SeychellesA lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain forthe islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a closewith a new constitution and free elections in 1993. PresidentFrance-Albert RENE, who had served since 1977, was re-elected in2001, but stepped down in 2004. Vice President James MICHEL tookover the presidency and in July 2006 was elected to a new five-yearterm.
Sierra LeoneDemocracy is slowly being reestablished after the civilwar from 1991 to 2002 that resulted in tens of thousands of deathsand the displacement of more than 2 million people (about one-thirdof the population). The military, which took over fullresponsibility for security following the departure of UNpeacekeepers at the end of 2005, is increasingly developing as aguarantor of the country's stability. The armed forces remained onthe sideline during the 2007 presidential election, but still lookto the UN Integrated Office in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) - a civilianUN mission - to support efforts to consolidate peace. The newgovernment's priorities include furthering development, creatingjobs, and stamping out endemic corruption.
SingaporeSingapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819.It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two yearslater and became independent. Singapore subsequently became one ofthe world's most prosperous countries with strong internationaltrading links (its port is one of the world's busiest in terms oftonnage handled) and with per capita GDP equal to that of theleading nations of Western Europe.
Sint MaartenAlthough sighted by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 andclaimed for Spain, it was the Dutch who occupied the island in 1631and set about exploiting its salt deposits. The Spanish retook theisland in 1633, but continued to be harassed by the Dutch. TheSpanish finally relinquished the island of Saint Martin to theFrench and Dutch, who divided it amongst themselves in 1648. Theestablishment of cotton, tobacco, and sugar plantations dramaticallyexpanded slavery on the island in the 18th and 19th centuries; thepractice was not abolished in the Dutch half until 1863. Theisland's economy declined until 1939 when it became a free port; thetourism industry was dramatically expanded beginning in the 1950s.In 1954, Sint Maarten and several other Dutch Caribbean possessionsbecame part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands as the NetherlandsAntilles. In a 2000 referendum, the citizens of Sint Maarten votedto become a self-governing country within the Kingdom of theNetherlands. The change in status became effective in October of2010 with the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles.
SlovakiaThe dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the closeof World War I allowed the Slovaks to join the closely relatedCzechs to form Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,Czechoslovakia became a Communist nation within Soviet-dominatedEastern Europe. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 andCzechoslovakia once more became free. The Slovaks and the Czechsagreed to separate peacefully on 1 January 1993. Slovakia joinedboth NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004 and the euro area on 1January 2009.
SloveniaThe Slovene lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empireuntil the latter's dissolution at the end of World War I. In 1918,the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats in forming a newmultinational state, which was named Yugoslavia in 1929. After WorldWar II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, whichthough Communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfiedwith the exercise of power by the majority Serbs, the Slovenessucceeded in establishing their independence in 1991 after a short10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, anda stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia's transformation to amodern state. Slovenia acceded to both NATO and the EU in the springof 2004; it joined the eurozone in 2007.
Solomon IslandsThe UK established a protectorate over the SolomonIslands in the 1890s. Some of the most bitter fighting of World WarII occurred on this archipelago. Self-government was achieved in1976 and independence two years later. Ethnic violence, governmentmalfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civilsociety. In June 2003, then Prime Minister Sir Allan KEMAKEZA soughtthe assistance of Australia in reestablishing law and order; thefollowing month, an Australian-led multinational force arrived torestore peace and disarm ethnic militias. The Regional AssistanceMission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) has generally been effectivein restoring law and order and rebuilding government institutions.
Somalia Britain withdrew from British Somaliland in 1960 to allow its protectorate to join with Italian Somaliland and form the new nation of Somalia. In 1969, a coup headed by Mohamed SIAD Barre ushered in an authoritarian socialist rule characterized by the persecution, jailing and torture of political opponents and dissidents. After the regime's collapse early in 1991, Somalia descended into turmoil, factional fighting, and anarchy. In May 1991, northern clans declared an independent Republic of Somaliland that now includes the administrative regions of Awdal, Woqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag, and Sool. Although not recognized by any government, this entity has maintained a stable existence and continues efforts to establish a constitutional democracy, including holding municipal, parliamentary, and presidential elections. The regions of Bari, Nugaal, and northern Mudug comprise a neighboring semi-autonomous state of Puntland, which has been self-governing since 1998 but does not aim at independence; it has also made strides toward reconstructing a legitimate, representative government but has suffered some civil strife. Puntland disputes its border with Somaliland as it also claims portions of eastern Sool and Sanaag. Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily in the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions, but when the UN withdrew in 1995, having suffered significant casualties, order still had not been restored. In 2000, the Somalia National Peace Conference (SNPC) held in Djibouti resulted in the formation of an interim government, known as the Transitional National Government (TNG). When the TNG failed to establish adequate security or governing institutions, the Government of Kenya, under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), led a subsequent peace process that concluded in October 2004 with the election of Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmed as President of a second interim government, known as the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) of the Somali Republic. The TFG included a 275-member parliamentary body, known as the Transitional Federal Parliament (TFP). President YUSUF resigned late in 2008 while United Nations-sponsored talks between the TFG and the opposition Alliance for the Re-Liberation of Somalia (ARS) were underway in Djibouti. In January 2009, following the creation of a TFG-ARS unity government, Ethiopian military forces, which had entered Somalia in December 2006 to support the TFG in the face of advances by the opposition Islamic Courts Union (ICU), withdrew from the country. The TFP was increased to 550 seats with the addition of 200 ARS and 75 civil society members of parliament. The expanded parliament elected Sheikh SHARIF Sheikh Ahmed, the former CIC and ARS chairman as president on 31 January 2009, in Djibouti. Subsequently, President SHARIF appointed Omar Abdirashid ali SHARMARKE, son of a former president of Somalia, as prime minister on 13 February 2009. SHARMARKE resigned in September 2010 and was replaced by Mohamed Abdullahi MOHAMED, aka Farmajo, a dual US-Somali citizen that lived in the United Stated from 1985 until his return to Somalia in October 2010. The creation of the TFG was based on the Transitional Federal Charter (TFC), which outlines a five-year mandate leading to the establishment of a new Somali constitution and a transition to a representative government following national elections. However, in January 2009 the TFP amended the TFC to extend TFG's mandate until 2011.
