FOOTNOTES:[29]See Dr. M. Kayserling's "Christopher Columbus and the Participation of the Jews in the Spanish and Portuguese Discoveries." Translated from the German by Charles Gross, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of History in Harvard College. New York, 1894.
[29]See Dr. M. Kayserling's "Christopher Columbus and the Participation of the Jews in the Spanish and Portuguese Discoveries." Translated from the German by Charles Gross, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of History in Harvard College. New York, 1894.
[29]See Dr. M. Kayserling's "Christopher Columbus and the Participation of the Jews in the Spanish and Portuguese Discoveries." Translated from the German by Charles Gross, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of History in Harvard College. New York, 1894.
By George Alexander Kohut, New York City.
In 1624, when the Dutch conquered Brazil, several Jews, desirous of joining their co-believers in the newly acquired Dutch dominions, where our brethren flourished for many decades previously in the guise of New Christians or Marranos, enlisted in the Hollandish fleet as volunteers. Encouraged by this show of patriotism on the part of their newly arrived co-religionists, who, under the reign of the United Provinces, enjoyed all the blessings of peace and equality, manyNuevos Christianosopenly renounced their sham faith and re-avowed Judaism, happy once more to breathe the air of freedom without suffering persecution. It is said that the Jewish soldiers in the navy displayed so much zeal and courage in the taking possession of Brazil that the government protected them ever after.[30]Even before putting to sea,remarks a French historian of Brazil,[31]the Dutch admirals obtained much useful information concerning the political situation of Brazil, from the Israelites there settled, and who were all eager to remain, or rather, to pass over to the Dutch, whose liberal spirit and religious tolerance seemed much more inviting to them than the cruel sceptre of Spain or Portugal. This is furthermore corroborated by another (English) writer, Mr. Robert G. Watson, in his excellent work:Spanish and Portuguese South America during the Colonial Period(London, 1884), Vol. II, p. 1, where we read: "The religious intolerance from which the Dutch had themselves so terribly suffered at the hands of their Spanish rulers had taught them to be tolerant in such matters towards others,and to this circumstance they were now (1623-24) indebted for much valuable information respecting Brazil, which they received from the Jews who had taken refuge amongst them."
It is apparent from these and other items to be mentioned later that the Jews rendered not only military and naval service to the Dutch in their struggle against Portugal in Brazil, but diplomatic counsel of no little weight, by means of which Hollandcould conquer the American possessions and establish herself most firmly there. The inhabitants of Brazil at about that time (1623-38) were not very yielding. In fact R. Southey, the reliable and painstaking historian, says[32]that "The Portuguese were held in subjection only by fear, but many Portuguese Jews from Holland had taken their abode in a country where they could speak their own language as well as enjoy their own religion.These were excellent subjects; they exercised the charitable industry of their original nation secure of enjoying its fruits under a free government." The Dutch, upon taking possession of Brazil, issued a proclamation, no doubt with a view of attracting the Jews, whose accession would prove beneficial to the interests of the government, whereby they offered full possession of their property, and freedom of worship to all such as would submit. Amongst those who were thus brought under Dutch rule weretwo hundred Jews. (cf. Watson,l. c., II, p. 2.) This liberal charter of religious freedom lasted as long as the Dutch supremacy until the Portuguese re-conquest of Brazil in 1654, with more or less privileges, according to the whim of the public whose dictates even the government had to obey, as we may see from what took place in 1638, as recorded by Southey (l. c., Vol. I, p. 566): "Some of the Portuguese-Brazilians also, gladly throwing off the mask which they had so long been compelled to wear, joined their brethren in the synagogue. The open joy with which they now celebrated their ceremonies attracted too much notice; it excited horror in Catholics, andeven the Dutch themselves, less liberal than their laws, pretended that the toleration of Holland did not extend to Brazil; the senate conceded to, and perhaps partook of the popular feeling, and hence arose the edict, by which the Jews were ordered to perform their rites more in private."[33]
Under Count Maurice's gentle reign our co-religionists lived in peace and they appear to have benefited by this temporary respite and acquired much wealth, for we find on record a petition from the Jews of Mauritsstad, dated May 1, 1642, offering an annual present of 3000 florins to Count Maurice if he would be induced to remain as their Governor in Brazil.[34]In 1642, at the urgent invitation of their co-religionists (cf. Koenen,l. c., p. 278), 600 Jews, headed by Moses Raphael de Aguilar and Ishac Aboab de Fonseca, came from Amsterdam[35]and formed a prosperous colony in Recife, which gave promise of glorious development, had not the wars between Holland and Portugal, in which our brethren took noble part, destroyed their hopes. In 1642, it must be noted, they again were permitted to worship publicly, a privilege which did not remain unrewarded, for we soon hear of certain state services rendered by the Jews in 1644 and later, when many mean conspiracies against the government were afoot, concocted, no doubt by the Portuguese under Dutch rule. Watson (Spanish and Portuguese South America, etc., London, 1884, Vol. II, p. 47) says: "At length, however, the time came when his (the chief conspirator's, Fernandes) practices could no longer be ignored by the government,who were set on their guard chiefly by the Jews. These are certainly not to be blamed for wishing a continuance of thestatus quo; since, in the event of an outbreak, they were certain to be plundered by both parties with complete impartiality; whilst, in the event of victory on the part of the Portuguese, they had before them the image of the fiendish agents of the Inquisition," which, as we have elsewhere shown,[36]they had good reason to fear. We read later (l. c., p. 48) that Fernandes could not be captured and summoned troops. Many obeyed the call and fell upon such Dutchmen and Jews as happened to be within their reach.
