Hong KongChinese General Chamber of Commerce (pro-China); ChineseManufacturers' Association of Hong Kong; Confederation of TradeUnions or CTU (pro-democracy) [LAU Chin-shek, president; LEECheuk-yan, general secretary]; Federation of Hong Kong Industries;Federation of Trade Unions or FTU (pro-China) [CHENG Yiu-tong,executive councilor]; Hong Kong Alliance in Support of the PatrioticDemocratic Movement in China [Szeto WAH, chairman]; Hong Kong andKowloon Trade Union Council (pro-Taiwan); Hong Kong General Chamberof Commerce; Hong Kong Professional Teachers' Union [CHEUNGMan-kwong, president]; Neighborhood and Workers' Service Center orNWSC [LEUNG Yiu-chung, LegCo member] (pro-democracy); Civic Act-up[Cyd HO Sau-lan, LegCo member] (pro-democracy)
HungaryAir Work Group (works to reduce air pollution in towns andcities); Company For Freedom Rights (Tarsasag a Szabadsagjogokert)or TASZ (personal data protection); Danube Circle (protests thebuilding of the Gabchikovo-Nagymaros dam); Green Future (proteststhe impact of lead contamination of local factory on health of thepeople); environmentalists: Hungarian Ornithological and NatureConservation Society (Magyar Madartani Egyesulet)or MME; GreenAlternative (Zold Alternativa)
IcelandPeople's Voices [Hordur TORFARSON]; New Times; Civic ActionAssociation [Gunnar SIGURDSSON]; The Association of MilitaryOpponents [Stefan PALSSON]
IndiaAll Parties Hurriyat Conference in the Kashmir Valley(separatist group); Bajrang Dal (religious organization); NationalSocialist Council of Nagaland in the northeast (separatist group);Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (religious organization); Vishwa HinduParishad (religious organizationother: numerous religious or militant/chauvinistic organizations;various separatist groups seeking greater communal and/or regionalautonomy
IndonesiaIndonesian Women's Coalition (Koalisi Perempuan - humanrights group); Islamic Defenders Front or FPI; National Alliance forFreedom of Religion and Faith; Oil Palm Watch (environmental)
Irangroups that generally support the Islamic Republic: Ansar-eHizballah-Islamic Coalition Party (Motalefeh); Followers of the Lineof the Imam and the Leader; Islamic Engineers Society; TehranMilitant Clergy Association (Ruhaniyat); active pro-reform studentgroup: Office of Strengthening Unity (OSU); opposition groups:Baluchistan People's Party (BPP); Freedom Movement of Iran; Marz-ePor Gohar; National Front; and various ethnic and Monarchistorganizations; armed political groups that have been repressed bythe government: Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan (KDPI);Jundallah; Komala; Mujahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK or MKO);People's Fedayeen; People's Free Life Party of Kurdistan (PJAK)
IraqSunni militias; Shia militias, some associated with politicalparties
IrelandFamilies Acting for Innocent Relatives or FAIR [BrianMcCONNELL] (seek compensation for victims of violence); FamiliesAgainst Intimidation and Terror or FAIT (oppose terrorism);Gaeltacht Civil Rights Campaign (Coiste Cearta Sibhialta na Gaeilge)or CCSG (encourages the use of the Irish language and campaigns forgreater civil rights in Irish speaking areas); Irish Republican Armyor IRA (terrorist group); Keep Ireland Open (environmental group);Midland Railway Action Group or MRAG [Willie ALLEN] (transportationpromoters); Rail Users Ireland (formerly the Platform 11 -transportation promoters); 32 Country Sovereignty Movement or 32CSM(supports a fully sovereign Ireland); Ulster Defence Association orUDA (terrorist group)
Isle of ManAlliance for Progressive Government or APG (a governmentwatchdog); Mec Vannin (political party advocating a sovereign stateand environment policies); note - has only had one member elected tothe Tynwald
IsraelB'Tselem [Jessica MONTELL, Executive Director] monitors humanrights abuses; Peace Now [Yariv OPPENHEIMER, Secretary General]supports territorial concessions in the West Bank and Gaza Strip;YESHA Council of Settlements [Danny DAYAN, Chairman] promotessettler interests and opposes territorial compromise
Italymanufacturers and merchants associations - Confcommercio;Confindustria; organized farm groups - Confcoltivatori;Confagricoltura; Roman Catholic Church; three major trade unionconfederations - Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro or CGIL[Guglielmo EPIFANI] which is left wing; Confederazione Italiana deiSindacati Lavoratori or CISL [Raffaele BONANNO], which is RomanCatholic centrist; Unione Italiana del Lavoro or UIL [LuigiANGELETTI] which is lay centrist)
JamaicaNew Beginnings Movement or NBM; Rastafarians (blackreligious/racial cultists, pan-Africanists)
Japanother: business groups; trade unions
JerseyInstitute of Directors, Jersey branch (provides businesssupport); Jersey Hospitality Association [Robert JONES] (tradeassociation); Jersey Rights Association [David ROTHERHAM] (humanrights); La Societe Jersiaise (education and conservation group);Progress Jersey [Darius J. PEARCE, Daren O'TOOLE, Gino RISOLI](human rights); Royal Jersey Agriculture and Horticultural Societyor RJA&HS (development and management of the Jersey breed ofcattle); Save Jersey's Heritage (protects heritage through buildingpreservation)
JordanAnti-Normalization Committee [Ali Abu SUKKAR, president vicechairman]; Jordan Bar Association [Saleh al-ARMUTI, chairman];Jordanian Press Association [Sayf al-SHARIF, president]; JordanianMuslim Brotherhood [Dr. Hamam SAID, controller general]
KazakhstanAdil-Soz [Tamara KALEYEVA]; Almaty Helsinki Group [NinelFOKINA]; Confederation of Free Trade Unions [Sergei BELKIN]; ForFair Elections [Yevgeniy ZHOVTIS, Sabit ZHUSUPOV, Sergey DUVANOV,Ibrash NUSUPBAYEV]; Kazakhstan International Bureau on Human Rights[Yevgeniy ZHOVTIS, executive director]; Pan-National SocialDemocratic Party of Kazakhstan [Zharmakhan TUYAKBAI]; PensionersMovement or Pokoleniye [Irina SAVOSTINA, chairwoman]; RepublicanNetwork of International Monitors [Dos KUSHIM]; TransparencyInternational [Sergei ZLOTNIKOV]
KenyaCouncil of Islamic Preachers of Kenya or CIPK [Sheikh IdrisMOHAMMED]; Kenya Human Rights Commission [L. Muthoni WANYEKI];Muslim Human Rights Forum [Ali-Amin KIMATHI]; National ConventionExecutive Council or NCEC, a proreform coalition of politicalparties and nongovernment organizations [Ndung'u WAINANA]; NationalMuslim Leaders Forum or NAMLEF [Abdullahi ABDI]; Protestant NationalCouncil of Churches of Kenya or NCCK [Canon Peter Karanja MWANGI];Roman Catholic and other Christian churches; Supreme Council ofKenya Muslims or SUPKEM [Shaykh Abdul Gafur al-BUSAIDY]other: labor unions
KiribatiNA
Korea, Northnone
