA government initiated a series of security and economic reforms to improve conditions in the West Bank. ABBAS participated in talks with Israel's Prime Minister OLMERT and secured the release of some Palestinian prisoners and previously withheld customs revenue. During a November 2007 international meeting in Annapolis Maryland, ABBAS and OLMERT agreed to resume peace negotiations with the goal of reaching a final peace settlement. Late November 2007 through June 2008 witnessed a substantial increase in Israeli-Palestinian violence. An Egyptian-brokered truce in June 2008 between Israel and HAMAS brought about a five-month pause in hostilities, but spiraling end-of-year violence culminated with massive Israeli air assaults on HAMAS installations in late December followed by Israeli ground attacks in early January 2009. Israel in mid January unilaterally stopped the attacks and HAMAS responded by suspending rocket and mortar fire. The fighting resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1,100 to 1,400 Palestinians and left tens of thousands of people homeless. International donors pledged $4.5 billion in aid to rebuild the Gaza Strip, but by mid-May 2009 only a small fraction of the aid had been delivered.
GeorgiaThe region of present-day Georgia contained the ancientkingdoms of Colchis and Kartli-Iberia. The area came under Romaninfluence in the first centuries A.D. and Christianity became thestate religion in the 330s. Domination by Persians, Arabs, and Turkswas followed by a Georgian golden age (11th-13th centuries) that wascut short by the Mongol invasion of 1236. Subsequently, the Ottomanand Persian empires competed for influence in the region. Georgiawas absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century.Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the Russianrevolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until theSoviet Union dissolved in 1991. An attempt by the incumbent Georgiangovernment to manipulate national legislative elections in November2003 touched off widespread protests that led to the resignation ofEduard SHEVARDNADZE, president since 1995. New elections in early2004 swept Mikheil SAAKASHVILI into power along with his NationalMovement party. Progress on market reforms and democratization hasbeen made in the years since independence, but this progress hasbeen complicated by Russian assistance and support to the breakawayregions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. After a series of Russian andseparatist provocations in summer 2008, Georgian military action inSouth Ossetia in early August led to a Russian military responsethat not only occupied the breakaway areas, but large portions ofGeorgia proper as well. Russian troops pulled back from mostoccupied Georgian territory, but in late August 2008 Russiaunilaterally recognized the independence of Abkhazia and SouthOssetia. This action was strongly condemned by most of the world'snations and international organizations.
GermanyAs Europe's largest economy and second most populous nation(after Russia), Germany is a key member of the continent's economic,political, and defense organizations. European power strugglesimmersed Germany in two devastating World Wars in the first half ofthe 20th century and left the country occupied by the victoriousAllied powers of the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945.With the advent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in1949: the western Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the easternGerman Democratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itselfin key Western economic and security organizations, the EC, whichbecame the EU, and NATO, while the Communist GDR was on the frontline of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and theend of the Cold War allowed for German unification in 1990. Sincethen, Germany has expended considerable funds to bring Easternproductivity and wages up to Western standards. In January 1999,Germany and 10 other EU countries introduced a common Europeanexchange currency, the euro.
GhanaFormed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coastand the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the firstsub-Saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence.Ghana endured a long series of coups before Lt. Jerry RAWLINGS tookpower in 1981 and banned political parties. After approving a newconstitution and restoring multiparty politics in 1992, RAWLINGS wonpresidential elections in 1992 and 1996, but was constitutionallyprevented from running for a third term in 2000. John KUFUORsucceeded him and was reelected in 2004. John Atta MILLS took overas head of state in early 2009.
GibraltarStrategically important, Gibraltar was reluctantly cededto Great Britain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the Britishgarrison was formally declared a colony in 1830. In a referendumheld in 1967, Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain a Britishdependency. The subsequent granting of autonomy in 1969 by the UKled to Spain closing the border and severing all communicationlinks. A series of talks were held by the UK and Spain between 1997and 2002 on establishing temporary joint sovereignty over Gibraltar.In response to these talks, the Gibraltar Government called areferendum in late 2002 in which the majority of citizens votedoverwhelmingly against any sharing of sovereignty with Spain. Sincethe referendum, tripartite talks on other issues have been held withSpain, the UK, and Gibraltar, and in September 2006 a three-wayagreement was signed. Spain agreed to remove restrictions on airmovements, to speed up customs procedures, to implementinternational telephone dialing, and to allow mobile roamingagreements. Britain agreed to pay increased pensions to Spaniardswho had been employed in Gibraltar before the border closed. Spainwill be allowed to open a cultural institute from which the Spanishflag will fly. A new noncolonial constitution came into effect in2007, but the UK retains responsibility for defense, foreignrelations, internal security, and financial stability.
GreeceGreece achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829.During the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands andterritories, most with Greek-speaking populations. In World War II,Greece was first invaded by Italy (1940) and subsequently occupiedby Germany (1941-44); fighting endured in a protracted civil warbetween supporters of the king and Communist rebels. Following thelatter's defeat in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. A militarydictatorship, which in 1967 suspended many political liberties andforced the king to flee the country, lasted seven years. The 1974democratic elections and a referendum created a parliamentaryrepublic and abolished the monarchy. In 1981, Greece joined the EC(now the EU); it became the 12th member of the European Economic andMonetary Union in 2001.
GreenlandGreenland, the world's largest island, is about 81%ice-capped. Vikings reached the island in the 10th century fromIceland; Danish colonization began in the 18th century, andGreenland was made an integral part of Denmark in 1953. It joinedthe European Community (now the EU) with Denmark in 1973, butwithdrew in 1985 over a dispute centered on stringent fishingquotas. Greenland was granted self-government in 1979 by the Danishparliament; the law went into effect the following year. Greenlandvoted in favor of increased self-rule in November 2008 and acquiredcomplete responsibilty for internal affairs in June 2009. Denmark,however, continues to exercise control of Greenland's foreignaffairs, security, and financial policy in consultation withGreenland's Home Rule Government.