The loyalty of the Jews in the matter of revealing the various state conspiracies is thus alluded to by Pieter Marinus Netscher in his admirable workLes Hollandais au Brésil, (La Haye, 1853), p. 145: "Fortunately, national and religious fanaticism did not smother the sentiments of humanity and justice in the hearts of all the conspirators. Two Portuguese [Jews?] Sebastian Carvalho and Fernando Vale, withfive Jews, fearing that their lives and fortunes were at stake, resolved to disclose the secret of the plot to the Grand Council.[37]Another conspiracy was brought to light and denounced to the government by a Jew namedMoise Accoignes, who, against his will, was forced to become an accessory to the plot.[38]He is no doubt alluded to by Prof. H. Graetz, who, in hisHistory of the Jews(English version, Philadelphia, 1895, Vol. IV, p. 693. Jewish Publication Society of America) writes: "Of course, the Brazilian Jews enjoyed perfect equality of rights with other citizens,for they rendered the Dutch essential services as advisers and warriors. When the native Portuguese, who bore the yoke of the Dutch impatiently, formed a conspiracy to get rid of the Dutch authorities at a banquet in the capital, and attack the colony bereft of government [?],a Jew gave warning, andsaved the colony from certain destruction." Southey, whom at the present writing we are unable to consult, (cf. hisHistory of Brazil, Vol. II, pp. 60-70), and Koenen, also chronicle the timely intervention of a faithful Israelite,[39]who, at the risk of his life, for the conspirators would not have scrupled to put him out of the way, informed the authorities of the impending calamity to the state.
We also know that a Jew in Lisbon proved instrumental in intercepting some official papers in reference to the revolt in Brazil.[40]
The execution of one, Jacob Rabbi, an agent of Holland, who must have been a Jew, is mentioned by Netscher in the following terms: "... The cause of this desertion [from the Portuguese troops?] was that the Lieutenant-Colonel, Garstman, had been sufficiently impolitic to put to death (in 1645 or 1646?) for a real or supposed crime, a certain Jacob Rabbi, German by birth, of a ferocious character. He had lived for many years among the savages as agent of the Hollandish government."[41]
It is evident that the Dutch Government and especially the Governor, Count Maurice de Nassau, was not backward in appreciating the services of the Jews. An ordinance from the States-General reads:
"... The persons, goods and rights of the Jews in Brazil are taken under the special protection of the Government, because of the fidelity and courage which that nation had on every occasion displayed toward the said Government."[42]
The best evidence of Jewish loyalty to their lenient Dutch rulers was given at a time when the Hollandish Government was contending with the Portuguese for the possession of Brazil. The numerous conspiracies years previous were only a foretaste of what followed and when at last, in the year 1645, war actually broke out, our co-religionists lost no time in siding with their generous patrons, regardless of consequences. Among those that distinguished themselves for their noble patriotism and whose co-operation in behalf of the needy and distressed won all hearts, was a wealthy Israelite, Abraham Coen by name, whose fame is recognized in the following verses written in his honor by one of the greatest Portuguese Jewish poets of Holland, Don Miguel Levi de Barrios, who visited Cayenne[43]in 1660 and remained there until 1662:
Abraham Coen en el Brasil remotodel principe Mauricio halló el agradoprospero y noble, y oy del Rey Empireogoço la luz en ideal palacio.Cerco al Brasil el luso balicosoen nueve años continuos, que empeçaronen el de mil seiscientos y quarentay cinco, contra el valeroso Holandio.Y en todos con magnanima grandezael grande Abraham Coen sustento à quantosJudios y Cristianos de su auxilioen la miseria atroz necesitaron.Entonces los Señoras del SupremoConsejo sobre el Pueblo Brasilianovieron del fiel Coen la piedad grande.[44]
Dr. Hahn informs us that "in the perilous times of 1645 and 1648 great services were rendered to the government by the Portuguese family of Cohen in furnishing ammunition and provisions."[45]
The Portuguese besieged Recife, near Pernambuco, which boasted of a large Jewish population (among them several fine scholars: David Senior Coronel, Dr. Abraham de Mercado, Jahacob Mucate, Ishac Castanho and others)[46]and the inhabitants thus deprived of every possible communication, endured much suffering. The Jews, encouraged by their learned and eloquent Rabbi Isaac Aboab, the friend of Menasse ben Israel, bore their tribulations bravely, and though almost famished for want of nourishment, defended the fort with such remarkable skill and heroism, as to evoke the praise and gratitude of the Government. Had it not been for the dauntless resistance offered by them, the garrison would have been compelled to surrender.
Aboab commemorated his thrilling experiences of war in the introductory chapter of his Hebrew version of Abraham Cohen Herrera'sPorta Coeli(Sha'ar Ha'shamayîm) which he began to translate in June, 1655 (22nd of Siwan 5415). Besides this, he wrote nine years before (anno 1646) a poetical account of the siege in a work entitledSecher Rab;[47]Prayers and Confessions and Supplications, which were composed for appealing to God in his trouble and in the distress of the Congregation, when the troops of Portugal overwhelmed them during their sojourn in Brazil in the year 5406 [1646]. And I have caused the wonderful works of God to be remembered in songs and praises, when he released them from the hands of their enemies.It is written in Hebrew. The Ms. is still extant in Amsterdam, in possession of the "Arbol de las Vidas" Theological Society.[48]The part played by the Jews in the defense of the colony is described by eminent Jewish and Christian historians.[49]Dr. Kayserling's and Prof. Graetz's accounts are worth citingin extenso. The former, who is engaged in copying this earliest specimens of American Jewish literature, the work of Isaac Aboab, for the American Jewish Historical Society, writes as follows: "Aboab becameChacham(Chief) of the congregation in Recife, which would have become one of the largest and richest, had it not been hindered in its development by the disturbances of war; it was dissolved after a short existence. The new settlers enjoyed tranquility only for a few years, for already in 1645 the sanguinary struggles, for the possession of the colony, between the Portuguese and the Hollanders began. The Jews stood faithfully on the side of the Hollanders, who had granted them perfect equality, and distinguished themselves by courage and heroism, as well as by succor to the distressed. During the war Abraham Coen, a rich and high-minded man of Amsterdam, who was in great favor with Duke Moritz of Nassau, supported Jews and Christians in such a magnanimous way that the Supreme Council of the Brazilian people looked with admiration at the great work of mercy. Isaac Aboab faithfully discharged the duties of his office; he ordered days of fasting and prayer, and his fiery speeches encouraged his co-religionists to perseverance and devotion. It was a fierce struggle of nine years which brought much suffering on the Jews. Recife was besieged and the garrison decimated by hunger. 'Many of the Jewish immigrants were killed by the enemy, many died of hunger. The remainder were exposed to death from similar causes. Those who had been accustomed to delicacies were glad to be able to satisfy their hunger with dry bread; soon they could not obtain even this; they were in want of everything, and were preserved alive as by a miracle.'"