Korea, SouthFederation of Korean Industries; Federation of KoreanTrade Unions; Korean Confederation of Trade Unions; Korean NationalCouncil of Churches; Korean Traders Association; Korean Veterans'Association; National Council of Labor Unions; National DemocraticAlliance of Korea; National Federation of Farmers' Associations;National Federation of Student Associations
KosovoCouncil for the Defense of Human Rights and Freedom (humanrights); Humanitarian Law Centre (human rights); Movement forSelf-Determination; Serb National Council (SNV)
Kuwaitother: Islamists; merchants; political groups; secularliberals and pro-governmental deputies; Shia activists; tribal groups
KyrgyzstanAdilet Legal Clinic [Cholpon JAKUPOVA]; Coalition forDemocracy and Civil Society [Dinara OSHURAKHUNOVA]; Interbilim[Asiya SASYKBAEVA]
LaosNA
LatviaFree Trade Union Confederation of Latvia [Peteris KRIGERS],Employers' Confederation of Latvia [Elina EGLE], Farmers' Parliament[Juris LAZDINS]
LebanonHizballah military wingother: Palestinian militias; Maronite Christians; Sunnis and theirmilitias; Shias and their militias
LesothoMedia Institute of Southern Africa, Lesotho chapter [ThabangMATJAMA] (pushes for media freedom)
Liberiaother: demobilized former military officers
Libyaother: Arab nationalist movements; anti-QADHAFI Libyan exileMovement; Islamic elements
LiechtensteinNA
LithuaniaEurope House (promotes the EU); European Movement(promotes the EU); Lithuanian Future Forum (promotes the EU)
LuxembourgABBL (bankers' association); ALEBA (financial sectortrade union); Centrale Paysanne (federation of agriculturalproducers); CEP (professional sector chamber); CGFP (trade unionrepresenting civil service); Chambre de Commerce (Chamber ofCommerce); Chambre des Metiers (Chamber of Artisans); FEDIL(federation of industrialists); Greenpeace (environment protection);LCGP (center-right trade union); Mouvement Ecologique (protection ofecology); OGBL (center-left trade union)
MacauCivic Power [Agnes LAM Lok-fong]; Macau Society of Tourism andEntertainment or STDM [Stanley HO]; Macau Worker's Union [HOHeng-kuok]; Roman Catholic Church; Union for Democracy Development[Antonio NG Kuok-cheong]
MacedoniaFederation of Free Trade Unions [Svetlana PETROVIC];Federation of Trade Unions [Vanco MURATOVSKI]; Trade Union ofEducation, Science and Culture [Dojcin CVETANOSKI]; World MacedonianCongress [Todor PETROV]
MadagascarCommittee for the Defense of Truth and Justice or KMMR;Committee for National Reconciliation or CRN [Albert Zafy]; NationalCouncil of Christian Churches or FFKM
MalawiAgri-Ecology Media (agriculture and environmental group);Council for NGOs in Malawi or CONGOMA (human rights, democracy, anddevelopment); Human Rights Consultative Committee or HRCC (humanrights); Malawi Law Society (human rights and law reform); MalawiMovement for the Restoration of Democracy or MMRD (acts to restoreand maintain democracy); Public Affairs Committee or PAC (promotesdemocracy, development, peace and unity)
MalaysiaBar Council BERSIH (electoral reform coalition); PEMBELA(Muslim NGO coalition)other: religious groups; women's groups; youth groups
Maldivesother: various unregistered political parties
Maliother: the army; Islamic authorities; rebels in the northernregion; state-run cotton company CMDT; tuaregs
MaltaAlleanza Liberal-Demokratika Maltra or ALDM (for divorce,abortion, gay marriage, the rights existent in other EU memberstates); Alleanza Nazzionali Repubblikana or ANR (for traditionalvalues, anti-immigration); Alternattiva Demokratika(pro-environment); Azzjoni Nazzjonali or AN (freedom to participatein democratic government); Flimkien Ghal-Ambjent Ahjar(pro-environment); Ghazdatal-Konsumaturi (consumer rights)other: environmentalists
Marshall IslandsNA
MauritaniaGeneral Confederation of Mauritanian Workers or CGTM[Abdallahi Ould MOHAMED, secretary general]; IndependentConfederation of Mauritanian Workers or CLTM [Samory Ould BEYE];Mauritanian Workers Union or UTM [Mohamed Ely Ould BRAHIM, secretarygeneral]other: Arab nationalists; Ba'thists; Islamists
Mauritiusother: various labor unions
MayotteNA
MexicoBroad Progressive Front or FAP; Businessmen's CoordinatingCouncil or CCE; Confederation of Employers of the Mexican Republicor COPARMEX; Confederation of Industrial Chambers or CONCAMIN;Confederation of Mexican Workers or CTM; Confederation of NationalChambers of Commerce or CONCANACO; Coordinator for Foreign TradeBusiness Organizations or COECE; Federation of Unions ProvidingGoods and Services or FESEBES; National Chamber of TransformationIndustries or CANACINTRA; National Peasant Confederation or CNC;National Small Business Chamber or CANACOPE; National Syndicate ofEducation Workers or SNTE; National Union of Workers or UNT; PopularAssembly of the People of Oaxaca or APPO; Roman Catholic Church
Micronesia, Federated States ofNA
MoldovaNA
MonacoNA
Mongoliaother: human rights groups; women's groups
MontserratNA
MoroccoDemocratic Confederation of Labor or CDT [Noubir AMAOUI];General Union of Moroccan Workers or UGTM [Abderrazzak AFILAL];Moroccan Employers Association or CGEM [Hassan CHAMI]; NationalLabor Union of Morocco or UNMT [Abdelslam MAATI]; Union of MoroccanWorkers or UMT [Mahjoub BENSEDDIK]
MozambiqueMozambican League of Human Rights (Liga Mocambicana dosDireitos Humanos) or LDH [Alice MABOTE, president]
NamibiaEarthlife Namibia [Berthchen KOHRS] (environmentalistgroup); National Society for Human Rights or NSHR; The WorldInformation Services of Energy or WISE (group against nuclear power)
NauruWoman Information and News Agency (women's issues)
Nepalother: several small armed Madhesi groups along the southernborder with India; a variety of groups advocating regional autonomyfor individual ethnic groups
NetherlandsChristian Trade Union Federation or CNV [Rene PAAS];Confederation of Netherlands Industry and Employers or VNO-NCW[Bernard WIENTJES]; Federation for Small and Medium-sized businessesor MKB [Loek HERMANS]; Netherlands Trade Union Federation or FNV[Agnes JONGERIUS]; Social Economic Council or SER [Alexander RINNOOYKAN]; Trade Union Federation of Middle and High Personnel or MHP [AdVERHOEVEN]
Netherlands AntillesEmployers Association (VBC); Unions (AVBO)
New CaledoniaNA
New ZealandWomen's Electoral Lobby or WELother: apartheid groups; civil rights groups; farmers groups; Maori;nuclear weapons groups; women's rights groups
NicaraguaNational Workers Front or FNT (a Sandinista umbrella groupof eight labor unions including: Farm Workers Association or ATC,Health Workers Federation or FETASALUD, Heroes and MartyrsConfederation of Professional Associations or CONAPRO, NationalAssociation of Educators of Nicaragua or ANDEN, National Union ofEmployees or UNE, National Union of Farmers and Ranchers or UNAG,Sandinista Workers Central or CST, and Union of Journalists ofNicaragua or UPN); Permanent Congress of Workers or CPT (an umbrellagroup of four non-Sandinista labor unions including: AutonomousNicaraguan Workers Central or CTN-A, Confederation of LaborUnification or CUS, Independent General Confederation of Labor orCGT-I, and Labor Action and Unity Central or CAUS); NicaraguanWorkers' Central or CTN (an independent labor union); SuperiorCouncil of Private Enterprise or COSEP (a confederation of businessgroups)