GrenadaCarib Indians inhabited Grenada when COLUMBUS discovered theisland in 1498, but it remained uncolonized for more than a century.The French settled Grenada in the 17th century, established sugarestates, and imported large numbers of African slaves. Britain tookthe island in 1762 and vigorously expanded sugar production. In the19th century, cacao eventually surpassed sugar as the main exportcrop; in the 20th century, nutmeg became the leading export. In1967, Britain gave Grenada autonomy over its internal affairs. Fullindependence was attained in 1974 making Grenada one of the smallestindependent countries in the Western Hemisphere. Grenada was seizedby a Marxist military council on 19 October 1983. Six days later theisland was invaded by US forces and those of six other Caribbeannations, which quickly captured the ringleaders and their hundredsof Cuban advisers. Free elections were reinstituted the followingyear and have continued since that time. Hurricane Ivan struckGrenada in September of 2004 causing severe damage.
GuamGuam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by theJapanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. Themilitary installation on the island is one of the most strategicallyimportant US bases in the Pacific.
GuatemalaThe Mayan civilization flourished in Guatemala andsurrounding regions during the first millennium A.D. After almostthree centuries as a Spanish colony, Guatemala won its independencein 1821. During the second half of the 20th century, it experienceda variety of military and civilian governments, as well as a 36-yearguerrilla war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreementformally ending the conflict, which had left more than 100,000people dead and had created, by some estimates, some 1 millionrefugees.
GuernseyGuernsey and the other Channel Islands represent the lastremnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy, which held sway inboth France and England. The islands were the only British soiloccupied by German troops in World War II. Guernsey is a Britishcrown dependency, but is not part of the UK. However, the UKGovernment is constitutionally responsible for its defense andinternational representation.
GuineaGuinea has had a history of authoritarian rule since gainingits independence from France in 1958. Lansana CONTE came to power in1984 when the military seized the government after the death of thefirst president, Sekou TOURE. Guinea did not hold democraticelections until 1993 when Gen. CONTE (head of the militarygovernment) was elected president of the civilian government. He wasreelected in 1998 and again in 2003, though all the polls weremarred by irregularities. History repeated itself in December 2008when following President CONTE's death, Capt. Moussa Dadis CAMARAled a military coup, seizing power and suspending the constitutionas well as political and union activity. Guinea has maintained somesemblance of internal stability despite spillover effects fromconflict in Sierra Leone and Liberia. As those countries haverebuilt, however, Guinea's own vulnerability to political andeconomic crisis has increased. Declining economic conditions andpopular dissatisfaction with corruption and bad governance promptedtwo massive strikes in 2006, and a third nationwide strike in early2007.
Guinea-BissauSince independence from Portugal in 1974,Guinea-Bissau has experienced considerable political and militaryupheaval. In 1980, a military coup established authoritariandictator Joao Bernardo 'Nino' VIEIRA as president. Despite setting apath to a market economy and multiparty system, VIEIRA's regime wascharacterized by the suppression of political opposition and thepurging of political rivals. Several coup attempts through the 1980sand early 1990s failed to unseat him. In 1994 VIEIRA was electedpresident in the country's first free elections. A military mutinyand resulting civil war in 1998 eventually led to VIEIRA's ouster inMay 1999. In February 2000, a transitional government turned overpower to opposition leader Kumba YALA, after he was electedpresident in transparent polling. In September 2003, after onlythree years in office, YALA was ousted by the military in abloodless coup, and businessman Henrique ROSA was sworn in asinterim president. In 2005, former President VIEIRA was re-electedpresident pledging to pursue economic development and nationalreconciliation. He was assassinated in March 2009; new elections areto take place in June 2009.
GuyanaOriginally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyanahad become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led toblack settlement of urban areas and the importation of indenturedservants from India to work the sugar plantations. Thisethnocultural divide has persisted and has led to turbulentpolitics. Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966, andsince then it has been ruled mostly by socialist-orientedgovernments. In 1992, Cheddi JAGAN was elected president in what isconsidered the country's first free and fair election sinceindependence. After his death five years later, his wife, JanetJAGAN, became president but resigned in 1999 due to poor health. Hersuccessor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was reelected in 2001 and again in 2006.
HaitiThe native Taino Amerindians - who inhabited the island ofHispaniola when it was discovered by COLUMBUS in 1492 - werevirtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In theearly 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola.In 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of the island,which later became Haiti. The French colony, based on forestry andsugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiest in theCaribbean but only through the heavy importation of African slavesand considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18thcentury, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under ToussaintL'OUVERTURE. After a prolonged struggle, Haiti became the firstblack republic to declare independence in 1804. The poorest countryin the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued by politicalviolence for most of its history. After an armed rebellion led tothe forced resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDEin February 2004, an interim government took office to organize newelections under the auspices of the United Nations StabilizationMission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Continued violence and technical delaysprompted repeated postponements, but Haiti finally did inaugurate ademocratically elected president and parliament in May of 2006.
Heard Island and McDonald IslandsThese uninhabited, barren,sub-Antarctic islands were transferred from the UK to Australia in1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, theislands have been designated a nature preserve.
Holy See (Vatican City)Popes in their secular role ruled portionsof the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until themid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by thenewly united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings werefurther circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes betweena series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 bythree Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state ofVatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certainof the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of RomanCatholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of theHoly See include religious freedom, international development, theenvironment, the Middle East, China, the decline of religion inEurope, terrorism, interreligious dialogue and reconciliation, andthe application of church doctrine in an era of rapid change andglobalization. About one billion people worldwide profess theCatholic faith.