Prof. Graetz, still more explicit, writes to the following effect: "In 1646, when open war broke out between the Portuguese and the Dutch, and the garrison of Recife, exhausted by famine, was on the point of surrendering unconditionally, the Jews encouraged the governor to brave resistance. A fanatical war of race and religion between the Portuguese and the Dutch devastated fair Brazil, and a famine ensued. The Jews vied with the Dutch in suffering and bravery. Isaac Aboab, the Chacham of the Brazil community, paints the suffering of the war, which he himself endured, in lurid colors: 'Volumes would not suffice to relate our miseries. The enemy spread over field and wood, seeking here for booty and there for life. Many of us died, sword in hand, others from want; they now rest in cold earth. We survivors were exposed to death in every form; those accustomed to luxuries were glad to seize mouldy bread to stay their hunger.'
"At last, the States-General were compelled by European wars to surrender the colony to the Portuguese. The devoted zeal of the Jews for the political welfare of the Dutch was a firm band, never afterwards dissolved, between them and the Republic. The toleration and equal position of Jews in the Netherlands were ensured forever."
Southey relates (History of Brazil, Vol. II, p. 241;apudKoenen'sGeschiedenis, p. 281), that when the Dutch in Recife were besieged the second time,[50]the Jews manifested much courage and bravery in its defense. One of the Pintos (Jewish stock also in Surinam, where Isaac Pinto, a member of this family, likewise displayed zeal and heroism in resisting the enemy), is said to have manned the fortDos Affrogadossingle handed, until, overwhelmed by superior force, he was compelled to surrender.
"In the wars of the Dutch against the Spaniards," says Dr. A. Hahn, "one of the Pintos was killed at his post while bravely defending one of the fortresses." His death is nowhere else recorded, however.[51]
The supremacy of the United Provinces now came to an end in America. On the 23d of January, 1654, Recife, together with the neighboring cities of Mauritsstad, Parayba, Itamarica, Seara, and other Hollandish possessions, was ceded to the Portuguese conquerors, with the condition that a general amnesty be granted. (Koenen,l. c., p. 282). Although, as Netscher[52]remarks, this stipulation was agreed upon, and the Jews, who were loyal supporters of Holland, were promised every consideration, the Portuguese governor, heeding the treacherous advice of jealous persons, ordered the Jews to quit Brazil at once. It must be admitted, in justice to Portugal, that he treated them kindly, inasmuch as he placed at their disposal sixteen vessels to carry them and their property anywhere they chose, and furnished them with passports and safeguards. Thus after a residence of several decades, Aboab, Aguilar, the Nassys, Pereiras, the Mezas, Abraham de Castro, Josua Sarfati, both surnamedel Brasil,[53]returned to Amsterdam, and many others went to New York, where they formed the nucleus of a prosperous colony. They arrived in safety, although one of their vessels, attacked by pirates, was rescued by the French and escorted to New Holland.[54]
Not all the Jews, who were by royal order expelled from Brazil in 1654, when the Dutch possessions in South America were ceded to Portugal, left their adopted country, where they, for a brief span of years enjoyed all the privileges of their fellowmen. Many were so much attached to American soil that they dared remain, despite the edict of banishment, in Brazil and elsewhere.
In Dutch Guiana, a thrifty colony was formed as early as 1644,[55]two years after the influx and settlement of Amsterdam Jews in Brazil under Aboab and Aguilar. These were undoubtedly the original colonists of Brazil. This colony soon increased by a second settlement of Jews hailing, likewise, from Brazil, who were undoubtedly persuaded to migrate thither by their Dutch co-religionists in Cayenne. The President of the West Indian Company, recognizing their influence as a commercial and political body, granted a most liberal charter of rights[56]in 1659 (September 12th), wherein freedom of thought, and liberty of conscience and worship were duly accorded to them through their able representative, David Nassy, a native Brazilian, who, by force of his personality, culture and intelligence, was destined to play a most important part in the political and social development of this and other colonies subsequently formed in the Guianas. So enticing was this generous programme, that already in the following year, 1660, 152 Jews of both sexes,[57]embarked at Livorno, Italy,[58]bound for the land of freedom, where they arrived in the shipMonte del Cisne, having set sail on the memorable 9th day of Ab (August) 1660, in order to build up their temple under more favorable auspices in another hemisphere.[59]
Among their number was the famous Spanish poet and historian De Barrios (see above), to whom we owe many important items of early American Jewish history. His visit to America was not a happy one, for shortly after his arrival his wife, Deborah, died in Tabago (West Indies).[60]
The continuous wars between Holland and Portugal caused the colonists no little grief and annoyance. The frequent devastations of the French, too, who were equally zealous and greedy for conquest, gave them so much anxiety that they decided to transplant the colony to Surinam—a plan which was carried out on May 15th, 1664.[61]
As the writer is engaged in compiling an extensive work on the Jews of Surinam he refrains now from entering into details concerning their early career. Suffice it to say that the spirit of their Dutch masters followed them thenceforth for more than a century and a half. The English government then ruling the colony, true to their traditional standard of tolerance ever since the days of Cromwell and Menasseh ben Israel, endowed them with equal civil rights and granted them not only full exercise of their religion, but excused them from public and military service on the Sabbath day. The document is a precious chapter in the history of religious liberty in America. It was published recently by the present writer.[62]Without further prolegomena, we desire to introduce one of the members of the famous family of Nassy, all of whom fully deserved the distinction of nobility implied in their name,[63]for their bravery and statesmanship.
