Chapter II.Materials for the history of the Americans.—Authors, Documents, Sciences.—Languages, Civilization, &c.Far from following the example of many American historians, who often take a single guide for their crude compilations, or avoid the trouble to consult all the historical sources, I have taken care in my researches to employ all the possible means to reach the truth, and collect all the facts that are scattered among a crowd of writers. I have carefully analysed, compared and judged the materials, details and events[pg 036]thus procured: nay, all the auxiliary sciences have afforded additional fragments or proofs.These materials may be divided into 10 series or kinds1. Works, printed or manuscript.2. Documents and monuments.3. Maps, plans, views, &c.4. Natural sciences.5. Ethnography.6. Traditions and annals.7. Chronology and astronomy.8. Languages and philology.9. Religion, mythologies, &c.10. Civilization, laws and manners.The writers upon America are very numerous; but mostly defective or local. A number, however, have attempted to consider the whole continent: the principal among those containing facts upon all parts of America are chieflyHerrera, History and Geography of Spanish America carried till the year 1554.Delaet, Historical Geography of America, till 1630.Garcias, Origins of the Americans.—Spanish work.Carli, American Letters.—Italian work.Ogilby, History and Geography of America, till 1670.Raynal, European Settlements in America, till 1774.Alcedo, Geographical Dictionary of Spanish America in 1786.—Spanish work.[pg 037]Maltebrun, Improved Geography, 1820.Touron, History of America, chiefly ecclesiastical, and incomplete, 14 volumes 1768-70, in French.Robertson, false History of America or Spanish Conquests of Mexico or Peru.The collections of travels by Hackluyt, Purchas, Harris, Ramusio, Barcias, Prevost, &c.The American researches of Ulloa, Humboldt, M'Culloh, &c.I have consulted and analyzed all these general works, and many others of less account; but I have not yet read Hervas nor Compagnone, knowing them merely through quotationsThe firstBibliotheca Americanaor catalogue of writers on America, was given by Kennet in 1701 and 1713. Another appeared in England in 1719; a third in France in 1820. They contain the names, authors, editions, dates, &c. of over 300 works relating to America. Robertson has given a list of nearly as many, which he pretends to have consulted, although he neglected what they tell us. Humboldt has also a catalogue of 250 authors, consulted by him. In 1831, Aspinwall published his American Library containing 771 works; and Warden, in Paris, his own, containing 977 American works with 133 atlasses and maps.All this does not complete the account of books on America; since I have seen[pg 038]many omitted in all these catalogues; although I never could meet some mentioned there. I will carefully notice them, that it may be known where I found my materials, and what may yet have escaped my researches. I have already consulted upwards of 600 writers on both Americas, and there are at least 1000 already printed, I mean special or local works connected with history. If we were to add to these the botanists, naturalists, paltry compilers, and pamphlets, we might make a catalogue of 3000 works on America, her inhabitants and productions.I will refer gradually to them, and have collected them all in my manuscript illustrations;materials,printed works. Therefore we do not lack printed materials: but the choice of the best is difficult: since many works merely consist in fables, blunders, errors, hypotheses and their constant repetitions: which ought to be rejected in order to gather facts and the truth. But we must not reject as pyrrhoniams all that may clash with our ideas and systems: it is chiefly needful so recall and restore the events and facts mentioned by the earliest travellers and observers.These numerous local writers ought to be divided into three classes. 1. historians and annalists, 2. travellers and geographers, 3. antiquarians and philologists. I shall now merely mention the most useful (which I have all consulted) upon the Peruvian and Austral regions of South America.[pg 039]1st. The principal historians are, 1. Molina, History of Chili, 2. Funes, Civil History of Buenos Ayres, Paraguay and Tucuman, 3. Lavega, History of Peru, 4. Debrizoffer, history of Abipones, 5. Charlevoix of Paraguay, 6. Techo, on Ditto, 7, 8. Lozano and Jolis on Chaco, 9. Muratori, and 10. Renger, Paraguay.2d. The principal writers who have furnished historical facts, with geographical and ethnographical materials, areold travellers, 1. Pigafetta and Magellan, 2. Cabot, 3. Shmidel, 4. Drake, 5. Cavendish, 6. Acarete, 7. Knivet, 8. Frezier, 9. Sepp, 10. Brewer, 11. Nyel, 12. Schmidtmeyer.The modern travellers are, 1. Azara, 2. D'Ulloa, 3. Humboldt, 4. Cook, 5. Byron, 6. Laperouse, 7. Stevenson, 8. Myers, 9. Heyn, 10. Beaumont, 11. Gillespie, 12. Vidal, 13. Wedel, 14. King, 15. Morrell, 16. Andrew, 17. Temple, 18. Mawe, 19. Proctor, 20. Graham, 21. Head, 22. Pernetty.The principal original geographers and ethnographers are, 1. Fernandez on Chiquitos 1726, 2. Bueno, Ditto 1800, 3. Falkner, on Patagonia 1774, 4. Molina on Chili and Cuyo, 5. Lozano on Chaco 1733, 6. Skinner, Memoirs on Peru, 7. Gili, South America 1782.3d. Lastly the auxiliary writers on philology, antiquities and other historical branches are, 1. Adelung, Vater, Maltebrun, Balbi, &c., on all American languages, 2. American researches of Humboldt, Macculoh[pg 040]1829. Those of Depaw and Ranking are shameful, perverting every thing to support false systems.Manuscripts.There are yet many such extant on America, in the libraries of both hemispheres. Clavigero gave a long list of Mexican Manuscripts. Funes quotes several on Austral America. There are several extant in Central America and South America, in Peru and Brazil. Many have been lost through wilful neglect, or destroyed at the Spanish Conquest, the expulsion of Jesuits, &c. Those in the ancient languages, Mexican, Tarasca, Tzendal, &c., are now very rare, and much esteemed. Those burnt by Zumaraga, the Mexican Omar, have been often regretted. Lord Kingborough has lately published some at a great cost.The manuscripts which I could consult on South America are but few. Those on North America are more numerous and very important; particularly the traditions of the Linapis, Shawanis, &c., they are chiefly on wood, bark, skins or Mosaic strings. But I have received several manuscript vocabularies of the languages of Guyana, Brazil, Texas, Mexico, &c. and I have consulted several manuscripts in the libraries of Philadelphia.There are, besides, in the public or private libraries of all the great cities of both Americas, several interesting historical works, which have never been published.