HondurasOnce part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Hondurasbecame an independent nation in 1821. After two and a half decadesof mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government cameto power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven foranti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Governmentand an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting leftistguerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,which killed about 5,600 people and caused approximately $2 billionin damage.
Hong KongOccupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally cededby China the following year; various adjacent lands were added laterin the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China andthe UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong SpecialAdministrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China on 1July 1997. In this agreement, China promised that, under its "onecountry, two systems" formula, China's socialist economic systemwould not be imposed on Hong Kong and that Hong Kong would enjoy ahigh degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defenseaffairs for the next 50 years.
HungaryHungary became a Christian kingdom in A.D. 1000 and for manycenturies served as a bulwark against Ottoman Turkish expansion inEurope. The kingdom eventually became part of the polyglotAustro-Hungarian Empire, which collapsed during World War I. Thecountry fell under Communist rule following World War II. In 1956, arevolt and an announced withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were metwith a massive military intervention by Moscow. Under the leadershipof Janos KADAR in 1968, Hungary began liberalizing its economy,introducing so-called "Goulash Communism." Hungary held its firstmultiparty elections in 1990 and initiated a free market economy. Itjoined NATO in 1999 and the EU in 2004.
IcelandSettled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Icelandboasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, theAlthing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Icelandwas subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askjavolcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and causedwidespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of theisland's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limitedhome rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independenceattained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, and social cohesion arefirst-rate by world standards.
IndiaThe Indus Valley civilization, one of the world's oldest,flourished during the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. and extended intonorthwestern India. Aryan tribes from the northwest infiltrated ontothe Indian subcontinent about 1500 B.C.; their merger with theearlier Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture.The Maurya Empire of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. - which reachedits zenith under ASHOKA - united much of South Asia. The Golden Ageushered in by the Gupta dynasty (4th to 6th centuries A.D.) saw aflowering of Indian science, art, and culture. Arab incursionsstarting in the 8th century and Turkic in the 12th were followed bythose of European traders, beginning in the late 15th century. Bythe 19th century, Britain had assumed political control of virtuallyall Indian lands. Indian armed forces in the British army played avital role in both World Wars. Nonviolent resistance to Britishcolonialism led by Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU broughtindependence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the secularstate of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third warbetween the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becomingthe separate nation of Bangladesh. India's nuclear weapons testingin 1998 caused Pakistan to conduct its own tests that same year.Despite impressive gains in economic investment and output, Indiafaces pressing problems such as significant overpopulation,environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and widespreadcorruption.
Indian OceanThe Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world'sfive oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but largerthan the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically importantaccess waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait ofMalacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the InternationalHydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifthocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Oceansouth of 60 degrees south latitude.
IndonesiaThe Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17thcentury; Japan occupied the islands from 1942 to 1945. Indonesiadeclared its independence after Japan's surrender, but it requiredfour years of intermittent negotiations, recurring hostilities, andUN mediation before the Netherlands agreed to transfer sovereigntyin 1949. Indonesia's first free parliamentary election after decadesof repressive rule took place in 1999. Indonesia is now the world'sthird-largest democracy, the world's largest archipelagic state, andhome to the world's largest Muslim population. Current issuesinclude: alleviating poverty, improving education, preventingterrorism, consolidating democracy after four decades ofauthoritarianism, implementing economic and financial reforms,stemming corruption, holding the military and police accountable forpast human rights violations, addressing climate change, andcontrolling avian influenza. In 2005, Indonesia reached a historicpeace agreement with armed separatists in Aceh, which led todemocratic elections in December 2006. Indonesia continues to face alow intensity separatist movement in Papua.
IranKnown as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and Shah Mohammad RezaPAHLAVI was forced into exile. Conservative clerical forcesestablished a theocratic system of government with ultimatepolitical authority vested in a learned religious scholar referredto commonly as the Supreme Leader who, according to theconstitution, is accountable only to the Assembly of Experts.US-Iranian relations have been strained since a group of Iranianstudents seized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979 and heldit until 20 January 1981. During 1980-88, Iran fought a bloody,indecisive war with Iraq that eventually expanded into the PersianGulf and led to clashes between US Navy and Iranian military forcesbetween 1987 and 1988. Iran has been designated a state sponsor ofterrorism for its activities in Lebanon and elsewhere in the worldand remains subject to US, UN, and EU economic sanctions and exportcontrols because of its continued involvement in terrorism and itsnuclear weapons ambitions. Following the election of reformer Hojjatol-Eslam Mohammad KHATAMI as president in 1997 and similarly areformer Majles (parliament) in 2000, a campaign to foster politicalreform in response to popular dissatisfaction was initiated. Themovement floundered as conservative politicians, through the controlof unelected institutions, prevented reform measures from beingenacted and increased repressive measures. Starting with nationwidemunicipal elections in 2003 and continuing through Majles electionsin 2004, conservatives reestablished control over Iran's electedgovernment institutions, which culminated with the August 2005inauguration of hardliner Mahmud AHMADI-NEJAD as president. The UNSecurity Council has passed a number of resolutions (1696 in July2006, 1737 in December 2006, 1747 in March 2007, 1803 in March 2008,and 1835 in September 2008) calling for Iran to suspend its uraniumenrichment and reprocessing activities and comply with its IAEAobligations and responsibilities. Resolutions 1737, 1477, and 1803subject a number of Iranian individuals and entities involved inIran's nuclear and ballistic missile programs to sanctions.Additionally, several Iranian entities are subject to US sanctionsunder Executive Order 13382 designations for proliferationactivities and EO 13224 designations for support of terrorism.
IraqFormerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied byBritain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared aLeague of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages overthe next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a seriesof strongmen ruled the country until 2003. The last was SADDAMHusayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive andcostly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwaitbut was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf Warof January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UNSecurity Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of massdestruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verificationinspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutionsover a period of 12 years led to the US-led invasion of Iraq inMarch 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime. US forcesremained in Iraq under a UNSC mandate until 31 December 2008 andunder a bilateral Security Agreement thereafter, helping to providesecurity and to support the freely elected government. In October2005, Iraqis approved a constitution in a national referendum and,pursuant to this document, elected a 275-member Council ofRepresentatives (CoR) in December 2005. After the election, Ibrahimal-JAAFARI was selected as prime minister; he was replaced by Nurial-MALIKI in May 2006. The CoR approved most cabinet ministers inMay 2006, marking the transition to Iraq's first constitutionalgovernment in nearly a half century. On 31 January 2009, Iraq heldelections for provincial councils in all provinces except for thethree provinces comprising the Kurdistan Regional Government andat-Ta'mim (Kirkuk) province.
IrelandCeltic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century werefinally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more thanseven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellionsand harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touchedoff several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted inindependence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern(Ulster) counties remained part of the UK. In 1949, Ireland withdrewfrom the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification ofIreland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. Apeace settlement for Northern Ireland is gradually being implementeddespite some difficulties. In 2006, the Irish and Britishgovernments developed and began to implement the St. AndrewsAgreement, building on the Good Friday Agreement approved in 1998.
Isle of ManPart of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under theBritish crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almostextinct Manx Gaelic language. Isle of Man is a British crowndependency but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Governmentremains constitutionally responsible for its defense andinternational representation.
IsraelFollowing World War II, the British withdrew from theirmandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab andJewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without endingthe deep tensions between the two sides. The territories Israeloccupied since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel countryprofile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrewfrom the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. Inkeeping with the framework established at the Madrid Conference inOctober 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted between Israeland Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve a permanentsettlement. Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September1993 a Declaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo Accords")guiding an interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstandingterritorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May2000, Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which ithad occupied since 1982. In April 2003, US President BUSH, workingin conjunction with the EU, UN, and Russia - the "Quartet" - tookthe lead in laying out a roadmap to a final settlement of theconflict by 2005, based on reciprocal steps by the two partiesleading to two states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. However,progress toward a permanent status agreement was undermined byIsraeli-Palestinian violence between September 2003 and February2005. An Israeli-Palestinian agreement reached at Sharm al-Sheikh inFebruary 2005, along with an internally-brokered Palestiniancease-fire, significantly reduced the violence. In the summer of2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip, evacuatingsettlers and its military while retaining control over most pointsof entry into the Gaza Strip. The election of HAMAS in January 2006to head the Palestinian Legislative Council froze relations betweenIsrael and the Palestinian Authority (PA). Ehud OLMERT became primeminister in March 2006; he shelved plans to unilaterally evacuatefrom most of the West Bank following an Israeli military operationin Gaza in June-July 2006 and a 34-day conflict with Hizballah inLebanon in June-August 2006. OLMERT in June 2007 resumed talks withthe PA after HAMAS seized control of the Gaza Strip and PA PresidentMahmoud ABBAS formed a new government without HAMAS. OLMERT inSeptember 2008 resigned in the wake of several corruptionallegations, but remained prime minister until the new coalitiongovernment under former Prime Minister Binyamin NETANYAHU wascompleted in late March 2009, following the February generalelection.
ItalyItaly became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional statesof the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united underKing Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came toa close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established aFascist dictatorship. His alliance with Nazi Germany led to Italy'sdefeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced the monarchyin 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a charter member ofNATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It has been at theforefront of European economic and political unification, joiningthe Economic and Monetary Union in 1999. Persistent problems includeillegal immigration, organized crime, corruption, high unemployment,sluggish economic growth, and the low incomes and technicalstandards of southern Italy compared with the prosperous north.
JamaicaThe island - discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1494 -was settled by the Spanish early in the 16th century. The nativeTaino Indians, who had inhabited Jamaica for centuries, weregradually exterminated and replaced by African slaves. Englandseized the island in 1655 and established a plantation economy basedon sugar, cocoa, and coffee. The abolition of slavery in 1834 freeda quarter million slaves, many of whom became small farmers. Jamaicagradually obtained increasing independence from Britain. In 1958 itjoined other British Caribbean colonies in forming the Federation ofthe West Indies. Jamaica gained full independence when it withdrewfrom the Federation in 1962. Deteriorating economic conditionsduring the 1970s led to recurrent violence as rival gangs affiliatedwith the major political parties evolved into powerful organizedcrime networks involved in international drug smuggling and moneylaundering. Violent crime, drug trafficking, and poverty posesignificant challenges to the government today. Nonetheless, manyrural and resort areas remain relatively safe and contributesubstantially to the economy.
Jan MayenThis desolate, arctic, mountainous island was named aftera Dutch whaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614(earlier claims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by sealhunters and trappers over the following centuries, the island cameunder Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VIIToppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; the most recenteruption occurred in 1985. It is the northernmost active volcano onearth.