NigerThe Nigerien Movement for Justice or MNJ, a predominantlyTuareg rebel group
NigeriaAcademic Staff Union for Universities or ASUU; Campaign forDemocracy or CD; Civil Liberties Organization or CLO; Committee forthe Defense of Human Rights or CDHR; Constitutional Right Project orCRP; Human Right Africa; National Association of Democratic Lawyersor NADL; National Association of Nigerian Students or NANS; NigerianBar Association or NBA; Nigerian Labor Congress or NLC; NigerianMedical Association or NMA; the Press; Universal Defenders ofDemocracy or UDD
NiueNA
Norfolk Islandnone
Northern Mariana IslandsNA
NorwayNorwegian Aid Committee or NORWAC; Norwegian Association ofthe Disabled; Pure Salmon Campaign; The Consumer Council (consumeradvocacy group)other: environmental groups; media; reform movements
Omannone
Pakistanother: military (most important political force); ulema(clergy); landowners; industrialists; small merchants
PalauNA
PanamaChamber of Commerce; National Civic Crusade; National Councilof Organized Workers or CONATO; National Council of PrivateEnterprise or CONEP; National Union of Construction and SimilarWorkers (SUNTRACS); Panamanian Association of Business Executives orAPEDE; Panamanian Industrialists Society or SIP; WorkersConfederation of the Republic of Panama or CTRP
Papua New GuineaAhora [Andrew MAMOKO] (represents local tribes);Centre for Environment Law and Community Rights or Celcor [DamienASE]; Community Coalition Against Corruption
ParaguayAhorristas Estafados or AE; National Coordinating Board ofCampesino Organizations or MCNOC [Luis AGUAYO]; National Federationof Campesinos or FNC [Odilon ESPINOLA]; National Workers Central orCNT [Secretary General Juan TORRALES]; Paraguayan WorkersConfederation or CPT; Roman Catholic Church; Unitary Workers Centralor CUT [Jorge Guzman ALVARENGA Malgarejo]
PeruGeneral Workers Confederation of Peru (Confederacion General deTrabajadores del Peru) or CGTP [Mario HUAMAN]; Shining Path (SenderoLuminoso) or SL [Abimael GUZMAN Reynoso (imprisoned), Victor QUISPEPalomino (top leader at-large)] (leftist guerrilla group)
PhilippinesABONO [Robert ESTRELLA]; AKBAYAN [Anna TheresiaBARAQUIEL]; An Waray [Florencio NOEL]; Anak Mindanao [MujivHATAMIN]; ANAKPAWIS [Rafael MARIANO]; ARC [Narciso SANTIAGO III];Association of Philippine Electric Cooperatives (APEC) [ErnestoPABLO and Edgar VALDEZ]; A TEACHER [Mariano PIAMONTE]; Bayan Muna[Satur OCAMPO and Teodoro CASINO, Jr.]; Black and White Movement[Vicente ROMANO]; BUHAY [Rene VELARDE, Carissa COSCOLLUELLA, andWilliam TIENG]; BUTIL [Leonila CHAVEZ]; CIBAC [Emmanuel JoelVILLANUEVA]; COOP-NATCO [Jose PING-AY]; GABRIELA [Liza MAZA andLuzviminda ILAGAN]; Kilosbayan [Jovito SALONGA]; YACAP [Carol LOPEZ]
Pitcairn Islandsnone
PolandAll Poland Trade Union Alliance or OPZZ (trade union) [JanGUZ]; Roman Catholic Church [Cardinal Stanislaw DZIWISZ, ArchbishopJozef MICHALIK]; Solidarity Trade Union [Janusz SNIADEK]
Portugalthe media; labor unions
Puerto RicoBoricua Popular Army or EPB (a revolutionary group alsoknown as Los Macheteros); note - the following radical groups areconsidered dormant by Federal law enforcement: Armed Forces forNational Liberation or FALN, Armed Forces of Popular Resistance,Volunteers of the Puerto Rican Revolution
Qatarnone
Romaniaother: various human rights and professional associations
RussiaAll-Russian Confederation of Labor; Baikal EnvironmentalWave; Federation of Independent Labor Unions of Russia; Freedom ofChoice Interregional Organization of Automobilists; Glasnost DefenseFoundation; Golos Association in Defense of Voters' Rights;Greenpeace Russia; Human Rights Watch (Russian chapter); Institutefor Collective Action; Memorial (human rights group); MovementAgainst Illegal Migration; Pamjat (preservation of historicalmonuments and recording of history); Russian Orthodox Church;Russian-Chechen Friendship Society; SOVA Analytical-InformationCenter; Union of the Committees of Soldiers' Mothers; World WildlifeFund (Russian chapter)
RwandaIBUKA (association of genocide survivors)
Saint BarthelemyThe Marine Reserve (protection of fish); Rotary Club
Saint Helenaother: private sector; unions
Saint Kitts and NevisNA
Saint LuciaNA
Saint MartinNA
Saint Pierre and MiquelonNA
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesNA
SamoaNA
San MarinoNA
Sao Tome and PrincipeAssociation of Sao Tome and Principe NGOs orFONGother: the media
Saudi ArabiaAnsar Al Marah (supports women's rights)other: gas companies; religious groups
Senegalother: labor; students; Sufi brotherhoods, including theMourides and Tidjanes; teachers
SerbiaNA
SeychellesRoman Catholic Churchother: trade unions
Sierra Leoneother: student unions; trade unions
Singaporenone
SlovakiaAssociation of Towns and Villages or ZMOS; Confederation ofTrade Unions or KOZ; Entrepreneurs Association of Slovakia or ZPS;Federation of Employers' Associations of the Slovak Republic;National Union of Employers or RUZ; Slovak Chamber of Commerce andIndustry or SOPK; The Business Alliance of Slovakia or PAS
SloveniaDemocratic Party of Slovenian Pensioners or DeSUS(protecting the rights of the older generation); Slovenian RomaAssociation [Jozek Horvat MUC]other: Catholic Church
Solomon IslandsIsatabu Freedom Movement (IFM); Malaita Eagle Force(MEF); note - these rival armed ethnic factions crippled the SolomonIslands in a wave of violence from 1999 to 2003
Somaliaother: numerous clan and sub-clan factions exist both insupport and in opposition to the transitional government
South AfricaCongress of South African Trade Unions or COSATU[Zwelinzima VAVI, general secretary]; South African Communist Partyor SACP [Blade NZIMANDE, general secretary]; South African NationalCivics Organization or SANCO [Mlungisi HLONGWANE, national president]note: note - COSATU and SACP are in a formal alliance with the ANC
SpainAssociation for Victims of Terrorism or AVT (grassrootsorganization devoted primarily to opposing ETA terrorist attacks andsupporting its victims); Basta Ya (Spanish for "Enough is Enough";grassroots organization devoted primarily to opposing ETA terroristattacks and supporting its victims); Nunca Mais (Galician for "NeverAgain"; formed in response to the oil Tanker Prestige oil spill);Socialist General Union of Workers or UGT and the smallerindependent Workers Syndical Union or USO; Trade Union Confederationof Workers' Commissions or CC.OO.other: business and landowning interests; Catholic Church; freelabor unions (authorized in April 1977); university students