History records the estimable services of Samuel Nassy, who but for some unlucky circumstance would have occupied the highest official position in Surinam. De Barrios, who probably knew him personally, remembers him in the following words: "Del pueblo de Sariñam Samuel Nasi (sic) Señorea El coraçon con los dones y et estudio con la ciencia."[64]Dr. Kayserling, in a recent article says: "Of great influence upon the free development of the colony, as on the condition of the Jewish inhabitants, was the activity of Samuel Nasi, a talented and scientifically trained man, who is designated as 'Citizens' Captain,' and was a candidate for the position of governor."[65]It is said that Governor Aerssens, with whom the Jews of Surinam had some little difficulty,[66]sealed a treaty of peace with the Indians, who molested the early settlers quite often, and in order to make it of a more durable character, he formed an alliance with the chieftain's daughter.[67]While he lived there was no disturbance at all, but almost immediately after his death, the savage tribes returned to their former aggressive attitude and made a furious onslaught on the colony. With the help of the Jewish inhabitants, who were headed by Captain Samuel Nassy, the Indians were promptly repulsed.[68]
Nassy soon acquired influence and prominence among his co-religionists in particular. He strove to introduce a few necessary reforms in ritual and ceremony—the first traces of the reform movement in America—especially in the abrogation of certain festivals which were perhaps too burdensome to the community. It seems, however, that in this he met with considerable opposition, although he had the sanction and support of the Rabbis in Amsterdam, with whom he corresponded.[69]The authority with which he was vested by reason of his executive ability and earnest zeal soon diminished with the arrival of the newly appointed governor, Heer Van Scherpenhuizen, the successor of Aerssens,[70]a fact which tended much to embitter his days and aroused sharp controversy between him and his rival. He had the satisfaction of being instrumental in his recall soon after his accession.[71]
Nassy flattered himself that his personal influence was necessary to the welfare and prosperity of the colony. And he was right. The Jews relied so implicitly upon his counsels and were so certain that he would be proclaimed governor, for he enjoyed the esteem of Jew and Gentile alike, that it was an unpleasant shock to them all when quite another person, comparatively unknown, was chosen in his stead. It is, therefore, not surprising that Samuel Nassy, seeing the loss of his public prestige, thought fit to betake himself to Amsterdam, unwilling to remain in a country which owed all its present affluence to his sterling honesty and wise management, and was yet so slow in showing its gratitude to the able statesman. His disappointment and dissatisfaction in not succeeding Heer Van Sommelsdyk as governor infected the whole Jewish community. The rupture which eventually followed between the Jews and Governor Scherpenhuizen resulted in the latter's removal.[72]This was chiefly occasioned by the unfriendly treatment of the Jews at the governor's hands, who, seeing in them only the partisans of his former rival, took care to harass them with unjust taxation. This exasperated them so much that they lodged a complaint against him with Baron de Belmonte and their "Citizens' Captain" Samuel Nassy, both in Amsterdam, and demanded the immediate recall of their prejudiced governor from the State-Council. Strangely enough, Nassy's influence was still powerful, for he was replaced, in 1696, by anothergovernor, Paulus van der Veen by name, shortly after the petition was filed. Scherpenhuizen embarked for Holland. Having been taken prisoner by the French on his way thither, he arrived there only after several months. Hardly had he landed at Amsterdam, before he was arraigned by Samuel Nassy before the civil court and he was compelled to vindicate his conduct.[73]The record of that trial and defense, in which Nassy took a leading part, is still extant, published in 1697.[74]
The loyalty of the Jews to their new settlement is unparalleled in American history. Every emergency found them ready to show their allegiance to Holland. Thus, when in 1689, a French fleet, under Admiral Cassard, made a sudden attack on the colony, they were met with brave resistance bythe Jews. Van Chattillon, son of the previous governor, displayed great heroism on this occasion.[75]Two Dutch historians make mention of the valor of the Jews. Verburg and Fr. Holf. Merkurius relate in theirHistories of the East and West Indies, that "after the death of Governor Aersen (sic) and the arrival of the new representative Scherpenhuizen, word was received that a French fleet was nearing Surinam. All soldiers and sailors were ordered out and summoned to appear at the fort. The call was obeyed by the Jews, of whom there were many in Surinam, and despite the fact that it was a Sabbath day, they fought valiantly for their colony. Two letters eulogizing their action in the matter were sent to the SocietyFelix Libertate, by a worthy citizen, H. L. Bromet, who lived for many years in Surinam."[76]
The colony, unmolested by strife and war, soon began to thrive and prosper. Their respite was of short duration, however, for already in in 1712, Admiral Cassard, at the head of another powerful squadron advanced upon the settlement. A fierce attack made in June, 1712, was manfully repulsed. In October of the same year, Cassard's fleet again appeared on the coast, and endeavored to sail up the Commawine River. The inhabitants, and particularly the Jews, under Captain Isaac Pinto[77]offered a stubborn resistance, and although they fought valiantly, they could not prevent the enemy from landing, bombarding the city of Paramaribo, and devastating the country. The treaty of Utrecht sealed soon after between the French and Dutch put an end to these vagaries.[78]
A recent writer on American Jewish history says: "In the war against the French in 1689, members of the families Pinto da Fonsera (readFonseca), Arias, Naar, De Brito and D'Avilar fought valiantly."[79]
Hardly were the colonists freed from the depredations of the French before danger menaced them from another direction. An anonymous writer, cited by Hannah Adams,[80]says: "The great check to the prosperity of Surinam has arisen from the inhabitants being exposed to the invasion and lawlessness of the Maroons, or runaway negroes, who have formed several communities in the inaccessible parts of the woods, and were the most implacable and cruel enemies of the colonists.The Jewish militia have often signalized themselves against them, and have been of great use to the colony; one-third of whom were of this (Jewish) nation."