JapanIn 1603, a Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship) usheredin a long period of isolation from foreign influence in order tosecure its power. For more than two centuries this policy enabledJapan to enjoy stability and a flowering of its indigenous culture.Following the Treaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854, Japan openedits ports and began to intensively modernize and industrialize.During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japan became aregional power that was able to defeat the forces of both China andRussia. It occupied Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and southern SakhalinIsland. In 1931-32 Japan occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 it launcheda full-scale invasion of China. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 -triggering America's entry into World War II - and soon occupiedmuch of East and Southeast Asia. After its defeat in World War II,Japan recovered to become an economic power and a staunch ally ofthe US. While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of nationalunity, elected politicians - with heavy input from bureaucrats andbusiness executives - wield actual decisionmaking power. The economyexperienced a major slowdown starting in the 1990s following threedecades of unprecedented growth, but Japan still remains a majoreconomic power, both in Asia and globally. In January 2009, Japanassumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the2009-10 term.
JerseyJersey and the other Channel Islands represent the lastremnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in bothFrance and England. These islands were the only British soiloccupied by German troops in World War II. Jersey is a British crowndependency but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Government isconstitutionally responsible for its defense and internationalrepresentation.
JordanFollowing World War I and the dissolution of the OttomanEmpire, the UK received a mandate to govern much of the Middle East.Britain separated out a semi-autonomous region of Transjordan fromPalestine in the early 1920s, and the area gained its independencein 1946; it adopted the name of Jordan in 1950. The country'slong-time ruler was King HUSSEIN (1953-99). A pragmatic leader, hesuccessfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers(US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a largeinternal Palestinian population. Jordan lost the West Bank to Israelin the 1967 war and barely managed to defeat Palestinian rebels whothreatened to overthrow the monarchy in 1970. King HUSSEIN in 1988permanently relinquished Jordanian claims to the West Bank. In 1989,he reinstituted parliamentary elections and initiated a gradualpolitical liberalization; political parties were legalized in 1992.In 1994, he signed a peace treaty with Israel. King ABDALLAH II, theson of King HUSSEIN, assumed the throne following his father's deathin February 1999. Since then, he has consolidated his power andundertaken an aggressive economic reform program. Jordan acceded tothe World Trade Organization in 2000, and began to participate inthe European Free Trade Association in 2001. In 2003, Jordanstaunchly supported the Coalition ouster of Saddam in Iraq andfollowing the outbreak of insurgent violence in Iraq, absorbedthousands of displaced Iraqis. Municipal elections were held in July2007 under a system in which 20% of seats in all municipal councilswere reserved by quota for women. Parliamentary elections were heldin November 2007 and saw independent pro-government candidates winthe vast majority of seats. In November 2007, King ABDALLAHinstructed his new prime minister to focus on socioeconomic reform,developing a healthcare and housing network for civilians andmilitary personnel, and improving the educational system.
KazakhstanNative Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribeswho migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely unitedas a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18thcentury, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizenswere encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some otherdeported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enablednon-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence in 1991 caused manyof these newcomers to emigrate. Kazakhstan's economy is larger thanthose of all the other Central Asian states combined, largely due tothe country's vast natural resources and a recent history ofpolitical stability. Current issues include: developing a cohesivenational identity; expanding the development of the country's vastenergy resources and exporting them to world markets; achieving asustainable economic growth; diversifying the economy outside theoil, gas, and mining sectors; enhancing Kazakhstan'scompetitiveness; and strengthening relations with neighboring statesand other foreign powers.
KenyaFounding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTAled Kenya from independence in 1963 until his death in 1978, whenPresident Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutionalsuccession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) madeitself the sole legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal andexternal pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. Theethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge KANU from powerin elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence andfraud, but were viewed as having generally reflected the will of theKenyan people. President MOI stepped down in December 2002 followingfair and peaceful elections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidateof the multiethnic, united opposition group, the National RainbowCoalition (NARC), defeated KANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumedthe presidency following a campaign centered on an anticorruptionplatform. KIBAKI's NARC coalition splintered in 2005 over theconstitutional review process. Government defectors joined with KANUto form a new opposition coalition, the Orange Democratic Movement,which defeated the government's draft constitution in a popularreferendum in November 2005. KIBAKI's reelection in December 2007brought charges of vote rigging from ODM candidate Raila ODINGA andunleashed two months of violence in which as many as 1,500 peopledied. UN-sponsored talks in late February produced a powersharingaccord bringing ODINGA into the government in the restored positionof prime minister.
KiribatiThe Gilbert Islands became a British protectorate in 1892and a colony in 1915; they were captured by the Japanese in thePacific War in 1941. The islands of Makin and Tarawa were the sitesof major US amphibious victories over entrenched Japanese garrisonsin 1943. The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name ofKiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabitedPhoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship withKiribati.
Korea, NorthAn independent kingdom for much of its long history,Korea was occupied by Japan beginning in 1905 following theRusso-Japanese War. Five years later, Japan formally annexed theentire peninsula. Following World War II, Korea was split with thenorthern half coming under Soviet-sponsored Communist control. Afterfailing in the Korean War (1950-53) to conquer the US-backedRepublic of Korea (ROK) in the southern portion by force, NorthKorea (DPRK), under its founder President KIM Il Sung, adopted apolicy of ostensible diplomatic and economic "self-reliance" as acheck against outside influence. The DPRK demonized the US as theultimate threat to its social system through state-fundedpropaganda, and molded political, economic, and military policiesaround the core ideological objective of eventual unification ofKorea under Pyongyang's control. KIM's son, the current ruler KIMJong Il, was officially designated as his father's successor in1980, assuming a growing political and managerial role until theelder KIM's death in 1994. After decades of economic mismanagementand resource misallocation, the DPRK since the mid-1990s has reliedheavily on international aid to feed its population. North Korea'shistory of regional military provocations, proliferation ofmilitary-related items, long-range missile development, WMD programsincluding nuclear weapons test in 2006 and 2009, and massiveconventional armed forces are of major concern to the internationalcommunity.