[pg 041]There are several in Philadelphia, particularly the historical collections of Simetierre. Often the best or most important works cannot be printed: while a crowd of paltry compilations are ushered to deceive the public. This may be deemed a remainder of the prevailing ignorance and error. Instead of appreciating the learned and useful works, the prevailing taste is for historical romances and systematic fables. It is needful to seek these previous labors, which run the risk of being totally lost, if we will not have again to blush hereafter for these historical losses.I give the list of such among my own manuscripts, as have been employed to write this history. They are yet in my possession, but I wish to see them deposited in a great public library; where they might be consulted.1. Materials for the history, ethnography, &c. of the Americans, their annals, chronology, &c. 40 books, begun in 1820, continued ever since, and not yet closed.2. Vocabularies of the ancient and modern languages of both Americas, symbols, glyphs, &c., 4 books, begun 1824.3. Comparative geography and ethnography of ancient and modern America, 5 books, with maps, &c., begun 1824.4. Ancient monuments of North and South America, compared with the primitive monuments of the eastern hemisphere, 3 books and 200 plans, &c., 1822.[pg 042]5.Tellus, or the primitive History of the Earth and Mankind in Protholia, Oceania and Neotholia, with the ancient and modern general ethnography, 30 books, begun in 1821.6. Synglosson, or compared examination of all languages and nations, 6 books, begun 1825.7. Iconographical Illustrations of all my historical works and travels, containing over 1000 maps, plans, views, costumes, portraits, alphabets, symbols, implements, &c., in 10 cartoons, begun 1816.8. Travels in North America, in 1802, 3, 4, and from 1815 to 1835. In many manuscript books and journals.I have often been apprehensive of the fate of Boturini, for these interesting manuscript and long researches. This has happened already for one of my manuscripts. As early as 1825 I sent to the Academy of Science in Boston, a manuscript of 240 pages, being anaccount of the materials yet existing for the history of the nations and tribes of America before Columbus. This was for an offered prize of $100: which was never awarded, although my memoir was declared the best sent. And instead of depositing this manuscript in the library of the American Antiquarian Society as requested, it has beenlostorstolen. If never recovered, and that the public may judge of the merits of it, at such an early period of my historical studies: I will state[pg 043]the principal results of my enquiries therein; which tenor, together with their length, were the ostensible reasons for not awarding a prize probably never meant to be awarded.I therein proved in 1825, 1st. that there are yet materials enough, notwithstanding the loss of many, for an ancient history of America.2. That a complete American history ought to employ and combine all the materials afforded by geology, geography, physics, chronology, physiology, ethnology, archeology, philology, on America, with all the traditions of the Americans.3. Geology and physical geography indicates the cradles and ancient settlements of mankind, the revolutions of nature, the places unfit for population, the means of access, probable route of colonies, &c.4. America has an ancient geography previous to 1492, which ought to be restored.5. The coincidence of names of nations and tribes, afford a comparitive concordance, indicating ancient connections or identity.6. The ancient American population, must have been derived from the nearest shores of Africa, Europe and Asia. The points where all the indications and traditions tend, are the Antilles, next Paria and Guyana in South America; Anian or Tollan and Alaska in the N. W with Sucanunga or Groenland to the N. E.[pg 044]7. The philological solution of historical affinities must be sought in the roots of the languages, their conformity or analogies, the number of similar sounds, roots and words; which are susceptible of a mathematical calculation, and referable to the theory of probabilities.8. Many primitive nations in all parts of the earth, may thus be proved to have been akin or related.9. Noah's flood was nearly general; but perhaps not universal. His ark or THBE was perhaps Thibet: and his 3 sons 3 nations saved there.10. It has been proved that all the antidiluvian patriarchs were Nations, their long ages being the duration of dynasties or states. This opinion may also be entertained of many other ancient patriarchs or heads of tribes, every where, by the usual figure of personification.11. Peleg's flood was volcanic, not so general as Noah's. There may have been many successive cataclysms blended in this, as this has been often mistaken in date for Noah's.12. The cradle of the Tulans or Mexican nations, must have been the Tulan of Asia, since Turan and Tartary. There are many places called Tula, all over the earth, indicating settlements of Atlantes.13. The ancient chronology of America may be restored. Several dates given, a system proposed.