Already in the year 1690 the negro slaves on the plantation of a wealthy Jewish landowner,Machado, rebelled against their master and murdered him. Governor Scharphuizen, who entertained bitter feelings against the Jews, refused to lend them the slightest assistance, so that they were thrown entirely upon their own resources.[81]More than once the Jews, exasperated by the governor's neglect, took matters into their own hands, and defended themselves with great success. The negroes, nothing daunted by this spirited show of resistance assumed a still more threatening attitude, their numbers, and hence their audacity, increasing more and more each day. The natives knowing full well that their advantage lay in their endurance of climate and similar local circumstances, understood how to utilize the fact to their benefit, and during the following years harassed the colony very much. This state of affairs, however, could not last long. In 1730 a desperate effort was made by the Jewish militia, which was determined to punish the slaves, under the lead of an under-officer followed by fourteen volunteers and thirty-six negroes. They exhibited no little courage and bravery in the taking possession and guard of an important post situated in the vicinity of the devastated negro villages.[82]This determined stand of the Jews did not, by any means, intimidate the lawless hordes who were intent upon rebellion and plunder. On the contrary it only roused their anger all the more. In 1731 it was again deemed imperative to check their depredations. The Citizens' CaptainBoeyéand the spirited David Nassy, (who more than any one else before and after him worked for the prosperity of Surinam) were chosen leaders of this campaign. David Nassy is described by historians as a man of power and integrity. He is said to have drilled the negro slaves on his plantation so thoroughly for such enterprises, that his co-operation was of the utmost necessity. He was the nephew of David Nassy who first settled in Surinam and received (in 1659), the famous charter of privileges to settle in Cayenne.[83](See above.) It seems that he entertained friendly relations with his negro slaves who, in 1717 were offered perfect freedom by the Political Council (Raad van Politie) if they volunteered to fight against the Maroons, who made frequent assaults on the colonists. Already in the year 1718, Nassy enlisted in the Jewish Corps, commanded by CaptainJacob D'Avilar, and distinguished himself in a combat of a similar nature. So impetuous and brave was he in battle that he was speedily promoted from a regular to the office of Lieutenant, and later to that of Captain of the Jewish Citizens' Company (Kapitein der Joodsche burger compagnie). He was, therefore, well qualified by dint of personal bravery and diplomatic skill to take so important a part in the expedition against the Maroons.
In the present campaign he was not less fortunate and heroic. Undaunted by the treacherous trick of Boeyé, who abandoned him in the middle of the fray, he attacked the foe in their own retreats, killed several and took as many more prisoners. Boeyé, who was his envious rival, fearful perhaps of the consequences of his own cowardice, accused Nassy of indiscretion and disobedience, but so universal was the esteem and sympathy felt for the latter, who had before earned laurels on the field and was thought incapable of such folly, that he had but little difficulty in proving his innocence. The result was that Nassy was honorably acquitted, whilst his jealous rival, the real culprit, was duly punished. He added to his fame most decisively by this new stroke of bravery and military prowess and had the honor of being praised and glorified by the Spanish-Jewish poetessBenvenida Belmonte,[84]who composed a fitting eulogy in verse on his deeds of valor.[85]Nassy was the second South American Jew, whose nobility of character andstate services were commemorated in Spanish-Jewish literature. (Cp.supra, rubric II, on Abraham Coen of Brazil.) His generalship and scientific tactics were called into requisition about two decades after his above detailed victory, in another expedition against the marauding band of negroes, who troubled the peace of the colony for nearly a century at various intervals. As previously noted, in the case of Machado, anno 1690, the slaves of another wealthy Jewish planter,Manuel Pereira, rebelled against their master, in 1738, and, thinking to shake off the yoke of slavery, cruelly murdered him. Hereupon,Isaac Arias, a former officer of the Jewish militia, who lived in the victim's neighborhood, sent out a detachment of Jewish volunteers, headed byDavid NassyandAbraham De Brito, to wreak vengeance upon the rebels. The troops remained away for six weeks in the enemy's camp,[86]and it began to be feared that they were utterly routed and destroyed, when the company returned, bringing with them the trophies of a most successful onslaught made against the Maroons, namely six hands severed from fallen negroes, and forty-seven prisoners of war.
As a reward for their bravery every officer received from the Council (Raad) 75 f. (florins?); every citizen (Jewish regular) 36 f.; each armed negro 20 f.; and each colored man who was in needy circumstances, 5 f.[87]
Five years later, in 1743, brave old Captain David Nassy, who had conducted thirty like expeditions against the Maroons, sallied forth for the last time to fight for his people and, according to some, to die on the battlefield the death of a hero.[88]This time he was arrayed against the Creoles, who by reason of their more acute intelligence and culture (having been long associated with Europeans) were yet the most dangerous of all their foes. Endowed with a noble Macabbean spirit, he fell like his ancestor Matathias, in the moment of victory. It was on theDay of Atonementthat the venerable sage and warrior sallied forth to war. It must have been urgent indeed, for David Nassy regardless of the solemnity of the festival put himself at the head of his trusty men, crossed over the Surinam River; penetrated further inland; pursued the enemy, set their huts ablaze; tore their fruits out of the ground; killed many on the spot and dragged about forty slaves along with them as captives. Nassy, who had already passed his three score years and ten, fell a victim to the treachery of his foes. It was told him that the negroes had poisoned all the wells in the village, so that he was compelled to turn homeward, in order to quench the burning thirst which afflicted him and his troops, without awaiting the orders of the Council. This most natural step gave his opponents a good excuse for lodging acomplaint against him with the authorities, who are usually ready to listen to malice and dispute. His defense was scarcely heard and he was pronounced guilty. Such wanton ingratitude the good old soldier hardly expected as a reward for his services for the welfare of his fellowmen. Bitter disappointment and grief undermined his health. He was seized with fever, and soon after at the age of seventy, or thereabouts, death released him from his sufferings. With him died the flower of the Jewish colony, an Israelite indeed, in whom there was no guile. His co-religionist,Isaac Carvalho, was chosen Captain of the Jewish Citizens' Company, in his place.[89]
A few years later, a treaty of peace was made with the Western Maroons, who were getting more and more perilous to the safety of the colonists. But a new danger threatened them from another side. In 1749 the Maroons in the east, known asTempati (?) Negroes(Tempati-negers), broke forth in mutiny, plundered a plantation completely and carried off all the negro slaves who lived there. This plantation (as in fact all others in Surinam) belonged to a Jewish landowner, andwas calledAuka. Henceforth the insurrection which originated there was named after theAuka-negroes. Against these marauders, an expedition, partly under the Christian chief, Rijsdorp, and partly in command of the Jewish captain,Moses Naar, was organized and dispatched in 1757. It deserves to be mentioned, by the way, that this was Naar'sseventeenth campaignagainst the Creoles. The result of this undertaking was likewise favorable. Naar burned down a whole negro-village, made a number of captives, among them being a certain Corydon, the leader of the insurrection. For his bravery and skilful capture he was presented with a worthy gift by the Council.[90]