Korea, SouthAn independent Korean state or collection of states hasexisted almost continuously for several millennia. Between itsinitial unification in the 7th century - from three predecessorKorean states - until the 20th century, Korea existed as a singleindependent country. In 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War,Korea became a protectorate of imperial Japan, and in 1910 it wasannexed as a colony. Korea regained its independence followingJapan's surrender to the United States in 1945. After World War II,a Republic of Korea (ROK) was set up in the southern half of theKorean Peninsula while a Communist-style government was installed inthe north (the DPRK). During the Korean War (1950-53), US troops andUN forces fought alongside soldiers from the ROK to defend SouthKorea from DPRK attacks supported by China and the Soviet Union. Anarmistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along ademilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, SouthKorea achieved rapid economic growth with per capita income risingto roughly 14 times the level of North Korea. In 1993, KIM Young-sambecame South Korea's first civilian president following 32 years ofmilitary rule. South Korea today is a fully functioning moderndemocracy. In June 2000, a historic first North-South summit tookplace between the South's President KIM Dae-jung and the North'sleader KIM Jong Il. In October 2007, a second North-South summittook place between the South's President ROH Moo-hyun and the NorthKorean leader. Harsh rhetoric and unwillingness by North Korea toengage with President LEE Myung-bak following his February 2008inauguration has strained inter-Korean relations.
KosovoEthnic Serbs migrated to the territories of modern Kosovo inthe 7th century but did not fully incorporate them into the Serbianrealm until the early 13th century. The defeat of the Serbian empireat the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 led to five centuries of Ottomanrule during which large numbers of Turks and Albanians moved toKosovo. By the end of the 19th century, Albanians replaced the Serbsas the dominant ethnic group in Kosovo. Serbia reacquired controlover Kosovo from the Ottoman Empire during the First Balkan War of1912. Kosovo became an autonomous province of Serbia with statusalmost equivalent to that of a republic under the 1974 Constitutionof the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Despite legislativeconcessions, Albanian nationalism increased in the 1980s, which ledto riots and calls for Kosovo's independence. At the same time, Serbnationalist leaders, such as Slobodan MILOSEVIC, exploited KosovoSerb claims of maltreatment to secure votes from supporters, many ofwhom viewed Kosovo as their cultural heartland. Under MILOSEVIC'sleadership, Serbia instituted a new constitution in 1989 thatrevoked Kosovo's status as an autonomous province of Serbia. KosovoAlbanian leaders responded in 1991 by organizing a referendum thatdeclared Kosovo independent. Under MILOSEVIC, Serbia carried outrepressive measures against the Albanians in the early 1990s as theunofficial Kosovo government, led by Ibrahim RUGOVA, used passiveresistance in an attempt to try to gain international assistance andrecognition of an independent Kosovo. Albanians dissatisfied withRUGOVA's passive strategy in the 1990s created the Kosovo LiberationArmy and launched an insurgency. Starting in 1998, Serbian military,police, and paramilitary forces conducted a counterinsurgencycampaign that resulted in massacres and massive expulsions of ethnicAlbanians. International attempts to mediate the conflict failed,and MILOSEVIC's rejection of a proposed settlement led to athree-month NATO bombing campaign against Serbia beginning in March1999 that forced Serbia to agree to withdraw its military and policeforces from Kosovo. UN Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999)placed Kosovo under a transitional administration, the UN InterimAdministration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), pending a determination ofKosovo's future status. A UN-led process began in late 2005 todetermine Kosovo's final status. The negotiations ran in stagesbetween 2006 and 2007, but ended without agreement between Belgradeand Pristina. On 17 February 2008, the Kosovo Assembly declaredKosovo independent. Since then, over fifty countries have recognizedKosovo. Serbia continues to reject Kosovo's independence andsubsequently has sought an advisory opinion with the backing of theGeneral Assembly from the International Court of Justice on thelegality under international law of Kosovo's independencedeclaration.
KuwaitBritain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the rulingKuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Followingseveral weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began aground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in fourdays. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructuredamaged during 1990-91. The AL-SABAH family has ruled sincereturning to power in 1991 and reestablished an elected legislaturethat in recent years has become increasingly assertive. The countrywitnessed the historic election in May 2009 of four women to itsNational Assembly.
KyrgyzstanA Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty andproud nomadic traditions, most of Kyrgyzstan was formally annexed toRussia in 1876. The Kyrgyz staged a major revolt against the TsaristEmpire in 1916 in which almost one-sixth of the Kyrgyz populationwas killed. Kyrgyzstan became a Soviet republic in 1936 and achievedindependence in 1991 when the USSR dissolved. Nationwidedemonstrations in the spring of 2005 resulted in the ouster ofPresident Askar AKAEV, who had run the country since 1990.Subsequent presidential elections in July 2005 were wonoverwhelmingly by former prime minister Kurmanbek BAKIEV. Thepolitical opposition organized demonstrations in Bishkek in April,May, and November 2006 resulting in the adoption of a newconstitution that transferred some of the president's powers toparliament and the government. In December 2006, the Kyrgyzstaniparliament voted to adopt new amendments, restoring some of thepresidential powers lost in the November 2006 constitutional change.By late-September 2007, both previous versions of the constitutionwere declared illegal, and the country reverted to the AKAEV-era2003 constitution, which was subsequently modified in a flawedreferendum initiated by BAKIEV. The president then dissolvedparliament, called for early elections, and gained control of thenew parliament through his newly-created political party, Ak Jol, inDecember 2007 elections. Current concerns include: privatization ofstate-owned enterprises, negative trends in democracy and politicalfreedoms, endemic corruption, improving interethnic relations,electricity generation, rising food prices, and combating terrorism.