[pg 045]14. All the races and complexions of mankind are found in America.15. America was known to the ancient nations, particularly the Atlantes, Pelagians, Phenicians, &c.16. Some highlands of America were not covered at Noah's flood, and might become the azylums of men, animals, and vegetation. However, but few nations can be traced to these azylums in America.17. The ancient monuments of both Americas, are similar to the primitive monuments of Asia, Africa and Europe.18. The ancient inscriptions of America can be explained. A key may be found for all: some are evidently pelagic.19. The religions of the Americans, were similar to the primitive religions of the eastern hemisphere.20. The manners and customs, of the Americans, are very various, and form no peculiar test.21. Many American nations were highly civilized, besides the Mexicans and Peruvians: skilful in agriculture, and the arts, having cattle, colleges, &c.My reward for having ascertained and proved those facts, was to be denied the prize, and to have my manuscript mislaid or lost or stolen! My historical researches ever since have continued to confirm nearly all these facts.12.Documents and monuments.The historical titles and proofs, inscriptions,[pg 046]medals, coins, charters, &c., which are so common elsewhere, are but few as yet, in America, belonging to early times: most belong to modern history.There are some ancient inscriptions scattered in South America; but not yet published. Molina speaks of one on a pyramid of Cuyo, which late travellers have not found. Those of Otolum near Palenqué in Central America begin to excite great attention; and I have sought a key for them.2Ancient metallic coins and medals, really Americans, are exceedingly scarce: yet there are some in Central America. Several medals, perhaps foreign and indicating a communication, have been found, but again lost or neglected; few have been figured or explained.Implements, tools, sculptures, objects of arts, pottery, weapons, &c. of the ancient Americans are found in all the museums; but excite little attention, by not being concentrated, accumulated nor classified. Many fine specimens of arts have been melted, or broken and lost. The astronomical stones of the Mexicans and Muyzcas have been preserved; but those of Peru and Central America are lost; as well as that beautiful one of the Talegas of North America, a dodecagone, with 144 hieroglyphic signs, found in the Ohio, and once kept in a museum of Philadelphia.The ancient monuments of both Americas,[pg 047]are very numerous, indicating a dense population in places since become wild and desolate, as in North America, Guyana, Brazil, &c. They are most numerous in the central parts of both Americas, and lessen towards both ends. Yet they are met from lat. 45 N. to 45 S. They are very variable in different parts; by no means identic, indicating different builders or many degrees of civilization, from the rudest arts to the most refined: employing many materials, earth, clay, gravel, stone, wood, unbaked bricks; being either irregular cyclopian structures, or regular buildings of rough or cut stones,pizéor beaten clay, &c.We do not know as yet one half of those in existence, and many have never been described nor figured. Yet they afford every where, one of the most evident and certain base of historical researches, confirming traditions, or revealing the seats of former empires, their civilization, &c. They consist chiefly in mounds, altars, tumuli or tombs, ruined cities, villages and forts, temples and dwellings; but we find besides in various places, traces of ancient palaces, bridges, roads, causeways, canals, mines, dromes, baths, pyramids, towers, pillars, rocking stones, walls, wells, pits &c. They generally resemble the primitive monuments of the same kind, met with in the eastern hemisphere, from England and Ireland to Mauritania and Africa, extending[pg 048]east to Lybia, Syria, Russia, Persia, Tartary, &c. They have less resemblance with the monuments of Egypt, Greece, Rome, India and China; yet some kinds somewhat assimilate. In fact, there are, throughout both Americas, three very distinct classes of monuments, indicating distinct arts and architecture.The first or rudest, assimilate nearly to those yet used by the rudest tribes in the north or in Brazil, Antilles, &c., indicating a similar barbarous state.The second or primitive, is known by using wood and earth instead of stones for buildings.The third or most refined, employed stones, often well cut as in Mexico, Central America, Peru, &c., and indicates arts nearly equal to those of Egypt and India.Besides such great monumental remains; there are lesser antiquities; fragments of sculpture, statues, idols, painting, Mosaic, &c., either in metals, stones, pottery, beads, &c., found every where mixed with the others.But the most singular and dubious relics of antiquity, are subteraneous or in excavations: these are in caves, mines, pits, &c.: while under ground are found trees, stumps, charcoal, ashes, shells, pavements, walls, houses, &c. that must have been buried by alluvions, diluvions or new formed soil. It has been surmised or ascertained that some may be antidiluvian: although those in[pg 049]deep alluvial soils, near streams, and connected with graves, may have been buried by men, or fluvial inundations. Mummies, skeletons and bones, with human apparel and implements have been found in caves, evidently buried there by human means, and not by floods. Human remains are but seldom if ever connected with the organic remains of the soil and caves, even of the latest geological date.3.Geography, Maps, &c.The knowledge of the regions and localities inhabited by mankind, or where colonies are sent, empires founded, is needful to history, in order to understand and treat the events and migrations. The physical configuration of the land, the climates, plains, mountains and streams, have a great influence