We are informed by David J. C. Nasi (or Nassy), the third descendant of the original settler of Surinam, who compiled with other intelligent men of his age, an exhaustive and comprehensive chronicle of the Jews in Surinam in French,[91]that already in 1750,Moses NaarandGabriel de La Fatte, in recognition of their active zeal in suppressing a revolt of the negroes in their colony, were presented with silver cups and a vote of thanks from the government.[92]
The fame achieved by his co-religionist,Naar, so enthused and electrified the young and ambitiousIsaac Nassythat he was eagerly anticipating another outbreak on the part of the Maroons, in order to show his courage and reckless heroism. The impetuous youth met with a noble, but pathetic end:
Thinking that against a well-regulated army, however small, no valor or charge of the negroes could possibly prevail, he hastily collected twelve of his followers upon the rumor of their approach; armed his and their most trusty slaves; provided himself with the barest necessities of war, sufficient for about ten or twelve days, and pursued the retreating foe with an ardor which, if imprudent, is at least a virtue in one so young and war-thirsty. He was, however, suddenly confronted by a much more considerable number of negroes than he reckoned upon. His little band stood ground but for a short while. Nassy himself displayed great bravery, and although severely wounded by a rifle shot in his right limb, he began to fight with a still more marvelous energy in order to rally his terrified men and to re-arouse their fleeting courage. But in vain. He was captured alive by the sanguinary horde and brutally murdered. Two of their chief officers and twenty soldiers fell with him on the battlefield.[93]
At last, the authorities saw that it was advisable and imperative again to make a treaty of peace with the relentless Maroons, or fugitive negroes, (gevluchte Negers) whose ravages for over half a century spread ruin and terror throughout the land. Accordingly, on the 23d of May, 1761, peace was established, to last for a good many years, apparently.[94]It was not long, however, before hostilities were resumed. In 1772 the State Council found it imperative to call in the aid of the mother country against the Maroons, who grew more audacious in proportion as they advanced in culture and education.[95]The State General, roused to action by the serious state of affairs in the colony, sent a company of 500 men, under command of Captain Forgeoud, who had previously shown much courage and ingenuity in suppressing a revolt of negroes in the Barbary States. Two years later, a series of military posts was established, beginning from theSavannah of the Jewsto the banks of the Commawine River and from there to the sea. Forts, strengthened by means of palisades were constructed from plantation to plantation, and when finally peace was enforced, the colony was spared from any further molestation at the hands of the unruly negroes.[96]Koenen, though very fair and just to the Jews in hisHistory, sees fit to reproach themfor their unkind treatment of slaves,[97]which, he opines, was the chief cause of the rebellion, lasting over seventy years. We are inclined to think that this rebuke is unwarranted, inasmuch as the rigid Mosaic and Rabbinic laws regarding them, were always strictly followed by the Jews and those in Surinam, who had men like the family of Nassy at their head, could not have trespassed these ordinances. He admitted, however, in his summary, that the colony in her defense was always deeply indebted to the Jewish militia, and in social and commercial matters especially beholden to them, for the Jews were the cultivators of the marshy and often dangerous soil and the masters of commerce, the chief factors of the welfare and prosperity of the settlement,[98]since its foundation. Not desiring to anticipate our conclusions in a larger work, we content ourselves with saying that nowhere else in the history of America is such devotion, disinterestedness and loyalty on the part of Jewish citizens so marked, and let us add, so gratefully recognized as in the little Dutch Province of Surinam. And nowhere else in the New World did the Israelites thrive more in culture, learning and religion than in theJewish Savannahof Guiana, as their community was called. Small wonder, then, in view of their attachment to their Hollandish masters, when we hear that in 1785, on the occasion of the reconsecration of their synagogue, then 100 years old, the Governor Wichers, with all the provincial magistrates and other eminent citizens, attended in a body the impressive ceremonies, which are graphically narrated in a little volume published by an eyewitness.[99]And that two Christian philo-Semites wrote beautiful verses in Dutch in honor of these festivities, republished by the writer, elsewhere.[100]Nor does it now seem strange that the Jews loved to glorify their governors, J. G. Wichers,[101]Sir Chas. Green,[102]and Abraham De Veer,[103]in pretty songs and hymns, written in Hollandish and Hebrew. These were but poetic tokens of their patriotism. As late as 1853, the records inform us of their prosperity and constantly growing activity and interest in the colony. In that year we find them in the courts (Ellis, Juda, Fernandes, and others); among thirteen advocates, notaries, and procurators, there were seven Jews (Heilbronn, Colaço, Belmonte, de Granada, Abendañon, etc.); many served in the army as captains, lieutenants, colonels, majors, and chaplains.In fact they minister to the public weal in every conceivable capacity.[104]In their hands the colony still prospers. Recent reports, made by a correspondent of theJewish Chroniclein London, are aglow with enthusiasm for the prosperity of their now thrifty and intelligent colony, and reassure us of the vigor and tenacity of our faith in that distant land.
Among the numerous letters, documents and registers of the Albaic archives,[105]which bear special reference to the discovery and colonization of America, is particularly noticeable the culture-historic, perhaps valuable memorial address ofDavid Ebronfrom Constantine, Algeria (dated December 9th, 1597), to the Emperor, Philip II. The writer introduces himself in the preliminary note as an Israelite, who, at a tender age, fled to Africa, and rendered important services to the King of India and other personages of rank in various sections of Africa.
He enumerates many items of surprising significance, apparently anxious to array them as an overwhelming evidence of his abilities and reliability, and eager to impress upon the august reader the great amount of gratitude due him for his achievements. He prepared accurate sketches of distant regions and established settlements, dependent upon his generous bounty; he discovered countries and conquered them, and whatsoever had been attempted in Santa Marta, South America, within the last five years, may be safely attributed to his energetic activity and perseverance. Thence he repaired by land to Peru, and enlisted in the service of the monarch in Huancabelica. The last remarkable harvest in quicksilver, which was so advantageous to the king, was chiefly due to his judicious management. By careful husbanding of material and laudable zeal he was instrumental in not only saving sixty and some odd thousand pesos (!) involved in the annual transportation of small fleets from Lima and Panama but equally as much by causing galleys to be constructed there.