South AfricaDutch traders landed at the southern tip of modern daySouth Africa in 1652 and established a stopover point on the spiceroute between the Netherlands and the Far East, founding the city ofCape Town. After the British seized the Cape of Good Hope area in1806, many of the Dutch settlers (the Boers) trekked north to foundtheir own republics. The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold(1886) spurred wealth and immigration and intensified thesubjugation of the native inhabitants. The Boers resisted Britishencroachments but were defeated in the Boer War (1899-1902);however, the British and the Afrikaners, as the Boers became known,ruled together beginning in 1910 under the Union of South Africa,which became a republic in 1961 after a whites-only referendum. In1948, the National Party was voted into power and instituted apolicy of apartheid - the separate development of the races - whichfavored the white minority at the expense of the black majority. TheAfrican National Congress (ANC) led the opposition to apartheid andmany top ANC leaders, such as Nelson MANDELA, spent decades in SouthAfrica's prisons. Internal protests and insurgency, as well asboycotts by some Western nations and institutions, led to theregime's eventual willingness to negotiate a peaceful transition tomajority rule. The first multi-racial elections in 1994 brought anend to apartheid and ushered in majority rule under an ANC-ledgovernment. South Africa since then has struggled to addressapartheid-era imbalances in decent housing, education, and healthcare. ANC infighting, which has grown in recent years, came to ahead in September 2008 when President Thabo MBEKI resigned, andKgalema MOTLANTHE, the party's General-Secretary, succeeded him asinterim president. Jacob ZUMA became president after the ANC wongeneral elections in April 2009. In January 2011, South Africaassumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the2011-12 term.
South Georgia and South Sandwich IslandsThe islands, which havelarge bird and seal populations, lie approximately 1,000 km east ofthe Falkland Islands and have been under British administrationsince 1908 - except for a brief period in 1982 when Argentinaoccupied them. Grytviken, on South Georgia, was a 19th and early20th century whaling station. Famed explorer Ernest SHACKLETONstopped there in 1914 en route to his ill-fated attempt to crossAntarctica on foot. He returned some 20 months later with a fewcompanions in a small boat and arranged a successful rescue for therest of his crew, stranded off the Antarctic Peninsula. He died in1922 on a subsequent expedition and is buried in Grytviken. Today,the station houses scientists from the British Antarctic Survey.Recognizing the importance of preserving the marine stocks inadjacent waters, the UK, in 1993, extended the exclusive fishingzone from 12 nm to 200 nm around each island.
Southern OceanA large body of recent oceanographic research hasshown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), an ocean currentthat flows from west to east around Antarctica, plays a crucial rolein global ocean circulation. The region where the cold waters of theACC meet and mingle with the warmer waters of the north defines adistinct border - the Antarctic Convergence - which fluctuates withthe seasons, but which encompasses a discrete body of water and aunique ecologic region. The Convergence concentrates nutrients,which promotes marine plant life, and which in turn allows for agreater abundance of animal life. In the spring of 2000, theInternational Hydrographic Organization decided to delimit thewaters within the Convergence as a fifth world ocean - the SouthernOcean - by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean,Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from thecoast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude, whichcoincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit and which approximates theextent of the Antarctic Convergence. As such, the Southern Ocean isnow the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the PacificOcean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the ArcticOcean). It should be noted that inclusion of the Southern Ocean doesnot imply recognition of this feature as one of the world's primaryoceans by the US Government.
SpainSpain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuriesultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequentfailure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions causedthe country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economicand political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and IIbut suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). A peacefultransition to democracy following the death of dictator FranciscoFRANCO in 1975, and rapid economic modernization (Spain joined theEU in 1986) gave Spain a dynamic and rapidly growing economy andmade it a global champion of freedom and human rights. Thegovernment continues to battle the Basque Fatherland and Liberty(ETA) terrorist organization, but its major focus for the immediatefuture will be on measures to reverse the severe economic recessionthat started in mid-2008.
Spratly IslandsThe Spratly Islands consist of more than 100 smallislands or reefs. They are surrounded by rich fishing grounds andpotentially by gas and oil deposits. They are claimed in theirentirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, while portions are claimedby Malaysia and the Philippines. About 45 islands are occupied byrelatively small numbers of military forces from China, Malaysia,the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Brunei has established afishing zone that overlaps a southern reef but has not made anyformal claim.
Sri LankaThe first Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6thcentury B.C. probably from northern India. Buddhism was introducedin about the mid-third century B.C., and a great civilizationdeveloped at the cities of Anuradhapura (kingdom from circa 200 B.C.to circa A.D. 1000) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070 to 1200). Inthe 14th century, a south Indian dynasty established a Tamil kingdomin northern Sri Lanka. The coastal areas of the island werecontrolled by the Portuguese in the 16th century and by the Dutch inthe 17th century. The island was ceded to the British in 1796,became a crown colony in 1802, and was united under British rule by1815. As Ceylon, it became independent in 1948; its name was changedto Sri Lanka in 1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority andTamil separatists erupted into war in 1983. After two decades offighting, the government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)formalized a cease-fire in February 2002 with Norway brokering peacenegotiations. Violence between the LTTE and government forcesintensified in 2006 and the government regained control of theEastern Province in 2007. In May 2009, the government announced thatits military had finally defeated the remnants of the LTTE and thatits leader, Velupillai PRABHAKARAN, had been killed.
SudanMilitary regimes favoring Islamic-oriented governments havedominated national politics since independence from the UK in 1956.Sudan was embroiled in two prolonged civil wars during most of theremainder of the 20th century. These conflicts were rooted innorthern economic, political, and social domination of largelynon-Muslim, non-Arab southern Sudanese. The first civil war ended in1972 but broke out again in 1983. The second war and famine-relatedeffects resulted in more than four million people displaced and,according to rebel estimates, more than two million deaths over aperiod of two decades. Peace talks gained momentum in 2002-04 withthe signing of several accords. The final North/South ComprehensivePeace Agreement (CPA), signed in January 2005, granted the southernrebels autonomy for six years. After which, a referendum forindependence is scheduled to be held. A separate conflict, whichbroke out in the western region of Darfur in 2003, has displacednearly two million people and caused an estimated 200,000 to 400,000deaths. The UN took command of the Darfur peacekeeping operationfrom the African Union on 31 December 2007. As of early 2009,peacekeeping troops were struggling to stabilize the situation,which has become increasingly regional in scope and has broughtinstability to eastern Chad. Sudan also has faced large refugeeinfluxes from neighboring countries primarily Ethiopia and Chad.Armed conflict, poor transport infrastructure, and lack ofgovernment support have chronically obstructed the provision ofhumanitarian assistance to affected populations.
SurinameFirst explored by the Spaniards in the 16th century andthen settled by the English in the mid-17th century, Suriname becamea Dutch colony in 1667. With the abolition of slavery in 1863,workers were brought in from India and Java. Independence from theNetherlands was granted in 1975. Five years later the civiliangovernment was replaced by a military regime that soon declared asocialist republic. It continued to exert control through asuccession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, wheninternational pressure finally forced a democratic election. In1990, the military overthrew the civilian leadership, but ademocratically elected government - a four-party coalition -returned to power in 1991. The coalition expanded to eight partiesin 2005 and has continued to rule since.