on civilization and communications. Physical geography is constant and invariable: while civil or ethnographical geography is constantly fluctuating in limits and names.If we had complete series of maps by chronological order upon America; we should find therein the materials for a comparative historical geography, and successive ethnography, showing the gradual revolutions of mankind. The old maps of America, those of Laet, the old geographers &c. are very valuable for this object. Many travellers in America, have given original maps, which furnish similar materials. I have chiefly used for Peru and Austral America, the maps of Laet, Acarete,[pg 050]D'Anville, Molina, Falkner, Cochrane, Wedel, the Jesuits, &c. Among the modern general maps, relating to South America, the Spanish maps of 1810 and 1822, the English of 1815, the French of 1830, the latest American of Tanner, &c. By those materials I have been able to trace and fix four periods of American geography, 2 ancient and 2 modern.I. Primitive geography of America.II. Ancient ditto, or between 1400 and 1500.III. Modern colonial geography.IV. Modern independent geography.I have formed Mpt. maps of the two first periods, which shall be published gradually, or in my Illustrations of the Ancient Geography of America. We have thousands of maps on the early geography of the Eastern Hemisphere, and no one as yet on the Western Hemisphere! to show the respective limits and positions of Ancient Empires, Nations, Cities, &c., except Clavigero's map of Anahuac at the Spanish conquest, those of Hayti, Laet, &.c.We have the plans of Ancient Mexico and Cuzco; but lack those of Tiahuanaco, Otolum, and many more important for ancient history. Several plans of ancient sites of civilization have been given, along with those of monuments. I have many in Mpt. yet unpublished. The greatest part of modern cities, are built on ancient sites, from Mexico to Chili. In North[pg 051]America, the same happens with Cincinnati, Louisville, Pittsburg, St. Louis, Philadelphia, Savannah, &c. The views of ruined cities, and those of actual cities, are partly historical, connected with the knowledge of gradual American civilization.Many ancient names of islands, lakes, streams and mountains, are preserved in actual names. Such are Cuba, Hayti—Ontario, Erie, Titicaca—Ohio, Alatamaha, Maranon, Parana, Rivers.—Alleghanies, Andes, Parima, Mountains, &c. When the names have been changed, it is the duty of the historical geographer to compare the old and new names.The Mexicans and other civilized ancient nations, could draw and paint maps. Even our North American tribes can draw rude maps on skins or bark. Some of these are preserved in museums; but none have ever been published: although some are pretty correct and deserving it.4.Natural Sciences.They are now becoming sisters of history. Geology is connected with geography. Botany and Zoology, acquaint us with trees, plants and animals, which were used in the arts and agriculture at different periods. The Asiatic origin of maize, calledmazaby Hesiod and known to the Pelagians (Hughes Greece,) has been unperceived by Humboldt and many others, although it throws some light on the early migrations and[pg 052]communications of tribes. Maize was cultivated in Assyria, West Tartary, North Africa and Java, before 1492, as asserted by Marco Polo, Crawford, Raffles. Gebelin, &c.3America had anciently several cereal plants, besides maize, two kinds of indigenous wheat and barley in Chili. The Quinoa and Zizania, the rice of South and North America. Many roots, beans, seeds, fruits and flowers, were cultivated from Canada to Chili. Native dies were abundant, the indigo and annato were natives. Red and yellow cochineal were nursed and collected. Many peculiar kinds of cotton, silks, hemp, flax, agave, palm, &c., were cultivated or collected to use for cloths, threads, ropes, &c.Paleontology, a new science, seeks for the remains of animals dwelling on earth, before mankind. America has already afforded the huge mastodons, elephants, megatherium, megalonyx, as primitive land animals, and many large reptiles, crocodiles of streams and lakes.American Zoology is very peculiar: a few arctic quadrupeds, birds and insects excepted; all the animals of this hemisphere are peculiar to it. Reptiles almost entirely such, even in the North. All the American monkeys form distinct species. The tropical animals of the two hemispheres are distinct, even often in genera. Out of 33[pg 053]quadrupeds formerly domesticated in America, the dog only may be deemed a stranger: and it had even many American varieties.The domestic quadrupeds of ancient America were 33, while only 25 in Asia, Africa and Europe. Among them were 4 species of Vicunia, 4 of Agutis, 2 deer, 2 hogs, 10 monkeys, &c. See my dissertation on the domestic animals of both hemispheres, 1832. Americans had also tamed 22 birds or fowls, as many as Asia, &c., and even some reptiles, fishes, insects, &c., had become domestic: altogether 112 in America and only 80 in Europe, Asia, &c., before 1492.American botany offers many peculiar regions; in the North only, akin to Asiatic or European botany; but becoming quite distinct in the tropics, still more so in Austral America. Since 1492 the European colonists have brought many plants, that are become spontaneous from Canada to Chili: these must be carefully separated from the ancient indigenous plants.The American Floras are nearly as many as the 15 natural regions already indicated, each having a focal seat or cradle in some range of mountains. They become richer or more abundant in species within the tropics, decreasing to the North and South. Trees and palm abound there, and disappear near the poles, the palms are unknown beyond the 36 degrees North and South. The equator has 500 species of trees; in[pg 054]latitude 40 N. and S. only 100 kinds are found, or even less. Social plants and grasses abound in plains, and in the North dwindle to mosses