Sri LankaLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam or LTTE [VelupillaiPRABHAKARAN](insurgent group fighting for a separate state); TamilMakkal Viduthalai Pulikal (TMVP) or Karuna Faction [VinayagamurthiMURALITHARAN] (paramilitary breakaway from LTTE and fighting LTTE)other: Buddhist clergy; labor unions; radical chauvinist Sinhalesegroups such as the National Movement Against Terrorism; SinhaleseBuddhist lay groups
SudanUmma Party [SADIQ Siddiq al-Mahdi]; Popular Congress Party orPCP [Hassan al-TURABI]; Darfur rebel groups including the Justiceand Equality Movement or JEM [Khalil IBRAHIM] and the SudanLiberation Movement or SLM [various factional leaders]
SurinameAssociation of Indigenous Village Chiefs [Ricardo PANE];Association of Saramaccan Authorities or Maroon [Head Captain WASE];Women's Parliament Forum or PVF [Iris GILLIAD]
SvalbardNA
SwazilandSwaziland Federation of Trade Unions; Swaziland andSolidarity Network or SSN
SwedenChildren's Rights in Society; Swedish Confederation ofProfessional Employees or TCO; Swedish Federation of Trade Unions orLOother: media
SwitzerlandNA
SyriaDamascus Declaration National Council [Riyad SEIF, secretarygeneral] (a broad alliance of opposition groups and individualsincluding: Committee for Revival of Civil Society [Michel KILO,Riyad SEIF]; Communist Action Party [Fateh JAMOUS]; KurdishDemocratic Alliance; Kurdish Democratic Front; Liberal Nationalists'Movement; National Democratic Rally; and Syrian Human Rights Societyor HRAS [Fawed FAWUZ]); National Salvation Front (alliance betweenformer Vice President Abd al-Halim KHADDAM, the SMB, and other smallopposition groups); Syrian Muslim Brotherhood or SMB [Sadr al-Dinal-BAYANUNI] (operates in exile in London; endorsed the DamascusDeclaration, but is not an official member)
TaiwanOrganization for Taiwan Nation Building; World UnitedFormosans for Independenceother: environmental groups; independence movement; various businessgroupsnote: debate on Taiwan independence has become acceptable within themainstream of domestic politics on Taiwan; political liberalizationand the increased representation of opposition parties in Taiwan'slegislature have opened public debate on the island's nationalidentity; a broad public consensus has developed that the governmentenjoys popular sovereignty and - whatever the ultimate outcomeregarding unification or independence - that Taiwan's people musthave the deciding voice; public opinion polls consistently show asubstantial majority of Taiwan people supports maintaining Taiwan'sstatus quo for the foreseeable future; advocates of Taiwanindependence oppose the stand that the island will eventually unifywith mainland China; goals of the Taiwan independence movementinclude establishing a sovereign nation on Taiwan and entering theUN; advocates of eventual unification predicate their goal on thedemocratic transformation of the mainland
Tajikistansplinter parties recognized by the government but not bythe base of the party: Democratic Party or DPT [Masud SOBIROV](splintered from ISKANDAROV's DPT); Socialist Party or SPT[Abduhalim GHAFFOROV] (splintered from NARZIEV's SPT)unregistered political parties: Agrarian Party [HikmatulloNASREDDINOV]; Progressive Party [Sulton QUVVATOV]; Unity Party[Hikmatullo SAIDOV]
TanzaniaEconomic and Social Research Foundation or ESRF; FreeZanzibar; Tanzania Media Women's Association or TAMWA
ThailandPeople's Alliance for Democracy or PAD; United Front forDemocracy Against Dictatorship
Timor-LesteNA
TogoNA
Tokelaunone
TongaHuman Rights and Democracy Movement Tonga or HRDMT [Rev.Simote VEA, chairman]; Public Servant's Association [Finau TUTONE]
Trinidad and TobagoJamaat-al Muslimeen [Yasin BAKR]
Tunisia18 October Group [collective leadership]; Tunisian Leaguefor Human Rights or LTDH [Mokhtar TRIFI]
TurkeyConfederation of Public Sector Unions or KESK [Sami EVREN];Confederation of Revolutionary Workers Unions or DISK [SuleymanCELEBI]; Independent Industrialists' and Businessmen's Associationor MUSIAD [Omer Cihad VARDAN]; Moral Rights Workers Union or Hak-Is[Salim USLU]; Turkish Confederation of Employers' Unions or TISK[Tugurl KUDATGOBILIK]; Turkish Confederation of Labor or Turk-Is[Mustafa KUMLU]; Turkish Confederation of Tradesmen and Craftsmen orTESK [Dervis GUNDAY]; Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen'sAssociation or TUSIAD [Arzuhan Dogan YALCINDAG]; Turkish Union ofChambers of Commerce and Commodity Exchanges or TOBB [M. RifatHISARCIKLIOGLU]
TurkmenistanNA
Turks and Caicos IslandsNA
Tuvalunone
UgandaLord's Resistance Army or LRA [Joseph KONY]; YoungParliamentary Association [Henry BANYENZAKI]; Parliamentary AdvocacyForum or PAFO; National Association of Women Organizations in Ugandaor NAWOU [Florence NEKYON]; The Ugandan Coalition for PoliticalAccountability to Women or COPAW
UkraineCommittee of Voters of Ukraine [Ihor POPOV]
United Arab EmiratesNA
United KingdomCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament; Confederation ofBritish Industry; National Farmers' Union; Trades Union Congress
United Statesenvironmentalists; business groups; labor unions;churches; ethnic groups; political action committees or PAC; healthgroups; education groups; civic groups; youth groups; transportationgroups; agricultural groups; veterans groups; women's groups; reformlobbies
UruguayArchitect's Society of Uruguay (professional organization);Chamber of Uruguayan Industries (manufacturer's association);Chemist and Pharmaceutical Association (professional organization);PIT/CNT (powerful federation of Uruguayan Unions - umbrella labororganization); Rural Association of Uruguay (rancher's association);Uruguayan Construction League; Uruguayan Network of Political Womenother: Catholic Church; students
UzbekistanAgrarian and Entrepreneurs' Party [Marat ZAHIDOV]; Birlik(Unity) Movement [Abdurahim POLAT, chairman]; Committee for theProtection of Human Rights [Marat ZAHIDOV]; Erk (Freedom) DemocraticParty [Muhammad SOLIH, chairman] (was banned 9 December 1992);Ezgulik Human Rights Society [Vasila INOYATOVA]; Free Farmers' Partyor Ozod Dehqonlar [Nigora HIDOYATOVA]; Human Rights Society ofUzbekistan [Talib YAKUBOV, chairman]; Independent Human RightsOrganization of Uzbekistan [Mikhail ARDZINOV, chairman]; Mazlum;Sunshine Coalition [Sanjar UMAROV, chairman]
VanuatuNA
VenezuelaFEDECAMARAS, a conservative business group; VECINOSgroups; Venezuelan Confederation of Workers or CTV (labororganization dominated by the Democratic Action)
Vietnam8406 Bloc; Democratic Party of Vietnam or DPV; People'sDemocratic Party Vietnam or PDP-VN; Alliance for Democracynote: these groups advocate democracy but are not recognized by thegovernment
Virgin IslandsNA
Wallis and FutunaNA