LaosModern-day Laos has its roots in the ancient Lao kingdom of LanXang, established in the 14th Century under King FA NGUM. For 300years Lan Xang had influence reaching into present-day Cambodia andThailand, as well as over all of what is now Laos. After centuriesof gradual decline, Laos came under the domination of Siam(Thailand) from the late 18th century until the late 19th centurywhen it became part of French Indochina. The Franco-Siamese Treatyof 1907 defined the current Lao border with Thailand. In 1975, theCommunist Pathet Lao took control of the government ending asix-century-old monarchy and instituting a strict socialist regimeclosely aligned to Vietnam. A gradual return to private enterpriseand the liberalization of foreign investment laws began in 1986.Laos became a member of ASEAN in 1997.
LatviaThe name "Latvia" originates from the ancient Latgalians, oneof four eastern Baltic tribes that formed the ethnic core of theLatvian people (ca. 8th-12th centuries A.D.). The regionsubsequently came under the control of Germans, Poles, Swedes, andfinally, Russians. A Latvian republic emerged following World War I,but it was annexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognizedby the US and many other countries. Latvia reestablished itsindependence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of theRussian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern toMoscow. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
LebanonFollowing World War I, France acquired a mandate over thenorthern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. TheFrench separated out the region of Lebanon in 1920, and granted thisarea independence in 1943. A lengthy civil war (1975-1990)devastated the country, but Lebanon has since made progress towardrebuilding its political institutions. Under the Ta'if Accord - theblueprint for national reconciliation - the Lebanese established amore equitable political system, particularly by giving Muslims agreater voice in the political process while institutionalizingsectarian divisions in the government. Since the end of the war,Lebanon has conducted several successful elections. Most militiashave been disbanded, with the exception of Hizballah, designated bythe US State Department as a Foreign Terrorist Organization, andPalestinian militant groups. During Lebanon's civil war, the ArabLeague legitimized in the Ta'if Accord Syria's troop deployment,numbering about 16,000 based mainly east of Beirut and in the BekaaValley. Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in May 2000 andthe passage in September 2004 of UNSCR 1559 - a resolution callingfor Syria to withdraw from Lebanon and end its interference inLebanese affairs - encouraged some Lebanese groups to demand thatSyria withdraw its forces as well. The assassination of former PrimeMinister Rafiq HARIRI and 22 others in February 2005 led to massivedemonstrations in Beirut against the Syrian presence ("the CedarRevolution"), and Syria withdrew the remainder of its militaryforces in April 2005. In May-June 2005, Lebanon held its firstlegislative elections since the end of the civil war free of foreigninterference, handing a majority to the bloc led by Saad HARIRI, theslain prime minister's son. In July 2006, Hizballah kidnapped twoIsraeli soldiers leading to a 34-day conflict with Israel in whichapproximately 1,200 Lebanese civilians were killed. UNSCR 1701 endedthe war in August 2006, and Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) deployedthroughout the country for the first time in decades, charged withsecuring Lebanon's borders against weapons smuggling and maintaininga weapons-free zone in south Lebanon with the help of the UN InterimForce in Lebanon (UNIFIL). The LAF in May-September 2007 battledSunni extremist group Fatah al-Islam in the Nahr al-BaridPalestinian refugee camp, winning a decisive victory, but destroyingthe camp and displacing 30,000 Palestinian residents. Lebanesepoliticians in November 2007 were unable to agree on a successor toEmile LAHUD when he stepped down as president, creating a politicalvacuum until the election of Army Commander Michel SULAYMAN in May2008 and the formation of a new unity government in July 2008.
LesothoBasutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho uponindependence from the UK in 1966. The Basuto National Party ruledfor the first two decades. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in 1990, butreturned to Lesotho in 1992 and was reinstated in 1995.Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after seven years ofmilitary rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutinyfollowing a contentious election prompted a brief but bloodyintervention by South African and Botswanan military forces underthe aegis of the Southern African Development Community. Subsequentconstitutional reforms restored relative political stability.Peaceful parliamentary elections were held in 2002, but the NationalAssembly elections of February 2007 were hotly contested andaggrieved parties continue to periodically demonstrate theirdistrust of the results.
LiberiaSettlement of freed slaves from the US in what is todayLiberia began in 1822; by 1847, the Americo-Liberians were able toestablish a republic. William TUBMAN, president from 1944-71, didmuch to promote foreign investment and to bridge the economic,social, and political gaps between the descendents of the originalsettlers and the inhabitants of the interior. In 1980, a militarycoup led by Samuel DOE ushered in a decade of authoritarian rule. InDecember 1989, Charles TAYLOR launched a rebellion against DOE'sregime that led to a prolonged civil war in which DOE himself waskilled. A period of relative peace in 1997 allowed for electionsthat brought TAYLOR to power, but major fighting resumed in 2000. AnAugust 2003 peace agreement ended the war and prompted theresignation of former president Charles TAYLOR, who faces war crimescharges in The Hague related to his involvement in Sierra Leone'scivil war. After two years of rule by a transitional government,democratic elections in late 2005 brought President Ellen JOHNSONSIRLEAF to power. The UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) maintains astrong presence throughout the country, but the security situationis still fragile and the process of rebuilding the social andeconomic structure of this war-torn country will take many years.