SvalbardFirst discovered by the Norwegians in the 12th century, theislands served as an international whaling base during the 17th and18th centuries. Norway's sovereignty was recognized in 1920; fiveyears later it officially took over the territory.
SwazilandAutonomy for the Swazis of southern Africa was guaranteedby the British in the late 19th century; independence was granted in1968. Student and labor unrest during the 1990s pressured KingMSWATI III, the world's last absolute monarch, to grudgingly allowpolitical reform and greater democracy, although he has backslid onthese promises in recent years. A constitution came into effect in2006, but political parties remain banned. The African UnitedDemocratic Party tried unsuccessfully to register as an officialpolitical party in mid 2006. Talks over the constitution broke downbetween the government and progressive groups in 2007. Swazilandrecently surpassed Botswana as the country with the world's highestknown HIV/AIDS prevalence rate.
SwedenA military power during the 17th century, Sweden has notparticipated in any war for almost two centuries. An armedneutrality was preserved in both World Wars. Sweden'slong-successful economic formula of a capitalist system interlardedwith substantial welfare elements was challenged in the 1990s byhigh unemployment and in 2000-02 and 2009 by the global economicdownturns, but fiscal discipline over the past several years hasallowed the country to weather economic vagaries. Sweden joined theEU in 1995, but the public rejected the introduction of the euro ina 2003 referendum.
SwitzerlandThe Swiss Confederation was founded in 1291 as adefensive alliance among three cantons. In succeeding years, otherlocalities joined the original three. The Swiss Confederationsecured its independence from the Holy Roman Empire in 1499. Aconstitution of 1848, subsequently modified in 1874, replaced theconfederation with a centralized federal government. Switzerland'ssovereignty and neutrality have long been honored by the majorEuropean powers, and the country was not involved in either of thetwo World Wars. The political and economic integration of Europeover the past half century, as well as Switzerland's role in many UNand international organizations, has strengthened Switzerland's tieswith its neighbors. However, the country did not officially become aUN member until 2002. Switzerland remains active in many UN andinternational organizations but retains a strong commitment toneutrality.
SyriaFollowing World War I, France acquired a mandate over thenorthern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. TheFrench administered the area as Syria until granting it independencein 1946. The new country lacked political stability, however, andexperienced a series of military coups during its first decades.Syria united with Egypt in February 1958 to form the United ArabRepublic. In September 1961, the two entities separated, and theSyrian Arab Republic was reestablished. In November 1970, Hafizal-ASAD, a member of the Socialist Ba'th Party and the minorityAlawite sect, seized power in a bloodless coup and brought politicalstability to the country. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lostthe Golan Heights to Israel. During the 1990s, Syria and Israel heldoccasional peace talks over its return. Following the death ofPresident al-ASAD, his son, Bashar al-ASAD, was approved aspresident by popular referendum in July 2000. Syrian troops -stationed in Lebanon since 1976 in an ostensible peacekeeping role -were withdrawn in April 2005. During the July-August 2006 conflictbetween Israel and Hizballah, Syria placed its military forces onalert but did not intervene directly on behalf of its allyHizballah. In May 2007 Bashar al-ASAD was elected to his second termas president.
TaiwanIn 1895, military defeat forced China to cede Taiwan toJapan. Taiwan reverted to Chinese control after World War II.Following the Communist victory on the mainland in 1949, 2 millionNationalists fled to Taiwan and established a government using the1947 constitution drawn up for all of China. Over the next fivedecades, the ruling authorities gradually democratized andincorporated the local population within the governing structure. In2000, Taiwan underwent its first peaceful transfer of power from theNationalist to the Democratic Progressive Party. Throughout thisperiod, the island prospered and became one of East Asia's economic"Tigers." The dominant political issues continue to be therelationship between Taiwan and China - specifically the question ofTaiwan's eventual status - as well as domestic political andeconomic reform.
TajikistanThe Tajik people came under Russian rule in the 1860s and1870s, but Russia's hold on Central Asia weakened following theRevolution of 1917. Bolshevik control of the area was fiercelycontested and not fully reestablished until 1925. Much ofpresent-day Sughd province was transferred from the Uzbek SSR to thenewly formed Tajik SSR in 1929. Ethnic Uzbeks form a substantialminority in Sughd province. Tajikistan became independent in 1991following the breakup of the Soviet Union, and experienced a civilwar between regional factions from 1992-97. There have been no majorsecurity incidents in recent years, although the country remains thepoorest in the former Soviet sphere. Attention by the internationalcommunity since the beginning of the NATO intervention inAfghanistan has brought increased economic development and securityassistance, which could create jobs and strengthen stability in thelong term. Tajikistan is in the early stages of seeking World TradeOrganization membership and has joined NATO's Partnership for Peace.
TanzaniaShortly after achieving independence from Britain in theearly 1960s, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the nation ofTanzania in 1964. One-party rule came to an end in 1995 with thefirst democratic elections held in the country since the 1970s.Zanzibar's semi-autonomous status and popular opposition have led totwo contentious elections since 1995, which the ruling party wondespite international observers' claims of voting irregularities.
ThailandA unified Thai kingdom was established in the mid-14thcentury. Known as Siam until 1939, Thailand is the only SoutheastAsian country never to have been taken over by a European power. Abloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional monarchy. Inalliance with Japan during World War II, Thailand became a US treatyally following the conflict. A military coup in September 2006ousted then Prime Minister THAKSIN Chinnawat. The interim governmentheld elections in December 2007 that saw the former pro-THAKSINPeople's Power Party (PPP) emerge at the head of a coalitiongovernment. The anti-THAKSIN People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD)in May 2008 began street demonstrations against the new government,eventually occupying the prime minister's office in August andBangkok's two international airports in November. The PAD endedtheir protests in early December 2008 following a court ruling thatdissolved the ruling PPP and two other coalition parties forelection violations. The Democrat Party then formed a new coalitiongovernment and ABHISIT Wetchachiwa became prime minister. In October2008 THAKSIN went into voluntary exile to avoid imprisonment for acorruption conviction, and has since agitated his followers fromabroad. THAKSIN supporters re-organized into the United Front forDemocracy Against Dictatorship (UDD) and rioted in April 2009,shutting down an ASEAN meeting in Phuket, and in early 2010protested a court verdict confiscating most of THAKSIN's wealth.Between March and May 2010, the UDD staged large protests andoccupied several blocks of downtown Bangkok. A government operationto disperse the protesters after nine weeks led to clashes thatresulted in 89 deaths and an estimated $1.5 billion in arson-relatedproperty losses. These protests exposed major cleavages in the Thaibody politic which continue to hamper the current government. SinceJanuary 2004, thousands have been killed as separatists inThailand's southern ethnic Malay-Muslim provinces increased theviolence associated with their cause.