Western Saharanone
YemenMuslim Brotherhood; Women National Committeeother: conservative tribal groups
ZambiaNA
ZimbabweCrisis in Zimbabwe Coalition [Xolani ZITHA]; NationalConstitutional Assembly or NCA [Lovemore MADHUKU]; Women of ZimbabweArise or WOZA [Jenny WILLIAMS]; Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions orZCTU [Wellington CHIBEBE]
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Field Listing :: Economy - overview
This entry briefly describes the type of economy, including the degree of market orientation, the level of economic development, the most important natural resources, and the unique areas of specialization. It also characterizes major economic events and policy changes in the most recent 12 months and may include a statement about one or two key future macroeconomic trends. Country
Economy - overview
AfghanistanAfghanistan's economy is recovering from decades ofconflict. The economy has improved significantly since the fall ofthe Taliban regime in 2001 largely because of the infusion ofinternational assistance, the recovery of the agricultural sector,and service sector growth. Real GDP growth fell from the 10% levelin 2006-07 to a little more than 3% in 2008. Despite the progress ofthe past few years, Afghanistan is extremely poor, landlocked, andhighly dependent on foreign aid, agriculture, and trade withneighboring countries. Much of the population continues to sufferfrom shortages of housing, clean water, electricity, medical care,and jobs. Criminality, insecurity, and the Afghan Government'sinability to extend rule of law to all parts of the country posechallenges to future economic growth. It will probably take theremainder of the decade and continuing donor aid and attention tosignificantly raise Afghanistan's living standards from its currentlevel, among the lowest in the world. International pledges made bymore than 60 countries and international financial institutions atthe Berlin Donors Conference for Afghan reconstruction in March 2004reached $8.9 billion for 2004-09. While the international communityremains committed to Afghanistan's development, pledging over $57billion at three donors' conferences since 2002, Kabul will need toovercome a number of challenges. Expanding poppy cultivation and agrowing opium trade generate roughly $3 billion in illicit economicactivity and looms as one of Kabul's most serious policy concerns.Other long-term challenges include: budget sustainability, jobcreation, corruption, government capacity, and rebuilding war torninfrastructure.
AkrotiriEconomic activity is limited to providing services to themilitary and their families located in Akrotiri. All food andmanufactured goods must be imported.
AlbaniaLagging behind its Balkan neighbors, Albania is making thedifficult transition to a more modern open-market economy.Macroeconomic growth has averaged around 5% over the last five yearsand inflation is low and stable. The government has taken measuresto curb violent crime, and recently adopted a fiscal reform packageaimed at reducing the large gray economy and attracting foreigninvestment. The economy is bolstered by annual remittances fromabroad representing about 15% of GDP, mostly from Albanians residingin Greece and Italy; this helps offset the towering trade deficit.The agricultural sector, which accounts for over half of employmentbut only about one-fifth of GDP, is limited primarily to smallfamily operations and subsistence farming because of lack of modernequipment, unclear property rights, and the prevalence of small,inefficient plots of land. Energy shortages because of a reliance onhydropower, and antiquated and inadequate infrastructure contributeto Albania's poor business environment and lack of success inattracting new foreign investment. The completion of a new thermalpower plant near Vlore has helped diversify generation capacity, andplans to upgrade transmission lines between Albania and Montenegroand Kosovo would help relieve the energy shortages. Also, with helpfrom EU funds, the government is taking steps to improve the poornational road and rail network, a long-standing barrier to sustainedeconomic growth.
AlgeriaThe hydrocarbons sector is the backbone of the economy,accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over95% of export earnings. Algeria has the eighth-largest reserves ofnatural gas in the world and is the fourth-largest gas exporter; itranks 15th in oil reserves. Sustained high oil prices in recentyears have helped improve Algeria's financial and macroeconomicindicators. Algeria is running substantial trade surpluses andbuilding up record foreign exchange reserves. Algeria has decreasedits external debt to less than 5% of GDP after repaying its ParisClub and London Club debt in 2006. Real GDP has risen due to higheroil output and increased government spending. The government'scontinued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign anddomestic investment outside the energy sector, however, has hadlittle success in reducing high unemployment and improving livingstandards. Structural reform within the economy, such as developmentof the banking sector and the construction of infrastructure, movesahead slowly hampered by corruption and bureaucratic resistance.
American SamoaAmerican Samoa has a traditional Polynesian economyin which more than 90% of the land is communally owned. Economicactivity is strongly linked to the US with which American Samoaconducts most of its commerce. Tuna fishing and tuna processingplants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna theprimary export. Transfers from the US Government add substantiallyto American Samoa's economic well being. Attempts by the governmentto develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa'sremote location, its limited transportation, and its devastatinghurricanes. Tourism is a promising developing sector.
AndorraTourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy,accounts for more than 80% of GDP. An estimated 11.6 milliontourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status andby its summer and winter resorts. Andorra's comparative advantagehas recently eroded as the economies of neighboring France and Spainhave been opened up, providing broader availability of goods andlower tariffs. The banking sector, with its partial "tax haven"status, also contributes substantially to the economy. Agriculturalproduction is limited - only 2% of the land is arable - and mostfood has to be imported. The principal livestock activity is sheepraising. Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars,and furniture. Andorra is a member of the EU Customs Union and istreated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs)and as a non-EU member for agricultural products.