Through the personal malice and mean manœuvers of two officials, the well-merited reward for the last mentioned benefits was withheld from him. "But," affirms the abused victim of ingratitude with a dignified emphasis, which seemed to restore his confidence, "my accomplishments in this regard may easily be ascertained by application to Gutierrez Florez, the Indian minister of commerce in Seville."
"I do not bring these facts to your notice," continues the self-vindicator in haughty terms, "in order to obtain reward from your Majesty, but that your serene highness might perceive how zealously and indefatigably, I, asecret Hebrew,[106]travelled everywhere, despite harassing circumstances, obstacles end even imminent perils, and have forsaken your realm out of pure fear to die outside of my faith, which, according to my conception is the only true creed appointed by the Almighty, the Creator of heaven, sun, moon, sea and all things therein, you, gracious Sire included. I do not revive these recollections in order to deplore my ill-fortune or petition for the proper remuneration and recognition denied me for the various favors rendered, for such great and weighty benefits I am yet in a position to offer from here, without necessitating my residence there; only out of simple attachment to your royal highness, whom I desire to serve and in order that the memory of this Israelite and his faithful acts be not wholly eradicated from your heart, I am quite satisfied to continue the diligent execution of projects confided to my trust. O, would it please the Heavenly Father, that the Jews in your dominion could enjoy the same liberties and privileges accorded to them by the exemplary toleration of the Pope in Rome, Venice, Milan, Naples, in the whole of Apulia, Ragusa, Florence, Pisa, Ferrara, Mantova and Italy andhere in Constantineand the Barbary States.
Would that they were permitted to migrate from one portion of your realm to the other and live under the same circumstances as elsewhere. Then I would not resign from the office I so loyally occupied, and your countries would considerably increase in commercial opulence—it is inconceivable why your Grace should not participate in the profits reaped by others—then your armies, military exploits and campaigns against Lutherans, heretics and other enemies would be much more successful than they have been heretofore.
"And as regards the Spanish Inquisition against the Jews,"[107]further declares this remarkable champion of the Mosaic faith, "I have absolutely no objection to urge, if it is directed against such as voluntarily embrace Christianity and secretly profess the ancient religion." He calls the King's attention to the fact that within two months he could at command transport 200,000 pesos cash money into the state treasury without injuring anyone; in a similar manner he is able in one single day, whenever the King willed it, to obtain more than one million pieces of gold from Santa Fe in the new kingdom of Granada. Other treasures are spoken of as accessible to the all-conquering genius ofDavid Ebron, and obtainable by him for the King, whom he is intent on reconciling to his Jewish subjects. His eloquence reaches the fever heat of indignation, however, when he alludes to the thievish officials in the King's employ. "What a pity, your Majesty, that so much money is stolen in India and Spain. I could aggravate myself to death when I contemplate upon the mass of wealth wrongfully acquired by your representatives and ministers. Were I to enumerate all the outrageous robberies committed against you, O mighty Sovereign, in Seville, and apprise you of the doings of that infamous horde there stationed, and admitted into your court! ... O lips, if only you would divulge the secrets which oppress the heart! O tongue! why not reveal what you know and feel?" In concluding his remarks, he places himself at the disposal of the government as confidential agent in the affairs of Portugal, the marriage of the Oranian, and similar matters, and enjoins upon the King to communicate with him under the seal of strictest privacy, should he require his co-operation or assistance at any future time. "The God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob," says he, "who created the universe, protect and exalt your Majesty and inspire you to deal leniently and indulgently with your Hebrews, whom God never totally ignores or forgets, but inflicts with penalties and disasters only to try their fortitude and allegiance!"
This quite forgotten explorer and financier, whose eloquent plea in behalf of his race can not fail to appeal to every one, and whose only demand for the enormous service rendered to his king is more tolerance toward his people, deserves an honorable place in the annals of American Jewish History as a loyal, patriotic subject.
This is not to be a series of biographical sketches on the Rothschilds of the Eighteenth Century, for neither the space nor the scope of this work would permit of such an elaborate history. This chapter aims merely to set forth the politicalprominence attained by the family of Gradis,[108]to whose hands the fortunes of two continents were entrusted, and whose labors of love and patriotic services during the war-times of France in America, deserve to be chronicled in our annals. Reserving the elaboration of the family's antecedents, and other interesting particulars for another large paper on theHistory of the Jews in Martinique—the seat of their chief activity—we shall here detail those facts which concern our topic the most.
We may begin withDavid Gradis, who, in 1731, was naturalized in Bordeaux,[109]and who died in 1751. Already in 1696 he founded the great mercantile house which had commercial connections with England, Holland, Paris, southern France and the West Indies. The exports were linen, wine and alcohol. In the year 1715, David Gradis tided over the financial crisis under Louis XIV., after paying a draft of 150,000 francs, which his house endorsed. In fact the hard times did not affect him much, for we know that only two years after he conducted all the transatlantic commerce. He fitted out three ships, one bound for Cayenne and two for the Island of Martinique (orMartinico). His cargo consisted of wine, alcohol, meal and pickled meat, which he exchanged for sugar and indigo in the West Indian ports. Another money-crisis in 1719, passed without materially injuring his prospects, although he lost heavily. In spite of it, however, he again undertook foreign expeditions and was, as before, successful. In 1724, his business expanded to such an extent that he opened a branch on the island of St. Domingo. His name and fame grew in popularity and opulence, and French America was glad to acknowledge the enterprise of this energetic man who passed under the name ofthe Portuguese Merchant. And, although Jews were not tolerated in the French colonies, by the stern and scheming Jesuits, as we shall have ample occasion to show elsewhere, the government was constrained to overlook his origin and belief, in view of his vast influence and commercial importance. So universal was the esteem felt for the house of David Gradis that when his son Samuel, who conducted the interests of the business in St. Pierre, Martinique, died there in 1732, his remains were interred in the garden of thefrères de la Charité, and masses were held in the cloisters for the repose of his soul. True, the monks dared not erect a monument to mark the spot. The lieutenant of the colony urged in argument of their expulsion the fact that were any of the members of the house of Gradis, there established, to die, their property would have to be confiscated, for Jews were not permitted to have possessions. Nevertheless he shut his eyes on their prolonged residence on the island. Abraham, eldest son of David Gradis, succeeded his father as senior member of the firm, of which he was previously a partner. He achieved even more fame than his predecessor. Endowed with wonderful ability and speculative genius, he also controlled the trade of France with the West Indies. He received important official contracts from the government; became intimate with personages of the highest political rank; obtained the protection and friendship of M. Maurepas, the confidant of Louis XVI., and added much to the glory and renown of the house of "David Gradis, et fils." His extensive correspondence with the greatest men of the reign of Louis XV. and XVI., is still extant.