Timor-LesteThe Portuguese began to trade with the island of Timorin the early 16th century and colonized it in mid-century.Skirmishing with the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an1859 treaty in which Portugal ceded the western portion of theisland. Imperial Japan occupied Portuguese Timor from 1942 to 1945,but Portugal resumed colonial authority after the Japanese defeat inWorld War II. East Timor declared itself independent from Portugalon 28 November 1975 and was invaded and occupied by Indonesianforces nine days later. It was incorporated into Indonesia in July1976 as the province of Timor Timur (East Timor). An unsuccessfulcampaign of pacification followed over the next two decades, duringwhich an estimated 100,000 to 250,000 individuals lost their lives.On 30 August 1999, in a UN-supervised popular referendum, anoverwhelming majority of the people of Timor-Leste voted forindependence from Indonesia. Between the referendum and the arrivalof a multinational peacekeeping force in late September 1999,anti-independence Timorese militias - organized and supported by theIndonesian military - commenced a large-scale, scorched-earthcampaign of retribution. The militias killed approximately 1,400Timorese and forcibly pushed 300,000 people into western Timor asrefugees. The majority of the country's infrastructure, includinghomes, irrigation systems, water supply systems, and schools, andnearly 100% of the country's electrical grid were destroyed. On 20September 1999, the Australian-led peacekeeping troops of theInternational Force for East Timor (INTERFET) deployed to thecountry and brought the violence to an end. On 20 May 2002,Timor-Leste was internationally recognized as an independent state.In late April 2006, internal tensions threatened the new nation'ssecurity when a military strike led to violence and a near breakdownof law and order. At Dili's request, an Australian-led InternationalStabilization Force (ISF) deployed to Timor-Leste in late May. InAugust, the UN Security Council established the UN IntegratedMission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT), which included an authorized policepresence of over 1,600 personnel. The ISF and UNMIT restoredstability, allowing for presidential and parliamentary elections inApril and June 2007 in a largely peaceful atmosphere. In February2008, a rebel group staged an unsuccessful attack against thepresident and prime minister. The ringleader was killed in theattack and the majority of the rebels surrendered in April 2008.Since the unsuccessful attacks the government has enjoyed one of itslongest periods of post-independence stability.
TogoFrench Togoland became Togo in 1960. Gen. Gnassingbe EYADEMA,installed as military ruler in 1967, ruled Togo with a heavy handfor almost four decades. Despite the facade of multiparty electionsinstituted in the early 1990s, the government was largely dominatedby President EYADEMA, whose Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) partyhas maintained power almost continually since 1967 and maintains amajority of seats in today's legislature. Upon EYADEMA's death inFebruary 2005, the military installed the president's son, FaureGNASSINGBE, and then engineered his formal election two monthslater. Democratic gains since then allowed Togo to hold its firstrelatively free and fair legislative elections in October 2007.After years of political unrest and condemnation from internationalorganizations for human rights abuses, Togo is finally beingre-welcomed into the international community.
TokelauOriginally settled by Polynesian emigrants from surroundingisland groups, the Tokelau Islands were made a British protectoratein 1889. They were transferred to New Zealand administration in1925. Referenda held in 2006 and 2007 to change the status of theislands from that of a New Zealand territory to one of freeassociation with New Zealand did not meet the needed threshold forapproval.
TongaTonga - unique among Pacific nations - never completely lostits indigenous governance. The archipelagos of "The FriendlyIslands" were united into a Polynesian kingdom in 1845. Tonga becamea constitutional monarchy in 1875 and a British protectorate in1900; it withdrew from the protectorate and joined the Commonwealthof Nations in 1970. Tonga remains the only monarchy in the Pacific.
Trinidad and TobagoFirst colonized by the Spanish, the islands cameunder British control in the early 19th century. The islands' sugarindustry was hurt by the emancipation of the slaves in 1834.Manpower was replaced with the importation of contract laborers fromIndia between 1845 and 1917, which boosted sugar production as wellas the cocoa industry. The discovery of oil on Trinidad in 1910added another important export. Independence was attained in 1962.The country is one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean thankslargely to petroleum and natural gas production and processing.Tourism, mostly in Tobago, is targeted for expansion and is growing.The government is coping with a rise in violent crime.
TunisiaRivalry between French and Italian interests in Tunisiaculminated in a French invasion in 1881 and the creation of aprotectorate. Agitation for independence in the decades followingWorld War I was finally successful in getting the French torecognize Tunisia as an independent state in 1956. The country'sfirst president, Habib BOURGUIBA, established a strict one-partystate. He dominated the country for 31 years, repressing Islamicfundamentalism and establishing rights for women unmatched by anyother Arab nation. In November 1987, BOURGUIBA was removed fromoffice and replaced by Zine el Abidine BEN ALI in a bloodless coup.BEN ALI is currently serving his fifth consecutive five-year term aspresident. Tunisia has long taken a moderate, non-aligned stance inits foreign relations. Domestically, it has sought to defuse risingpressure for a more open political society.
TurkeyModern Turkey was founded in 1923 from the Anatolian remnantsof the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero Mustafa KEMAL, whowas later honored with the title Ataturk or "Father of the Turks."Under his authoritarian leadership, the country adopted wide-rangingsocial, legal, and political reforms. After a period of one-partyrule, an experiment with multi-party politics led to the 1950election victory of the opposition Democratic Party and the peacefultransfer of power. Since then, Turkish political parties havemultiplied, but democracy has been fractured by periods ofinstability and intermittent military coups (1960, 1971, 1980),which in each case eventually resulted in a return of politicalpower to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer theouster - popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the thenIslamic-oriented government. Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprusin 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the island and has sinceacted as patron state to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,"which only Turkey recognizes. A separatist insurgency begun in 1984by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) - now known as the People'sCongress of Kurdistan or Kongra-Gel (KGK) - has dominated theTurkish military's attention and claimed more than 30,000 lives.After the capture of the group's leader in 1999, the insurgentslargely withdrew from Turkey mainly to northern Iraq. In 2004, KGKannounced an end to its ceasefire and attacks attributed to the KGKincreased. Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and in 1952 it became amember of NATO. In 1964, Turkey became an associate member of theEuropean Community. Over the past decade, it has undertaken manyreforms to strengthen its democracy and economy; it began accessionmembership talks with the European Union in 2005.