and lichens.Trees were early tools of civilization, affording timber, fuel, dies, houses, boats, weapons, &c. Fruit trees afforded food in abundance: even the tribes of North America near latitude 40 d. had 40 kinds of native wild fruits, and had begun to plant orchards of plumtrees, peachtrees, crab-trees, nut-trees. They knew how to make oils of nuts, to dry the fruits, make sugars out of maples and other trees.Fish has always afforded an ample supply of food to early nations, whence the preference to dwell near streams, Lakes and shores. Notwithstanding the swimming rambles of fishes, it is only the pelagic or oceanic tribes of them that are common to both hemispheres. Most of the resident shore fishes of America are peculiar species. Still more so with lacustral and fluviatile fishes. These are divided into peculiar regions. Our northern lakes form one; and almost every large stream has a peculiar generation of finny tribes: such are the Mississippi, Maranon, Parana, the Atlantic streams and rivers, those of Brazil, &c.Minerals abound in both Americas. It was gold and silver that drew hither the greedy Spanish freebooters. The civilized nations knew mining, smelting, casting and forging. They used gold, silver, copper,[pg 055]brass, lead, &c.; collected and prized gems, emeralds, agats, volcanic glass, &c. Even the less civilized tribes of North America used copper and lead, clays for pipes, pottery, &c. Iron was scarce because so hard to melt, and highly prized; but iron-rings have been found as jewels around the wrists of skeletons.Metallic coins were little known except in Central America; but bits of silver, gold, tin, iron, were used as such. The other mediums of exchange were skins, mats, nuts, cacao, shells, beads, mosaic works, &c. Commerce was well known to many nations; traders went 500 miles to exchange commodities in Florida, Mexico, Yucatan, Peru, &c. Navigators went by sea for the same purpose all over the Antilles, coast of Peru, and in the great streams. It is thus that were found many strange and foreign objects, jewels, medals, metals, &c., all over America, and in early tombs.5.Ethnography.This new science which undertakes to describe nations, reckons already many peculiar branches. Anthropography or the knowledge of physical mankind. Philology or the comparative study of human speech and languages. Besides the nameless branch attending to the moral ideas, arts, institutions, manners, civilization, governments and religions of mankind; which might be called moral ethnography.All these studies become the philosophy[pg 056]of history, and shall duly command my attention. Some writers neglect them altogether; others, like Robertson, do not know how to collect and accumulate facts instead of systems: Rollin has shown in his Ancient History, how useful moral ethnography may be as an auxiliary: although he omitted philology and physical facts.I have studied the men of all the parts of the world, in order to know and compare them, better than had been done. All the errors on the histories of nations, proceed commonly from the slender or partial views acquired or admitted by the writers. There is much to glean on the ethnography of modern nations, and therefrom we may ascend to ancient ethnography. It would be needful to study well the physical and moral features of all; the shapes of bodies, skulls, faces and limbs; the complexions of the skin, hairs and eyes; with the casual or permanent varieties.But, above all, we must better study all the spoken languages and dialects. It is strange that we hardly know anything, and sometimes nothing at all, on the languages of many existing tribes, with whom we have intercourse in both Americas. It would be desirable to procure at least a vocabulary of 100 essential words, in each. Such words, including the cardinal numbers, will soon become the key of ethnographical philology. While the additional study of[pg 057]phonology or sounds of languages, their idioms and grammars, their roots, and verbs, the alphabets, glyphs and symbols used to communicate ideas, will combine to furnish the complete knowledge of philology as a separate science. Although I have not always carried so far my researches; I did so for a few, applying chiefly myself to the essential features of languages; and the unexpected results will be surprising.American anthropography will teach that there were men of all sizes, features and complexions, in this hemisphere before 1492: notwithstanding the false assertions of many writers, who take one nation for the whole American group. The Uskihs, the Puruays, the Parias, the Chons, &c. were as white as the Spaniards, 50 such tribes were found in South America; while many tribes of Choco, the Manabis, the Yaruras, &c., were as black as negroes. All the other shades of brown, tawny and coppery, were scattered every where. There was not a single red man in America, unless painted such. Some tribes had scanty beards as the Tartars, Chinese, Berbers, &c., others bushy beards. The Tinguis or Patagons were 7 or 8 feet high, and the Guaymas only 4 or 5 feet.6.Traditions and Annals.Many American nations preserve a memory of historical events by unwritten traditions, repeated from fathers to sons; or communicated[pg 058]orally by the priests, chiefs or elderly men. Many are preserved yet to this day, by frequent repetitions, being embodied in songs, hymns, maxims, tales, drawings, or even symbolic figures and signs. Many of those traditions are precious for history, notwithstanding the fables, allegories, metaphors, personifications, &c., which partly conceal them or render the meaning obscure. We must learn to decipher them as we do old inscriptions and medals.Although many such are now nearly lost for us, by the extinction of the living books, who kept the remembrance: there are many already collected, and of which we ought to make a good use. But there are as many more, which have never been collected nor printed. I have