Through the friends who were influential in his behalf at court, his ships were fitted out at the cost of the government, and this gave him further opportunity to enlarge his business connections. Nor was he ungrateful for these privileges and for the consideration shown him by his royal patron. Thus we hear of remarkable exploits undertaken in behalf of his country. In the wars between England and France for the possession of Canada, he displayed extraordinary activity. In order to expedite matters, he fitted out ships to Canada,although the insurance on the cargo, because of the war then pending, was most exorbitant. If his freight vessels were captured by the armed cruisers of the enemy, he built and replenished new ones, without caring for losses thus incurred for France. In 1748, he organized the society of Canada, under the auspices of the government, in order to test the possibilities of the land, and thereby again widened the sphere of his mercantile activity. Important missions were entrusted to him. His ships carried valuable cargo (presumably military ammunition, etc.), always at the expense of the firm. He even erected magazines in Quebec. Later on the government defrayed these costs, butDavid Gradis et filshad no little share in the success of these projects.
After his father's death in 1751, Abraham Gradis' financial interests were still more extended. To give an idea of the scope of his commercial activity we will cast a momentary glance into the private accounts of the firm. In 1758, the commerce of the house with the French colonies alone, amounted to 2,369,326 francs. In the following year, the firm received the commission to forward 4500 tons of goods and ammunition for the French troops in Canada. Twelve ships, among themeight of his ownwere called into service for the purpose. From 1759 to 1763, when Canada ceased to be a French possession, the export trade of the firm of Gradis was worthnine million francs. These merchant vessels, on account of the war, had to be manned by a goodly company of soldiers, who had frequent occasion to defend themselves from attacks on the sea, and saved quite often the honor of their flag by their fearlessness and bravery.
During the struggle between England and France for the occupation of Canada, the house of Gradis dispatched thither many heavily laden ships at the order and expense of the French Government, which was their debtor to the amount of several millions on more than one occasion. Of course these obligations could not be liquidated for some time. Gradis & Co.'s drafts were not promptly paid, for France was impoverished by the American wars and had no means at her disposal. Although these noble financiers suffered heavy losses from the capture and detention of richly cargoed vessels sent out in thename of France, they did not lose faith and preserved their balance with a skill and energy which is remarkable. Far from fearing to sacrifice too much for the fatherland, they strove more and more to merit the good will and esteem of the king and the aristocracy. It was indeed a work of charity and patriotism on their part to ransom French captives.[110]Abraham Gradis, we are told, authorized an influential business friend in London, to supply the captains and commanders held as prisoners in England with everything necessary to ease and comfort their condition.[111]
He more than once was compelled to appeal to the government for the necessary funds due him, in order to carry on his trade with the colonies, which was increasing in dimensions every year. The road to the audience-chamber of the King was not always clear to even so influential a personage as Abraham Gradis. On one occasion, being hard pressed for money to fill a large order received from the West Indies, he presented his claim to Minister Berryer—well known for his harsh and imperious demeanor. The latter, hesitating to comply, Gradis assured him that unless his demands were soon satisfied he would be prevented from accomplishing his duties. Whereupon the stern minister cuttingly replied: "That will not be such a great misfortune; you merchants are accustomed to such things; in fact you become rich through them!" Abraham Gradis straightened himself up at this insult, and looking steadily at the great man, said: "The name of Gradis, better known in four quarters of the globe than that of the Minister of France, is free from dishonor. No taint of any kind covers its escutcheon!" With this he urged the minister with even greater persistence to render him satisfaction by appealing to the King in his behalf. Berryer, unused to such show of courage and firmness, could not but comply with his request, and Gradis' claims were duly honored.
It was no conceit that prompted his reply to the haughty representative of King Louis XV. His sovereign gave frequent sign of his favor and gratitude for the diplomatic skill and rare tact as well as noble devotion with which Gradis managed the business affairs of the empire in these revolutionary days. The minister once wrote in the following strain to Gradis & Co.: "I considered it my duty to remind his Majesty that your conduct was both unselfish and zealous for the welfare and services of the state on all occasions and under all circumstances. His Majesty commissions me to express to you his utmost satisfaction and recognition."
As a reward for his untiring interest in behalf of the French nation, exceptional privileges were granted to him (Abraham Gradis), and his family in the colonies. The right of owning real estate and civil equality in common with the other citizens of France on the Island of Martinique, were accorded to him in 1779. It is interesting to note that he was associated with the Superior of the Jesuit Missionaries in Martinique—the famouspater Lavalette, who had charge of the largest and most influential congregation there, and who conducted an immense business with foreign countries. Gradis once advanced him 400,000 francs. He often received him in his own home socially, and was charmed by the personal merits of the enterprising Jesuit. This did not prevent Gradis—a shrewd and careful merchant who knew just how much to risk—from severing all connections with him, for he rather early suspected the utter collapse of Lavalette's colossal undertakings, and thus avoided the bankruptcy which would inevitably have resulted, had he, like other careless firms, allowed himself to be drawn into the vortex of speculation. Similar causes of self-preservation prompted him to withdraw from further commercial relations with the State, as another financial crisis warned him of the outbreak of the Revolution.
Much more of interest might be told of Abraham Gradis andother members of the same stock. Thus for instance of his acts of kindness during the famine in the French Colonies, at which time he sent seventeen ships laden with nourishment and merchandise for the relief of the suffering—a fact used by the Abbé Gregoire as a plea and an argument in favor of the emancipation of the Jews.