TurkmenistanEastern Turkmenistan for centuries formed part of thePersian province of Khurasan; in medieval times Merv (today known asMary) was one of the great cities of the Islamic world and animportant stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by Russia between 1865 and1885, Turkmenistan became a Soviet republic in 1924. It achievedindependence upon the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Extensivehydrocarbon/natural gas reserves could prove a boon to thisunderdeveloped country once extraction and delivery projects areexpanded. The Turkmen Government is actively working to diversifyits gas export routes beyond the still dominant Russian pipelinenetwork. In 2010, new gas export pipelines that carry Turkmen gas toChina and to northern Iran began operating, effectively ending theRussian monopoly on Turkmen gas exports. President for LifeSaparmurat NYYAZOW died in December 2006, and Turkmenistan held itsfirst multi-candidate presidential election in February 2007.Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW, a deputy cabinet chairman under NYYAZOW,emerged as the country's new president.
Turks and Caicos IslandsThe islands were part of the UK's Jamaicancolony until 1962, when they assumed the status of a separate crowncolony upon Jamaica's independence. The governor of The Bahamasoversaw affairs from 1965 to 1973. With Bahamian independence, theislands received a separate governor in 1973. Although independencewas agreed upon for 1982, the policy was reversed and the islandsremain a British overseas territory.
TuvaluIn 1974, ethnic differences within the British colony of theGilbert and Ellice Islands caused the Polynesians of the ElliceIslands to vote for separation from the Micronesians of the GilbertIslands. The following year, the Ellice Islands became the separateBritish colony of Tuvalu. Independence was granted in 1978. In 2000,Tuvalu negotiated a contract leasing its Internet domain name ".tv"for $50 million in royalties over a 12-year period.
UgandaThe colonial boundaries created by Britain to delimit Ugandagrouped together a wide range of ethnic groups with differentpolitical systems and cultures. These differences prevented theestablishment of a working political community after independencewas achieved in 1962. The dictatorial regime of Idi AMIN (1971-79)was responsible for the deaths of some 300,000 opponents; guerrillawar and human rights abuses under Milton OBOTE (1980-85) claimed atleast another 100,000 lives. The rule of Yoweri MUSEVENI since 1986has brought relative stability and economic growth to Uganda. Duringthe 1990s, the government promulgated non-party presidential andlegislative elections.
UkraineUkraine was the center of the first eastern Slavic state,Kyivan Rus, which during the 10th and 11th centuries was the largestand most powerful state in Europe. Weakened by internecine quarrelsand Mongol invasions, Kyivan Rus was incorporated into the GrandDuchy of Lithuania and eventually into the Polish-LithuanianCommonwealth. The cultural and religious legacy of Kyivan Rus laidthe foundation for Ukrainian nationalism through subsequentcenturies. A new Ukrainian state, the Cossack Hetmanate, wasestablished during the mid-17th century after an uprising againstthe Poles. Despite continuous Muscovite pressure, the Hetmanatemanaged to remain autonomous for well over 100 years. During thelatter part of the 18th century, most Ukrainian ethnographicterritory was absorbed by the Russian Empire. Following the collapseof czarist Russia in 1917, Ukraine was able to achieve a short-livedperiod of independence (1917-20), but was reconquered and forced toendure a brutal Soviet rule that engineered two forced famines(1921-22 and 1932-33) in which over 8 million died. In World War II,German and Soviet armies were responsible for some 7 to 8 millionmore deaths. Although final independence for Ukraine was achieved in1991 with the dissolution of the USSR, democracy and prosperityremained elusive as the legacy of state control and endemiccorruption stalled efforts at economic reform, privatization, andcivil liberties. A peaceful mass protest "Orange Revolution" in theclosing months of 2004 forced the authorities to overturn a riggedpresidential election and to allow a new internationally monitoredvote that swept into power a reformist slate under ViktorYUSHCHENKO. Subsequent internal squabbles in the YUSHCHENKO campallowed his rival Viktor YANUKOVYCH to stage a comeback inparliamentary elections and become prime minister in August of 2006.An early legislative election, brought on by a political crisis inthe spring of 2007, saw Yuliya TYMOSHENKO, as head of an "Orange"coalition, installed as a new prime minister in December 2007.Viktor YANUKOVUYCH was elected president in a February 2010 run-offelection that observers assessed as meeting most internationalstandards. The following month, the Rada approved a vote ofno-confidence prompting Yuliya TYMOSHENKO to resign from her post asprime minister.
United Arab EmiratesThe Trucial States of the Persian Gulf coastgranted the UK control of their defense and foreign affairs in 19thcentury treaties. In 1971, six of these states - Abu Zaby, 'Ajman,Al Fujayrah, Ash Shariqah, Dubayy, and Umm al Qaywayn - merged toform the United Arab Emirates (UAE). They were joined in 1972 byRa's al Khaymah. The UAE's per capita GDP is on par with those ofleading West European nations. Its generosity with oil revenues andits moderate foreign policy stance have allowed the UAE to play avital role in the affairs of the region. For more than threedecades, oil and global finance drove the UAE's economy, however, in2008-09, the confluence of falling oil prices, collapsing realestate prices, and the international banking crisis hit the UAEespecially hard.
United KingdomThe United Kingdom has historically played a leadingrole in developing parliamentary democracy and in advancingliterature and science. At its zenith in the 19th century, theBritish Empire stretched over one-fourth of the earth's surface. Thefirst half of the 20th century saw the UK's strength seriouslydepleted in two World Wars and the Irish republic withdraw from theunion. The second half witnessed the dismantling of the Empire andthe UK rebuilding itself into a modern and prosperous Europeannation. As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council,a founding member of NATO, and of the Commonwealth, the UK pursues aglobal approach to foreign policy. The UK is also an active memberof the EU, although it chose to remain outside the Economic andMonetary Union. The Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly forWales, and the Northern Ireland Assembly were established in 1999.The latter was suspended until May 2007 due to wrangling over thepeace process, but devolution was fully completed in March 2010.
United StatesBritain's American colonies broke with the mothercountry in 1776 and were recognized as the new nation of the UnitedStates of America following the Treaty of Paris in 1783. During the19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13as the nation expanded across the North American continent andacquired a number of overseas possessions. The two most traumaticexperiences in the nation's history were the Civil War (1861-65), inwhich a northern Union of states defeated a secessionist Confederacyof 11 southern slave states, and the Great Depression of the 1930s,an economic downturn during which about a quarter of the labor forcelost its jobs. Buoyed by victories in World Wars I and II and theend of the Cold War in 1991, the US remains the world's mostpowerful nation state. Over a span of more than five decades, theeconomy has achieved steady growth, low unemployment and inflation,and rapid advances in technology.