collected many such in North America in manuscript. It often happens that the American tribes will not communicate them to their foes or oppressors; but their friends and allies may hope to receive the deposit of them. Every enlightened traveller ought to seek for them wherever he goes. Yet after being acquired, they are sometimes lost again, by neglect. I have known some learned and unlearned men despise them equally asIndian Stories, because they despise the ancient American race. There are, however, as yet many historical songs, poems and tales to collect among all the American tribes, which falling in good[pg 059]hands cannot fail to attract notice and be employed usefully. Every one who neglects or destroys them acts as a vandal. Malcolm has said at the outset of his history of Persia, that we ought never to neglect the original notions of a people on its origin, or early history, since therein is found the germ and spring of their subsequent conduct, actions and opinions.My illustrations shall contain many unpublished or forgotten traditions, whereof I shall avail myself in all my historical annals and researches. I consider those of the Uskihs, Dinnis, Ongwis, Linapis, Shawanis, Cados, Natchez, Ozages, Atakapas, Apalachians, &c., as highly important for the annals of North America. The same may be said of the Mexicans, Zapotecas, Mayas, Toltecas, Chols, &c., for Central America. Of the Haytians, Cubans and Caribs for the Antilles. And in South America those of the Muyzcas, Cumanans, Tamanacs, Popayans, Peruvians, Chilians, Brazilians, Abipons, &c.7.Chronology and Astronomy.These two sciences always go together, and form a double key of history. The American chronology is by no means fixed before 1492, and requires a skillful hand to preserve and compare all the heterogenous dates heretofore collected. I shall attempt to elucidate it gradually; but may often be compelled, as in geology, to relate only successive events without dates, and merely[pg 060]referred to a series of gradual facts. In Austral America, we are told that none had notions of astronomy and dates, except the Chilians; yet their chronology begins only in 1450. I doubt this: I rather believe that their oral traditions have been neglected, as well as those of their neighbours.In Peru, there are many positive dates, yet I was the first to reduce them to chronological order. In Brazil and Guyana, but few dates are found. The Muyzcas had very early dates, yet few have been preserved; much obscured by personifications of dynasties, and Pietrahita begins their real annals only in 1490, or 45 years before the Spanish invasion. In the Antilles the dates are quite loose, and difficult to reduce even to a serial order.But in Central and Mexican America, we find many early dates with a regular chronology. Yet some are extravagant or contradictory. I shall endeavour to elucidate them, so as to reduce the whole to order. They must form the base of a regular American chronology, that ascends by dates to the flood and creation. In Yucatan the first regular date only reach to 940 after Christ.In North America, where the smallest number of dates existed; we have unexpectedly and quite lately, found that many ancient dates could be procured. Cusick has published those of the Ongwi traditions,[pg 061]and I have ascertained those of the Linapis. Both of which reach to the flood and creation, and afford series of available dates as early as 1600 years before our era; thus nearly as ample as those of the TOL-tecas, and as plain in some instances.Astronomy was cultivated by all the civilized nations of ancient America. They had cycles of 144, 104, 60, 52, 20, 15 and 13 solar years. Humboldt has well written on that subject; but much remains to be gleaned. The northern tribes reckon by generations as the Greeks, the Polynesians, &c., and by winters instead of years, moons instead of solar months. They had also a cycle of 60 years. In Central America, &c. the months were of 20 days, including 4 weeks of 5 days. But the Peruvians had months of 27 days, or 3 weeks of 9 days as the Etruscans. The Muyzcas small weeks of 3 days, &c. No where in ancient America, was found the sabatical week of days, based on the 7 planets and the 4 quarters of a lunation. This is remarkable, as evincing a remote antiquity, and separation before this week was adopted in Egypt, India, Syria, Celtica, &c.Until 120 years before Christ the TOL-tecas reckoned only 365 days in the solar year, as the primitive nations of Asia: then they added the hours to the year. This forms their astronomical era. The Muyzcas had a very complicated astronomy, and three kinds of years. The usual was of 20[pg 062]moons, and the ecclesiastical of 37 moons. The horal division unknown in many parts of America, was of 4 hours in the day for the Muyzcas and Mexicans, elsewhere of 5, 10 and 20. The 24 hours and the Zodiac of 12 signs with 360 degrees were not known. The Mexican Zodiac had 13 signs and 104 degrees.Arithmetic is intimately connected with astronomy. A complete decimal numeration was known to all the civilized American nations, and even to the northern tribes. The most rude tribes reckoned by 5 or the manual mode; there are traces also of a binary numeration, the most simple of all: while others had complex calculations by 13 and by 20 or scores. We find no trace of any by 7, and but slight indications of a ternary numeration by 3 and 9. All these American modes of reckoning may thus be reduced to thebinary, by two or pairs; and the quinary or manual by the five fingers, of which the decimal is the double, and by 20 the quadruple.8.Languages.They are becoming one of the most important aids in history. When the annals are ample and clear, the examination of the languages is merely a supplement to historical knowledge; but when they are obscure, mutilated or totally lost; languages then supply more or less to their defects or loss. Their comparative study furnish us new lights to