AngolaAngola's high growth rate is driven by its oil sector, whichhas taken advantage of high international oil prices. Oil productionand its supporting activities contribute about 85% of GDP. Increasedoil production supported growth averaging more than 15% per yearfrom 2004 to 2007. A postwar reconstruction boom and resettlement ofdisplaced persons has led to high rates of growth in constructionand agriculture as well. Much of the country's infrastructure isstill damaged or undeveloped from the 27-year-long civil war.Remnants of the conflict such as widespread land mines still mar thecountryside even though an apparently durable peace was establishedafter the death of rebel leader Jonas SAVIMBI in February 2002.Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for most of thepeople, but half of the country's food must still be imported. In2005, the government started using a $2 billion line of credit,since increased to $7 billion, from China to rebuild Angola's publicinfrastructure, and several large-scale projects were completed in2006. Angola also has large credit lines from Brazil, Portugal,Germany, Spain, and the EU. The central bank in 2003 implemented anexchange rate stabilization program using foreign exchange reservesto buy kwanzas out of circulation. This policy became moresustainable in 2005 because of strong oil export earnings; it hassignificantly reduced inflation. Although consumer inflationdeclined from 325% in 2000 to under 13% in 2008, the stabilizationpolicy has put pressure on international net liquidity. Angolabecame a member of OPEC in late 2006 and in late 2007 was assigned aproduction quota of 1.9 million barrels a day, somewhat less thanthe 2-2.5 million bbl Angola's government had wanted. To fully takeadvantage of its rich national resources - gold, diamonds, extensiveforests, Atlantic fisheries, and large oil deposits - Angola willneed to implement government reforms, increase transparency, andreduce corruption. The government has rejected a formal IMFmonitored program, although it continues Article IV consultationsand ad hoc cooperation. Corruption, especially in the extractivesectors, and the negative effects of large inflows of foreignexchange, are major challenges facing Angola.
AnguillaAnguilla has few natural resources, and the economy dependsheavily on luxury tourism, offshore banking, lobster fishing, andremittances from emigrants. Increased activity in the tourismindustry has spurred the growth of the construction sectorcontributing to economic growth. Anguillan officials have putsubstantial effort into developing the offshore financial sector,which is small but growing. In the medium term, prospects for theeconomy will depend largely on the tourism sector and, therefore, onrevived income growth in the industrialized nations as well as onfavorable weather conditions.
AntarcticaFishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad,account for Antarctica's limited economic activity. Antarcticfisheries in 2006-07 (1 July-30 June) reported landing 126,976metric tons (estimated fishing from the area covered by theConvention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources(CCAMLR), which extends slightly beyond the Antarctic Treaty area).Unregulated fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish(Dissostichus eleginoides - also known as Chilean sea bass), is aserious problem. The CCAMLR determines the recommended catch limitsfor marine species. A total of 45,652 tourists visited the AntarcticTreaty area in the 2007-08 Antarctic summer, up from the 36,460visitors in 2006-2007, and the 30,877 visitors in 2005-2006(estimates provided to the Antarctic Treaty by the InternationalAssociation of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO); this does notinclude passengers on overflights). Nearly all of them werepassengers on commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several yachtsthat make trips during the summer. Most tourist trips lastapproximately two weeks.
Antigua and BarbudaAntigua has a relatively high GDP per capita incomparison to most other Caribbean nations. The economy experiencedsolid growth from 2003 to 2007, reaching over 12% in 2006 driven bya construction boom in hotels and housing associated with theCricket World Cup. Growth dropped off in 2008 with the end of theboom. Tourism continues to dominate the economy, accounting fornearly 60% of GDP and 40% of investment. The dual-island nation'sagricultural production is focused on the domestic market andconstrained by a limited water supply and a labor shortage stemmingfrom the lure of higher wages in tourism and construction.Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with majorproducts being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components.Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue todepend on tourist arrivals from the US, Canada, and Europe andpotential damages from natural disasters. Since taking office in2004, the SPENCER government has adopted an ambitious fiscal reformprogram, and has been successful in reducing its public debt-to-GDPratio from 120% to about 90%.
Arctic OceanEconomic activity is limited to the exploitation ofnatural resources, including petroleum, natural gas, fish, and seals.
ArgentinaArgentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highlyliterate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and adiversified industrial base. Although one of the world's wealthiestcountries 100 years ago, Argentina suffered during most of the 20thcentury from recurring economic crises, persistent fiscal andcurrent account deficits, high inflation, mounting external debt,and capital flight. A severe depression, growing public and externalindebtedness, and a bank run culminated in 2001 in the most seriouseconomic, social, and political crisis in the country's turbulenthistory. Interim President Adolfo RODRIGUEZ SAA declared a default -the largest in history - on the government's foreign debt inDecember of that year, and abruptly resigned only a few days aftertaking office. His successor, Eduardo DUHALDE, announced an end tothe peso's decade-long 1-to-1 peg to the US dollar in early 2002.The economy bottomed out that year, with real GDP 18% smaller thanin 1998 and almost 60% of Argentines under the poverty line. RealGDP rebounded to grow by an average 9% annually over the subsequentfive years, taking advantage of previously idled industrial capacityand labor, an audacious debt restructuring and reduced debt burden,excellent international financial conditions, and expansionarymonetary and fiscal policies. Inflation also increased, however,during the administration of President Nestor KIRCHNER, whichresponded with price restraints on businesses, as well as exporttaxes and restraints, and beginning in early 2007, with understatinginflation data. Cristina FERNANDEZ DE KIRCHNER succeeded her husbandas President in late 2007, but was stymied in her efforts to hikeexport taxes still further by protesting farmers. Her governmentnationalized private pension funds in late 2008, which bolsteredgovernment coffers, but failed to assuage investors' concerns aboutthe direction of economic policy.
Armenia Since the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, Armenia has made progress in implementing many economic reforms including privatization, price reforms, and prudent fiscal policies. The conflict with Azerbaijan over the ethnic Armenian-dominated region of Nagorno-Karabakh contributed to a severe economic decline in the early 1990s. By 1994, however, the Armenian Government launched an ambitious IMF-sponsored economic liberalization program that resulted in positive growth rates. Economic growth has averaged over 10% in recent years. However, with the global economic downturn, Armenia's growth rate dropped to 6.8% in 2008. Armenia has managed to reduce poverty, slash inflation, stabilize its currency, and privatize most small- and medium-sized enterprises. Under the old Soviet central planning system, Armenia developed a modern industrial sector, supplying machine tools, textiles, and other manufactured goods to sister republics, in exchange for raw materials and energy. Armenia has since switched to small-scale agriculture and away from the large agroindustrial complexes of the Soviet era. Nuclear power plants built at Metsamor in the 1970s were closed following the 1988 Spitak Earthquake, though they sustained no damage. One of the two reactors was re-opened in 1995, but the Armenian government is under international pressure to close it due to concerns that the Soviet era design lacks important safeguards. Metsamor provides 40 percent of the country's electricity - hydropower accounts for about one-fourth. Economic ties with Russia remain close, especially in the energy sector. The electricity distribution system was privatized in 2002 and bought by Russia's RAO-UES in 2005. Construction of a pipeline to deliver natural gas from Iran to Armenia was completed in December 2008 and after testing is expected to be operational in Spring 2009, though it is unlikely significant quantities of gas will flow through it until the Yerevan Thermal Power Plant renovation is completed in 2010. Armenia has some mineral deposits (copper, gold, bauxite). Pig iron, unwrought copper, and other nonferrous metals are Armenia's highest valued exports. Armenia's severe trade imbalance has been offset somewhat by international aid, remittances from Armenians working abroad, and foreign direct investment. Armenia joined the WTO in January 2003. The government made some improvements in tax and customs administration in recent years, but anti-corruption measures will be more difficult to implement. Despite strong economic growth, Armenia's unemployment rate remains high. Armenia will need to pursue additional economic reforms in order to improve its economic competitiveness and to build on recent improvements in poverty and unemployment, especially given its economic isolation from two of its nearest neighbors, Turkey and Azerbaijan. The disruption of rail transit into Armenia during the Georgia-Russia conflict in August 2008 highlighted how vulnerable Armenia's supply chains for key goods - such as gasoline - are to instances of regional instability.