United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges All of the following US Pacific island territories except Midway Atoll constitute the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) Complex and as such are managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior. Midway Atoll NWR has been included in a Refuge Complex with the Hawaiian Islands NWR and also designated as part of Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument. These remote refuges are the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country's jurisdiction. They sustain many endemic species including corals, fish, shellfish, marine mammals, seabirds, water birds, land birds, insects, and vegetation not found elsewhere. Baker Island: The US took possession of the island in 1857. Its guano deposits were mined by US and British companies during the second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization began on this island but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned. The island was established as a NWR in 1974. Howland Island: Discovered by the US early in the 19th century, the uninhabited atoll was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and British companies mined for guano deposits until about 1890. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization began on this island, similar to the effort on nearby Baker Island, but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned. The famed American aviatrix Amelia EARHART disappeared while seeking out Howland Island as a refueling stop during her 1937 round-the-world flight; Earhart Light, a day beacon near the middle of the west coast, was named in her memory. The island was established as a NWR in 1974. Jarvis Island: First discovered by the British in 1821, the uninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858 but abandoned in 1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the island in 1889 but never carried out plans for further exploitation. The US occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935. It was abandoned in 1942 during World War II. The island was established as a NWR in 1974. Johnston Atoll: Both the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexed Johnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guano deposits until the late 1880s. Johnston and Sand Islands were designated wildlife refuges in 1926. The US Navy took over the atoll in 1934. Subsequently, the US Air Force assumed control in 1948. The site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and 1960s. Until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storage and disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction, cleanup, and closure of the facility were completed by May 2005. The Fish and Wildlife Service and the US Air Force are currently discussing future management options; in the interim, Johnston Atoll and the three-mile Naval Defensive Sea around it remain under the jurisdiction and administrative control of the US Air Force. Kingman Reef: The US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoon served as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoa flights during the late 1930s. There are no terrestrial plants on the reef, which is frequently awash, but it does support abundant and diverse marine fauna and flora. In 2001, the waters surrounding the reef out to 12 nm were designated a US NWR. Midway Islands: The US took formal possession of the islands in 1867. The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed through the islands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and 1947, Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights. The US naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was one of the turning points of World War II. The islands continued to serve as a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands are a NWR and are the site of the world's largest Laysan albatross colony. Palmyra Atoll: The Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, and the US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed the archipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did not include Palmyra Atoll, which is now partly privately owned by the Nature Conservancy with the rest owned by the Federal government and managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. These organizations are managing the atoll as a wildlife refuge. The lagoons and surrounding waters within the 12 nm US territorial seas were transferred to the US Fish and Wildlife Service and designated as a NWR in January 2001.
UruguayMontevideo, founded by the Spanish in 1726 as a militarystronghold, soon took advantage of its natural harbor to become animportant commercial center. Claimed by Argentina but annexed byBrazil in 1821, Uruguay declared its independence four years laterand secured its freedom in 1828 after a three-year struggle. Theadministrations of President Jose BATLLE in the early 20th centuryestablished widespread political, social, and economic reforms thatestablished a statist tradition. A violent Marxist urban guerrillamovement named the Tupamaros, launched in the late 1960s, ledUruguay's president to cede control of the government to themilitary in 1973. By yearend, the rebels had been crushed, but themilitary continued to expand its hold over the government. Civilianrule was not restored until 1985. In 2004, the left-of-center FrenteAmplio Coalition won national elections that effectively ended 170years of political control previously held by the Colorado andBlanco parties. Uruguay's political and labor conditions are amongthe freest on the continent.
UzbekistanRussia conquered the territory of present-day Uzbekistanin the late 19th century. Stiff resistance to the Red Army after theBoshevik Revolution was eventually suppressed and a socialistrepublic established in 1924. During the Soviet era, intensiveproduction of "white gold" (cotton) and grain led to overuse ofagrochemicals and the depletion of water supplies, which have leftthe land poisoned and the Aral Sea and certain rivers half dry.Independent since 1991, the country seeks to gradually lessen itsdependence on agriculture while developing its mineral and petroleumreserves. Current concerns include terrorism by Islamic militants,economic stagnation, and the curtailment of human rights anddemocratization.
VanuatuMultiple waves of colonizers, each speaking a distinctlanguage, migrated to the New Hebrides in the millennia precedingEuropean exploration in the 18th century. This settlement patternaccounts for the complex linguistic diversity found on thearchipelago to this day. The British and French, who settled the NewHebrides in the 19th century, agreed in 1906 to an Anglo-FrenchCondominium, which administered the islands until independence in1980, when the new name of Vanuatu was adopted.
VenezuelaVenezuela was one of three countries that emerged from thecollapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others being Ecuador and NewGranada, which became Colombia). For most of the first half of the20th century, Venezuela was ruled by generally benevolent militarystrongmen, who promoted the oil industry and allowed for some socialreforms. Democratically elected governments have held sway since1959. Hugo CHAVEZ, president since 1999, seeks to implement his"21st Century Socialism," which purports to alleviate social illswhile at the same time attacking capitalist globalization andexisting democratic institutions. Current concerns include: aweakening of democratic institutions, political polarization, apoliticized military, drug-related violence along the Colombianborder, overdependence on the petroleum industry with its pricefluctuations, and irresponsible mining operations that areendangering the rain forest and indigenous peoples.
VietnamThe conquest of Vietnam by France began in 1858 and wascompleted by 1884. It became part of French Indochina in 1887.Vietnam declared independence after World War II, but Francecontinued to rule until its 1954 defeat by Communist forces under HoChi MINH. Under the Geneva Accords of 1954, Vietnam was divided intothe Communist North and anti-Communist South. US economic andmilitary aid to South Vietnam grew through the 1960s in an attemptto bolster the government, but US armed forces were withdrawnfollowing a cease-fire agreement in 1973. Two years later, NorthVietnamese forces overran the South reuniting the country underCommunist rule. Despite the return of peace, for over a decade thecountry experienced little economic growth because of conservativeleadership policies, the persecution and mass exodus of individuals- many of them successful South Vietnamese merchants - and growinginternational isolation. However, since the enactment of Vietnam's"doi moi" (renovation) policy in 1986, Vietnamese authorities havecommitted to increased economic liberalization and enactedstructural reforms needed to modernize the economy and to producemore competitive, export-driven industries. The Communist leaders,however, maintain control on political expression and have resistedoutside calls to improve human rights. The country continues toexperience small-scale protests from various groups, the vastmajority connected to land-use issues, calls for increased politicalspace and the lack of equitable mechanisms for resolving disputes.Various ethnic minorities, such as the Montagnards of the CentralHighlands and the Khmer Krom in the southern delta region, have alsoheld protests.