LibyaThe Italians supplanted the Ottoman Turks in the area aroundTripoli in 1911 and did not relinquish their hold until 1943 whendefeated in World War II. Libya then passed to UN administration andachieved independence in 1951. Following a 1969 military coup, Col.Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI began to espouse his own politicalsystem, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a combination ofsocialism and Islam derived in part from tribal practices and issupposed to be implemented by the Libyan people themselves in aunique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has always seen himselfas a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used oil funds duringthe 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya,supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end ofMarxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he engagedin military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to gainaccess to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadianpolitics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. During the 1990s, QADHAFI began torebuild his relationships with Europe. UN sanctions were suspendedin April 1999 and finally lifted in September 2003 after Libyaaccepted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing. In December 2003,Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its programs todevelop weapons of mass destruction and to renounce terrorism.QADHAFI has made significant strides in normalizing relations withWestern nations since then. He has received various Western Europeanleaders as well as many working-level and commercial delegations,and made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when hetraveled to Brussels in April 2004. The US rescinded Libya'sdesignation as a state sponsor of terrorism in June 2006. In January2008, Libya assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Councilfor the 2008-09 term. In August 2008, the US and Libya signed abilateral comprehensive claims settlement agreement to compensateclaimants in both countries who allege injury or death at the handsof the other country, including the Lockerbie bombing, the LaBelledisco bombing, and the UTA 772 bombing. In October 2008, the USGovernment received $1.5 billion pursuant to the agreement todistribute to US national claimants, and as a result effectivelynormalized its bilateral relationship with Libya. The two countriesthen exchanged ambassadors for the first time since 1973 in January2009.
LiechtensteinThe Principality of Liechtenstein was establishedwithin the Holy Roman Empire in 1719. Occupied by both French andRussian troops during the Napoleanic wars, it became a sovereignstate in 1806 and joined the Germanic Confederation in 1815.Liechtenstein became fully independent in 1866 when theConfederation dissolved. Until the end of World War I, it wasclosely tied to Austria, but the economic devastation caused by thatconflict forced Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetaryunion with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtensteinremained neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstandingeconomic growth. In 2000, shortcomings in banking regulatoryoversight resulted in concerns about the use of financialinstitutions for money laundering. However, Liechtensteinimplemented anti-money-laundering legislation and a Mutual LegalAssistance Treaty with the US that went into effect in 2003.
LithuaniaLithuanian lands were united under MINDAUGAS in 1236; overthe next century, through alliances and conquest, Lithuania extendedits territory to include most of present-day Belarus and Ukraine. Bythe end of the 14th century Lithuania was the largest state inEurope. An alliance with Poland in 1386 led the two countries into aunion through the person of a common ruler. In 1569, Lithuania andPoland formally united into a single dual state, thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This entity survived until 1795,when its remnants were partitioned by surrounding countries.Lithuania regained its independence following World War I but wasannexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the USand many other countries. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became thefirst of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, butMoscow did not recognize this proclamation until September of 1991(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troopswithdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently restructured its economyfor integration into Western European institutions; it joined bothNATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
LuxembourgFounded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more thanhalf of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a largermeasure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrunby Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 whenit entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATOthe following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the sixfounding countries of the European Economic Community (later theEuropean Union), and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.
MacauColonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was thefirst European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreementsigned by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became theMacau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republicof China on 20 December 1999. In this agreement, China promisedthat, under its "one country, two systems" formula, China'ssocialist economic system would not be practiced in Macau, and thatMacau would enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters exceptforeign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.
MacedoniaMacedonia gained its independence peacefully fromYugoslavia in 1991, but Greece's objection to the new state's use ofwhat it considered a Hellenic name and symbols delayed internationalrecognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of"the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, Greece lifteda 20-month trade embargo and the two countries agreed to normalizerelations. The United States began referring to Macedonia by itsconstitutional name, Republic of Macedonia, in 2004 and negotiationscontinue between Greece and Macedonia to resolve the name issue.Some ethnic Albanians, angered by perceived political and economicinequities, launched an insurgency in 2001 that eventually won thesupport of the majority of Macedonia's Albanian population and ledto the internationally-brokered Framework Agreement, which ended thefighting by establishing a set of new laws enhancing the rights ofminorities. Fully implementing the Framework Agreement andstimulating economic growth and development continue to bechallenges for Macedonia, although progress has been made on bothfronts over the past several years.
MadagascarFormerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became aFrench colony in 1896 but regained independence in 1960. During1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were heldending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the secondpresidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidentialelection was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA andMarc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANAthe winner. RAVALOMANANA achieved a second term following alandslide victory in the generally free and fair presidentialelections of 2006. In early 2009, protests due to increasingrestrictions on opposition press and activities resulted inRAVALOMANANA stepping down and the presidency was conferred to themayor of Antananarivo, Andry RAJOELINA. Following negotiations inJuly and August of 2009, a power-sharing agreement with a 15-monthtransitional period was established. Elections are expected in thefall of 2010.
MalawiEstablished in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasalandbecame the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decadesof one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the countryheld multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitutionthat came into full effect the following year. Current PresidentBingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after a failed attempt bythe previous president to amend the constitution to permit anotherterm, struggled to assert his authority against his predecessor andsubsequently started his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party(DPP) in 2005. As president, MUTHARIKA has overseen substantialeconomic improvement but because of political deadlock in thelegislature, his minority party has been unable to pass significantlegislation, and anti-corruption measures have stalled. Populationgrowth, increasing pressure on agricultural lands, corruption, andthe spread of HIV/AIDS pose major problems for Malawi.
MalaysiaDuring the late 18th and 19th centuries, Great Britainestablished colonies and protectorates in the area of currentMalaysia; these were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. In 1948,the British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed theFederation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia wasformed in 1963 when the former British colonies of Singapore and theEast Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast ofBorneo joined the Federation. The first several years of thecountry's history were marred by a Communist insurgency, Indonesianconfrontation with Malaysia, Philippine claims to Sabah, andSingapore's secession from the Federation in 1965. During the22-year term of Prime Minister MAHATHIR bin Mohamad (1981-2003),Malaysia was successful in diversifying its economy from dependenceon exports of raw materials to expansion in manufacturing, services,and tourism.