ArubaTourism is the mainstay of the small open Aruban economy withoffshore banking and oil refining and storage also important. Therapid growth of the tourism sector over the last decade has resultedin a substantial expansion of other activities. Over 1.5 milliontourists per year visit Aruba with 75% of those from the US.Construction continues to boom with hotel capacity five times the1985 level. In addition, the country's oil refinery reopened in 1993providing a major source of employment, foreign exchange earnings,and growth. Tourist arrivals have rebounded strongly following a dipafter the 11 September 2001 attacks. The island experiences only abrief low season. Hotel occupancy in 2004 averaged 80% compared to68% throughout the rest of the Caribbean. The government has madecutting the budget and trade deficits a high priority.
Ashmore and Cartier Islandsno economic activity
Atlantic OceanThe Atlantic Ocean provides some of the world's mostheavily trafficked sea routes, between and within the Eastern andWestern Hemispheres. Other economic activity includes theexploitation of natural resources, e.g., fishing, dredging ofaragonite sands (The Bahamas), and production of crude oil andnatural gas (Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and North Sea).
AustraliaAustralia has an enviable, strong economy with a percapita GDP on par with the four dominant West European economies.Emphasis on reforms, low inflation, a housing market boom, andgrowing ties with China have been key factors over the course of theeconomy's 17 solid years of expansion. Robust business and consumerconfidence and high export prices for raw materials and agriculturalproducts fueled the economy in recent years, particularly in miningstates. Drought, robust import demand, and a strong currency pushedthe trade deficit up however, while infrastructure bottlenecks and atight labor market constrained growth in export volumes and stokedinflation through mid-2008. The unwinding of the yen-based carrytrade in late 2008 has contributed to a weakening of the Australiandollar. Tight global liquidity has challenged Australia's bankingsector, which relies heavily on international wholesale markets forfunding. The economy remains relatively healthy despite fallingexport commodity prices. The government plans to counter slowinggrowth in 2009 with fiscal stimulus efforts.
AustriaAustria, with its well-developed market economy and highstandard of living, is closely tied to other EU economies,especially Germany's. Its economy features a large service sector, asound industrial sector, and a small, but highly developedagricultural sector. Following several years of solid foreign demandfor Austrian exports and record employment growth, the globaleconomic downturn in 2008 led to a recession that is likely topersist through 2009. The government's stabilization measures couldincrease the budget deficit to about 2.8% of GDP in 2009 and above3% in 2010, from about 0.6% in 2008. The Austrian economy hasbenefited greatly in the past from strong commercial relations,especially in the banking and insurance sectors, with central,eastern, and southeastern Europe, but these sectors have beenvulnerable to recent international financial instabilities, and someof Austria's largest banks have required government support. Evenafter the global economic outlook improves, Austria will need tocontinue restructuring, emphasizing knowledge-based sectors of theeconomy, and encouraging greater labor flexibility and greater laborparticipation to offset its aging population and exceedingly lowfertility rate.
AzerbaijanAzerbaijan's high economic growth during 2006-08 isattributable to large and growing oil exports, but the non-energysector also featured double-digit growth in 2008, spurred by growthin the construction, banking, and real estate sectors. However, thecurrent global economic slowdown presents some challenges for theAzerbaijani economy as oil prices have plummeted since mid-2008 andlocal banks face a more uncertain international financialenvironment. Azerbaijan's oil production declined through 1997, buthas registered an increase every year since. Negotiation ofproduction-sharing arrangements (PSAs) with foreign firms, whichhave committed $60 billion to long-term oilfield development, shouldgenerate the funds needed to spur future industrial development. Oilproduction under the first of these PSAs, with the AzerbaijanInternational Operating Company, began in November 1997. Aconsortium of Western oil companies built a $4 billion pipeline fromBaku to Turkey's Mediterranean port of Ceyhan which will pump 1.2million barrels a day from a large offshore field when at fullcapacity. Azerbaijan shares all the formidable problems of theformer Soviet republics in making the transition from a command to amarket economy, but its considerable energy resources brighten itsmedium-term prospects. Baku has only recently begun making progresson economic reform, and old economic ties and structures are slowlybeing replaced. Several other obstacles impede Azerbaijan's economicprogress: the need for stepped up foreign investment in thenon-energy sector, the continuing conflict with Armenia over theNagorno-Karabakh region, pervasive corruption, and potential for asharp downturn in the construction and real estate sectors. Tradewith Russia and the other former Soviet republics is declining inimportance, while trade is building with Turkey and the nations ofEurope. Long-term prospects will depend on world oil prices, thelocation of new oil and gas pipelines in the region, andAzerbaijan's ability to manage its energy wealth to promotesustainable growth in non-energy sectors of the economy and spuremployment.
Bahamas, TheThe Bahamas is one of the wealthiest Caribbeancountries with an economy heavily dependent on tourism and offshorebanking. Tourism together with tourism-driven construction andmanufacturing accounts for approximately 60% of GDP and directly orindirectly employs half of the archipelago's labor force. Steadygrowth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new hotels,resorts, and residences had led to solid GDP growth in recent years,but tourist arrivals have been on the decline since 2006 and willlikely drop even further in 2009. Tourism, in turn, depends ongrowth in the US, the source of more than 80% of the visitors. Tohelp offset the effect of the global economic downturn, particularlyon employment, the INGRAHAM administration plans to engage ininfrastructure projects. Financial services constitute thesecond-most important sector of the Bahamian economy and, whencombined with business services, account for about 36% of GDP.However, since December 2000, when the government enacted newregulations on the financial sector, many international businesseshave left The Bahamas. Manufacturing and agriculture combinedcontribute approximately a tenth of GDP and show little growth,despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growthprospects in the short run rest heavily on the fortunes of thetourism sector.
BahrainWith its highly developed communication and transportfacilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms withbusiness in the Gulf. Petroleum production and refining account forover 60% of Bahrain's export receipts, over 70% of governmentrevenues, and 11% of GDP (exclusive of allied industries),underpinning Bahrain's strong economic growth in recent years.Aluminum is Bahrain's second major export after oil. Other majorsegments of Bahrain's economy are the financial and constructionsectors. Bahrain is focused on Islamic banking and is competing onan international scale with Malaysia as a worldwide banking center.Bahrain is actively pursuing the diversification and privatizationof its economy to reduce the country's dependence on oil. As part ofthis effort, in August 2006 Bahrain and the US implemented a FreeTrade Agreement (FTA), the first FTA between the US and a Gulfstate. Continued strong growth hinges on Bahrain's ability toacquire new natural gas supplies as feedstock to support itsexpanding petrochemical and aluminum industries. Unemployment,especially among the young, and the depletion of oil and undergroundwater resources are long-term economic problems. The globalfinancial crisis is likely to result in slower economic growth forBahrain during 2009 as tight international credit and a slowingglobal economy cause funding for many non-oil projects to dry up.Lower oil prices may also cause Bahrain's budget to slip back intodeficit.