Virgin Islands During the 17th century, the archipelago was divided into two territorial units, one English and the other Danish. Sugarcane, produced by slave labor, drove the islands' economy during the 18th and early 19th centuries. In 1917, the US purchased the Danish portion, which had been in economic decline since the abolition of slavery in 1848.
Wake IslandThe US annexed Wake Island in 1899 for a cable station.An important air and naval base was constructed in 1940-41. InDecember 1941, the island was captured by the Japanese and helduntil the end of World War II. In subsequent years, Wake wasdeveloped as a stopover and refueling site for military andcommercial aircraft transiting the Pacific. Since 1974, the island'sairstrip has been used by the US military, as well as for emergencylandings. Although operations on the island were suspended and allpersonnel evacuated in August 2006 with the approach of supertyphoon IOKE (category 5), damage was comparatively minor. A US AirForce repair team restored full capability to the airfield andfacilities, which remains a vital strategic link in the Pacificregion.
Wallis and FutunaThe Futuna island group was discovered by theDutch in 1616 and Wallis by the British in 1767, but it was theFrench who declared a protectorate over the islands in 1842. In1959, the inhabitants of the islands voted to become a Frenchoverseas territory.
West BankThe September 1993 Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles onInterim Self-Government Arrangements provided for a transitionalperiod of Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.Under a series of agreements signed between May 1994 and September1999, Israel transferred to the Palestinian Authority (PA) securityand civilian responsibility for many Palestinian-populated areas ofthe West Bank and Gaza Strip. Negotiations to determine thepermanent status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip stalled followingthe outbreak of an intifada in September 2000. In April 2003, theQuartet (US, EU, UN, and Russia) presented a roadmap to a finalsettlement of the conflict by 2005 based on reciprocal steps by thetwo parties leading to two states, Israel and a democraticPalestine. Following Palestinian leader Yasir ARAFAT's death in late2004, Mahmud ABBAS was elected PA president in January 2005. A monthlater, Israel and the PA agreed to the Sharm el-Sheikh Commitmentsin an effort to move the peace process forward. In September 2005,Israel unilaterally withdrew all its settlers and soldiers anddismantled its military facilities in the Gaza Strip and withdrewsettlers and redeployed soldiers from four small northern West Banksettlements. Nonetheless, Israel still controls maritime, airspace,and most access to the Gaza Strip. In January 2006, the IslamicResistance Movement, HAMAS, won control of the PalestinianLegislative Council (PLC). HAMAS took control of the PA governmentin March 2006, but President ABBAS had little success negotiatingwith HAMAS to present a political platform acceptable to theinternational community so as to lift economic sanctions onPalestinians. Violent clashes between Fatah and HAMAS supporters inthe Gaza Strip in 2006 and early 2007 resulted in numerousPalestinian deaths and injuries. In February 2007, ABBAS and HAMASPolitical Bureau Chief MISHAL signed the Mecca Agreement in SaudiArabia that resulted in the formation of a Palestinian NationalUnity Government (NUG) headed by HAMAS member Ismail HANIYA.However, fighting continued in the Gaza Strip, and in June 2007,HAMAS militants succeeded in a violent takeover of all military andgovernmental institutions in the Gaza Strip. ABBAS dismissed the NUGand through a series of presidential decrees formed a PA governmentin the West Bank led by independent Salam FAYYAD. HAMAS rejected theNUG's dismissal, and despite multiple rounds of Egyptian-brokeredreconciliation negotiations, the two groups have failed to bridgetheir differences. The status quo remains with HAMAS in control ofthe Gaza Strip and ABBAS and the Fatah-dominated PA governing theWest Bank. FAYYAD and his PA government continue to implement aseries of security and economic reforms to improve conditions in theWest Bank. ABBAS has said he will not resume negotiations withcurrent Prime Minister NETANYAHU until Israel halts all settlementactivity in the West Bank and Jerusalem.
Western SaharaMorocco annexed the northern two-thirds of WesternSahara (formerly Spanish Sahara) in 1976 and claimed the rest of theterritory in 1979, following Mauritania's withdrawal. A guerrillawar with the Polisario Front contesting Morocco's sovereignty endedin a 1991 UN-brokered cease-fire; a UN-organized referendum on theterritory's final status has been repeatedly postponed. The UN since2007 has sponsored intermittent talks between representatives of theGovernment of Morocco and the Polisario Front to negotiate thestatus of Western Sahara. Morocco has put forward an autonomyproposal for the territory, which would allow for some localadministration while maintaining Moroccan sovereignty. ThePolisario, with Algeria's support, demands a popular referendum thatincludes the option of independence.
WorldGlobally, the 20th century was marked by: (a) two devastatingworld wars; (b) the Great Depression of the 1930s; (c) the end ofvast colonial empires; (d) rapid advances in science and technology,from the first airplane flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina (US) tothe landing on the moon; (e) the Cold War between the Westernalliance and the Warsaw Pact nations; (f) a sharp rise in livingstandards in North America, Europe, and Japan; (g) increasedconcerns about the environment, including loss of forests, shortagesof energy and water, the decline in biological diversity, and airpollution; (h) the onset of the AIDS epidemic; and (i) the ultimateemergence of the US as the only world superpower. The planet'spopulation continues to explode: from 1 billion in 1820, to 2billion in 1930, 3 billion in 1960, 4 billion in 1974, 5 billion in1988, and 6 billion in 2000. For the 21st century, the continuedexponential growth in science and technology raises both hopes(e.g., advances in medicine) and fears (e.g., development of evenmore lethal weapons of war).
YemenNorth Yemen became independent of the Ottoman Empire in 1918.The British, who had set up a protectorate area around the southernport of Aden in the 19th century, withdrew in 1967 from what becameSouth Yemen. Three years later, the southern government adopted aMarxist orientation. The massive exodus of hundreds of thousands ofYemenis from the south to the north contributed to two decades ofhostility between the states. The two countries were formallyunified as the Republic of Yemen in 1990. A southern secessionistmovement in 1994 was quickly subdued. In 2000, Saudi Arabia andYemen agreed to a delimitation of their border.
ZambiaThe territory of Northern Rhodesia was administered by the[British] South Africa Company from 1891 until it was taken over bythe UK in 1923. During the 1920s and 1930s, advances in miningspurred development and immigration. The name was changed to Zambiaupon independence in 1964. In the 1980s and 1990s, declining copperprices and a prolonged drought hurt the economy. Elections in 1991brought an end to one-party rule, but the subsequent vote in 1996saw blatant harassment of opposition parties. The election in 2001was marked by administrative problems with three parties filing alegal petition challenging the election of ruling party candidateLevy MWANAWASA. The new president launched an anticorruptioninvestigation in 2002 to probe high-level corruption during theprevious administration. In 2006-07, this task force successfullyprosecuted four cases, including a landmark civil case in the UK inwhich former President CHILUBA and numerous others were found liablefor USD 41 million. MWANAWASA was reelected in 2006 in an electionthat was deemed free and fair. Upon his abrupt death in August 2008,he was succeeded by his Vice President Rupiah BANDA, whosubsequently won a special presidential election in October 2008.