ascertain the origines, parentage, dispersions, colonies, alliances,[pg 063]wars, &c., of the nations thus deprived of written annals or even traditions. They serve also to rectify the imperfect annals or the fabulous traditions. This study may lead besides to trace the manners, religions, intercourse, arts and sciences of nearly all nations; since the proper languages of each people offers a picture of the civilization, acquired or borrowed knowledge, modes of life, &c. of each.It is above all in both Americas that this study is indispensable in historical researches: I will therefore apply to languages in all cases, and make constant use of them; and they will unfold new facts quite unknown, although very important, Historical lights shall thereby be thrown on many obscure subjects, whence astonishing and unexpected results may spring, in which I shall depend as much as upon mutilated and neglectful traditions.By taking into view all the American languages or as many as are already known, we shall easily dispel the errors and absurd systems of philosophers and philologists, who taking only a few as samples of the whole, have either deemedall the Americans, as many Jews, or Tartars, or Atlantes, or sprung from the ground, and so on. Now the fact is that these writers have never taken the trouble to compare the numerous American languages and dialects, reduce them to groups, and seek their affinities elsewhere.[pg 064]Adelung and Vater had once stated without proof, that nearly 1200 languages existed in America. Balbi has reduced them to 423, of which 212 in South America; but they can be much further reduced, most of them being mere dialects. The whole may be comprised in 25 groups of languages, or even less; which were certainly identic in 25 languages 2 or 3000 years ago: and all of which have astonishing affinities with the groups of the eastern hemisphere, so as to indicate a parentage 4 or 5000 years ago.Vater and Maltebrun have given a few hundred examples of such analogies: and the systematic writers have supposed that they had exhausted the comparisons. Yet a single language, the Chilian, has by itself more affinities with the languages of Europe, than all those mentioned by Vater and others, put together! The foreign or transatlantic affinities of American languages, vary from 10 to 70 per cent, according to the nations. If we suppose that there are 400 languages in America, and as many in the eastern hemisphere, and each to have about 2000 roots or essential words only; while the mean affinities are only 25 per cent: we shall find as many as 200,000 affinities! out of America, in every American language; and in all the 400, as many as 80 millions! instead of the paltry reckoning of 1000 or so. All this is susceptible[pg 065]of mathematical proofs, and shall be unfolded gradually in these pages.The theory about the common exclusive grammatical structure of all the American languages, is equally erroneous and based upon partial facts. Instead of all the American languages being polysynthetic by amalgamating words, we find in America many mixt forms, and even the pure monosylabic: while the amalgamation of words prevails more or less in Europe and Africa; chiefly in the Bask, Italian dialects, Greek, Berber and other Atlantic dialects, the Negro languages, those of Caffraria, the Sanscrit and all the derived languages.It had been asserted that no American language was monosylabic: yet Balbi states that the Guarani and Maya are such; Nasera has lately proved the same of the Othomi. Thus we have at least 3 such American groups of languages. But there are more; nay many American languages have monosylabic roots, even among the most amalgamated groups.The most obvious grammatical classification of American languages, has escaped the acuteness of philologists. I find it in the epithetic structure, or relative position of ideas. Under this view all the languages arrange themselves in three great classes or groups. 1. Regular, 2. Resupinate, 3. Mixt.1.The Regularis the most simple and natural form: where the roots or nouns are[pg 066]prefixed, and the adjuncts or adjectives, expressing epithetes or qualities follow or are added. This group includes in the Eastern Continent 1. All the Semetic languages, Arabic, Hebrew, &c. 2. All the Atlantic and Egyptian languages. 3. All the Celtic and Cantabrian languages. 4. All the Polynesian and Malay languages. 5. The Bhotiya and many languages of Thibet. 6. Most of the Negro languages. 7. Yakut of Siberia, &c.In America this group includes my groups 1. Innuit or Uski. 2. Ongwi. 3. Capaha. 4. Chactah. 5. All the languages related thereto in North-west America, the Kaluchi, Mandan, &c. 6. All the Guarani languages of South America, and perhaps many others, Mayna, Mobima, &c.2.The Resupinate or Reflexed Group: where the roots or nouns substantive are reversed, following the adjective or epithetes, which are prefixed. This second mode of uniting ideas prevails 1. In all the languages of China and Tartary. 2. In all the Teutonic languages German, Swede, English. 3. In most of the Thracian, Illyrian, Greek and Slavonic languages. 4. In all the Turkish languages of Turan, Bokhara, Turkey. 5. The Newari of Imalaya. 6. The Qua or Hottentot of South Africa.In America, it is the most prevailing form, found in my groups 1. Linni or Linapis. 2. Otali or Cheroki. 3. In all the Mexican[pg 067]and Othomi languages. 4. Chontal. 5. Skereh or Pani and Shoshoni, of North America,—and in South America. 6. Chili. 7. Yarura. 8. Mbaya and probably many more: although hardly indicated by the philologists.3.Mixt Form, which employs or adopts more or less the two former modes; although there is always a prevailing form, that indicates the original mode of uniting ideas. This mixt form appears 1. In the Sanscrit and all derived languages. 2. In the Zend and Persian languages of Iran. 3. In the Pelagic and Italic languages, the Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, Greek. 