BangladeshThe economy has grown 5-6% per year since 1996 despiteinefficient state-owned enterprises, delays in exploiting naturalgas resources, insufficient power supplies, and slow implementationof economic reforms. Bangladesh remains a poor, overpopulated, andinefficiently-governed nation. Although more than half of GDP isgenerated through the service sector, nearly two-thirds ofBangladeshis are employed in the agriculture sector, with rice asthe single-most-important product. Garment exports and remittancesfrom Bangladeshis working overseas, mainly in the Middle East andEast Asia, fuel economic growth. In 2008 Bangladesh pursued amonetary policy aimed at maintaining high employment, but createdhigher inflation in the process.
BarbadosHistorically, the Barbadian economy was dependent onsugarcane cultivation and related activities. However, in recentyears the economy has diversified into light industry and tourismwith about three-quarters of GDP and 80% of exports being attributedto services. Growth has rebounded since 2003, bolstered by increasesin construction projects and tourism revenues, reflecting itssuccess in the higher-end segment, but the sector will likely facedeclining revenues with the global economic downturn. The countryenjoys one of the highest per capita incomes in the region. Offshorefinance and information services are important foreign exchangeearners and thrive from having the same time zone as eastern USfinancial centers and a relatively highly educated workforce. Thegovernment continues its efforts to reduce unemployment, toencourage direct foreign investment, and to privatize remainingstate-owned enterprises. The public debt-to-GDP ratio of about 80%will likely widen as the THOMPSON administration engages in a moreexpansionary fiscal policy.
Belarus Belarus has seen little structural reform since 1995, when President LUKASHENKO launched the country on the path of "market socialism." In keeping with this policy, LUKASHENKO reimposed administrative controls over prices and currency exchange rates and expanded the state's right to intervene in the management of private enterprises. Since 2005, the government has re-nationalized a number of private companies. In addition, businesses have been subject to pressure by central and local governments, e.g., arbitrary changes in regulations, numerous rigorous inspections, retroactive application of new business regulations, and arrests of "disruptive" businessmen and factory owners. A wide range of redistributive policies has helped those at the bottom of the ladder; the Gini coefficient is among the lowest in the world. Because of these restrictive economic policies, Belarus has had trouble attracting foreign investment. Nevertheless, government statistics indicate GDP growth has been strong in recent years, reaching 10% in 2008, despite the roadblocks of a tough, centrally directed economy with a high rate of inflation. Belarus receives discounted oil and natural gas from Russia and much of Belarus' growth can be attributed to the re-export of Russian oil at market prices. Trade with Russia - by far its largest single trade partner - decreased in 2007-08, largely as a result of a change in the way the Value Added Tax (VAT) on trade was collected. Russia has introduced an export duty on oil shipped to Belarus, which will increase gradually through 2009, and a requirement that Belarusian duties on re-exported Russian oil be shared with Russia - 80% was slated to go to Russia in 2008, and 85% in 2009. Russia also increased Belarusian natural gas prices from $47 per thousand cubic meters (tcm)in 2006 to $100 per tcm in 2007, and to $128 per tcm in 2008, and plans to increase prices gradually to world levels by 2011. Russia's recent policy of bringing energy prices for Belarus to world market levels may result in a slowdown in economic growth in Belarus over the next few years. Some policy measures, including improving energy efficiency and diversifying exports, have been introduced, but external borrowing has been the main mechanism used to manage the growing pressures on the economy. Belarus felt the effects of the global financial crisis in late 2008 and reached agreement with Russia in November for a $2 billion stabilization loan and with the IMF for a $2.5 billion stand-by agreement in January 2009. In line with IMF conditionality, Belarus devalued the ruble approximately 20% in January 2009 and has tightened some fiscal and monetary policies. Belarus's economic growth is likely to slow in 2009 as it faces decreasing demand for its exports, and will find it difficult to increase external borrowing if the credit markets continue to tighten.
BelgiumThis modern, private-enterprise economy has capitalized onits central geographic location, highly developed transport network,and diversified industrial and commercial base. Industry isconcentrated mainly in the populous Flemish area in the north. Withfew natural resources, Belgium must import substantial quantities ofraw materials and export a large volume of manufactures, making itseconomy unusually dependent on the state of world markets. Roughlythree-quarters of its trade is with other EU countries. Public debtis more than 80% of GDP. On the positive side, the governmentsucceeded in balancing its budget during the 2000-2008 period, andincome distribution is relatively equal. Belgium began circulatingthe euro currency in January 2002. Economic growth and foreigndirect investment dropped in 2008. In 2009 Belgium is likely to havenegative growth, growing unemployment, and a 3% budget deficit,stemming from the worldwide banking crisis.
BelizeIn this small, essentially private-enterprise economy,tourism is the number one foreign exchange earner followed byexports of marine products, citrus, cane sugar, bananas, andgarments. The government's expansionary monetary and fiscalpolicies, initiated in September 1998, led to sturdy GDP growthaveraging nearly 4% in 1999-2007, though growth slipped to 3.8% in2008 as a result of the global slowdown, natural disasters, and thedrop in the price of oil. Oil discoveries in 2006 bolstered theeconomic growth. Exploration efforts continue and a small increasein production is expected in 2009. Major concerns continue to be thesizable trade deficit and unsustainable foreign debt equivalent tonearly 70% of GDP. In February 2007, the government restructurednearly all of its public external commercial debt, which helpedreduce interest payments and relieve some of the country's liquidityconcerns. A key short-term objective remains the reduction ofpoverty with the help of international donors.
BeninThe economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent onsubsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade.Growth in real output has averaged around 5% in the past sevenyears, but rapid population growth has offset much of this increase.Inflation has subsided over the past several years. In order toraise growth still further, Benin plans to attract more foreigninvestment, place more emphasis on tourism, facilitate thedevelopment of new food processing systems and agriculturalproducts, and encourage new information and communicationtechnology. Specific projects to improve the business climate byreforms to the land tenure system, the commercial justice system,and the financial sector were included in Benin's $307 millionMillennium Challenge Account grant signed in February 2006. The 2001privatization policy continues in telecommunications, water,electricity, and agriculture though the government annulled theprivatization of Benin's state cotton company in November 2007 afterthe discovery of irregularities in the bidding process. The ParisClub and bilateral creditors have eased the external debt situation,with Benin benefiting from a G8 debt reduction announced in July2005, while pressing for more rapid structural reforms. Aninsufficient electrical supply continues to adversely affect Benin'seconomic growth though the government recently has taken steps toincrease domestic power production.