ZimbabweThe UK annexed Southern Rhodesia from the [British] SouthAfrica Company in 1923. A 1961 constitution was formulated thatfavored whites in power. In 1965 the government unilaterallydeclared its independence, but the UK did not recognize the act anddemanded more complete voting rights for the black African majorityin the country (then called Rhodesia). UN sanctions and a guerrillauprising finally led to free elections in 1979 and independence (asZimbabwe) in 1980. Robert MUGABE, the nation's first prime minister,has been the country's only ruler (as president since 1987) and hasdominated the country's political system since independence. Hischaotic land redistribution campaign, which began in 2000, caused anexodus of white farmers, crippled the economy, and ushered inwidespread shortages of basic commodities. Ignoring internationalcondemnation, MUGABE rigged the 2002 presidential election to ensurehis reelection. The ruling ZANU-PF party used fraud and intimidationto win a two-thirds majority in the March 2005 parliamentaryelection, allowing it to amend the constitution at will and recreatethe Senate, which had been abolished in the late 1980s. In April2005, Harare embarked on Operation Restore Order, ostensibly anurban rationalization program, which resulted in the destruction ofthe homes or businesses of 700,000 mostly poor supporters of theopposition. President MUGABE in June 2007 instituted price controlson all basic commodities causing panic buying and leaving storeshelves empty for months. General elections held in March 2008contained irregularities but still amounted to a censure of theZANU-PF-led government with the opposition winning a majority ofseats in parliament. MDC opposition leader Morgan TSVANGIRAI won themost votes in the presidential polls, but not enough to winoutright. In the lead up to a run-off election in late June 2008,considerable violence enacted against opposition party members ledto the withdrawal of TSVANGIRAI from the ballot. Extensive evidenceof vote tampering and ballot-box stuffing resulted in internationalcondemnation of the process. Difficult negotiations over apower-sharing government, in which MUGABE remained president andTSVANGIRAI became prime minister, were finally settled in February2009, although the leaders have yet failed to agree upon many keyoutstanding governmental issues.
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Field Listing :: Airports - with paved runways
This entry gives the total number of airports with paved runways (concrete or asphalt surfaces) by length. For airports with more than one runway, only the longest runway is included according to the following five groups - (1) over 3,047 m (over 10,000 ft), (2) 2,438 to 3,047 m (8,000 to 10,000 ft), (3) 1,524 to 2,437 m (5,000 to 8,000 ft), (4) 914 to 1,523 m (3,000 to 5,000 ft), and (5) under 914 m (under 3,000 ft). Only airports with usable runways are included in this listing. Not all airports have facilities for refueling, maintenance, or air traffic control. The type aircraft capable of operating from a runway of a given length is dependent upon a number of factors including elevation of the runway, runway gradient, average maximum daily temperature at the airport, engine types, flap settings, and take-off weight of the aircraft. Country
Airports - with paved runways
Afghanistan total: 19 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 8 914 to 1,523 m: 2 under 914 m: 2 (2010)
Albania total: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2010)
Algeriatotal: 57over 3,047 m: 122,438 to 3,047 m: 281,524 to 2,437 m: 11914 to 1,523 m: 5under 914 m: 1 (2010)
American Samoa total: 3 over 3,047 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2010)
Angolatotal: 31over 3,047 m: 52,438 to 3,047 m: 91,524 to 2,437 m: 13914 to 1,523 m: 4 (2010)
Anguilla total: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2010)
Antigua and Barbuda total: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2010)
Argentina total: 156 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 27 1,524 to 2,437 m: 65 914 to 1,523 m: 51 under 914 m: 9 (2010)
Armeniatotal: 10over 3,047 m: 22,438 to 3,047 m: 21,524 to 2,437 m: 4914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2010)
Aruba total: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (2010)
Australiatotal: 326over 3,047 m: 112,438 to 3,047 m: 131,524 to 2,437 m: 148914 to 1,523 m: 140under 914 m: 14 (2010)
Austriatotal: 25over 3,047 m: 12,438 to 3,047 m: 51,524 to 2,437 m: 1914 to 1,523 m: 4under 914 m: 14 (2010)
Azerbaijantotal: 27over 3,047 m: 32,438 to 3,047 m: 61,524 to 2,437 m: 13914 to 1,523 m: 4under 914 m: 1 (2010)
Bahamas, The total: 23 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 914 to 1,523 m: 5 (2010)
Bahrain total: 4 over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (2010)
Bangladesh total: 15 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 6 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 4 (2010)
Barbados total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (2010)
Belarustotal: 35over 3,047 m: 22,438 to 3,047 m: 221,524 to 2,437 m: 3914 to 1,523 m: 1under 914 m: 7 (2010)
Belgiumtotal: 27over 3,047 m: 62,438 to 3,047 m: 91,524 to 2,437 m: 2914 to 1,523 m: 1under 914 m: 9 (2010)
Belizetotal: 42,438 to 3,047 m: 1914 to 1,523 m: 1under 914 m: 2 (2010)
Benintotal: 11,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2010)
Bermudatotal: 12,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (2010)
Bhutantotal: 11,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2010)
Boliviatotal: 16over 3,047 m: 32,438 to 3,047 m: 41,524 to 2,437 m: 4914 to 1,523 m: 5 (2010)
Bosnia and Herzegovinatotal: 72,438 to 3,047 m: 41,524 to 2,437 m: 1under 914 m: 2 (2010)
Botswanatotal: 92,438 to 3,047 m: 21,524 to 2,437 m: 6914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2010)
Braziltotal: 726over 3,047 m: 72,438 to 3,047 m: 281,524 to 2,437 m: 176914 to 1,523 m: 460under 914 m: 55 (2010)
British Indian Ocean Territory total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (2010)
British Virgin Islandstotal: 2914 to 1,523 m: 1under 914 m: 1 (2010)
Bruneitotal: 2over 3,047 m: 1914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2010)
Bulgariatotal: 130over 3,047 m: 22,438 to 3,047 m: 171,524 to 2,437 m: 15under 914 m: 96 (2010)
Burkina Fasototal: 2over 3,047 m: 12,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (2010)
Burmatotal: 37over 3,047 m: 122,438 to 3,047 m: 81,524 to 2,437 m: 15914 to 1,523 m: 1under 914 m: 1 (2010)