4. The Japanese, &c.While in America it is found 1. In the Aruac languages. 2. The Muyzca. 3. The Peruvian languages, &c. of South America, and in North America. 4. The Atalan. 5. Mizteca. 6. Opata, and probably some others.This comparative classification of languages, will greatly help future investigations. It will show the improbability of the two opposite modes of annexing ideas having been entertained, by the same people at any time; while the mixt form evinces amalgamations of ancient nations. We have thus acquired another clue to trace primitive connections, another available mean to pursue the human steps on earth.9.Religions and Mythologies.The human opinions on the past and future form[pg 068]every where ample themes of thoughts and actions. From revelations, inspirations, oracles, wisdom and priestcraft comingled, have arisen all the worships, and rites, dogmas and creeds, swaying the human mind, through hope or fear, love or hatred. The history of religious ideas, is in fact the history of civilization, since they have sprung together in social men. Nearly all the religions of Asia (which from hence have spread throughout the earth along with mankind) were found in America: except the modern creeds. But the traces of Judaism and Budhism were very faint and local. Mahometism was unknown, Braminism hardly known. Christianity or some of its rites are traced to Yucatan only, and may arise from other sources. The most prevailing worships were the primitive Sabeism, Solar worship, Polytheism, Dualism or Manicheism, Shamanism or worship of Spirits, Idolatry, and Fetichism or animal worship. We find throughout America many modifications of these creeds: with several complex mythologies, more or less analogous to eastern dogmas.The investigation of these American religions affords not only an insight into the ancient civilization, but many proofs of ancient communications with Asia or Africa. Throughout North America the Dualism, mythologies and fabulous traditions point to a connexion with Tartary. In Florida, Mexico and Yucatan, begin to appear the[pg 069]Solar worship, and a cruel idolatry foreign to it. This Solar worship appears in a purer form in North America, as far as Peru. While in the Antilles, Guyana, Brazil and Chili, prevailed several worships of heavenly and terrestial spirits; somewhat akin to the primitive idolatry of Africa, Europe, Iran, India, China and Polynesia.American religions admitted, like many others, of Priests, oracles, temples, shrines, pilgrimages, holy places, sacrifices, expiations, confessions, offerings, hymns, veneration for animals, men and stars. Idols painted or sculptured in wood, pottery, stone, metals, &c.; bloody rites by human sacrifices, scarifications, circumscision, &c. But none of these practices were general, some were quite local and circumscribed. Thus circumscision was only used by the Mayas of Yucatan, the Calchaquis of Tucuman, &c. Traces of a triple god or Indian Trimurti have been met from Ohio to Peru; but it was no where the prevailing religion. As the same idea was found among the Celts and Polynesians, it may have come by the east rather than Polynesia in the west.10.Civilization and Manners.This completes the history of all nations. When their annals are well known, it becomes a very proper appendix to them; when they are not, it is a very needful supplement to the traditions, &c. But we must not make any history consist merely in such an account,[pg 070]as often done by negligent writers. The manners and customs of every people, are so fluctuating, liable to be changed, or improved by civilization, imitation, arts and sciences, &c.; that they cannot afford any test of connections. They are often borrowed, from neighbors or strangers, disused after awhile by whims or wars, invented to suit the climate and productions it may afford. We have positive proofs that the Europeans have since 1492 greatly modified the customs of all the tribes they conquered or visited. This must have happened formerly also, by other visits or communications. Yet, notwithstanding the uncertainty of the origin and duration of the primitive American customs, they must be studied, as one of the sources and objects of history.We find, in ancient America, nearly all the forms of social civilization and manners of the east. But the Nomadic life with camels, oxen and sheep, was unknown, as well as those animals. The American cattle or lamas, &c. of South America, hogs of Coriana, dogs and rabbits of Mexico, deers of Florida, buffalos of Taos, were kept by sedentary civilized tribes. The Nomadic wandering tribes of America were chiefly hunters and fishermen: scattered around the agricultural nations, spreading from Canada to Chili.All the kinds of governments were known in America: Theocracy, despotism, monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy. But[pg 071]the most prevailing were theocracy among the civilized nations, oligarchy among the barbarous nations: with two peculiar modifications, of double kings as among Arabs, civil and military; and chiefs of families or tribes, as among all primitive nations. Queens were known to but few tribes, although the female line was often hereditary. Written laws and codes were known to the Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Mayans, Muyzcas, Panos, Peruvians, &c. Oral laws were elsewhere preserved by priests or magistrates.Polygamy prevailed among some tribes or castes, but was not universal. The 4 castes of Indians are distinctly found in nearly all the civilized nations, often modified into priests, nobles, vassals and slaves. The arts of music, medicine, smithery, painting, sculpture, architecture, agriculture, pottery, &c., were well known to nearly all. The sciences of geometry, geography, botany, astronomy, &c., were cultivated from Mexico to Peru, even taught in schools and colleges; with the arts, the laws, the rites, and history of the country.Marsden has well distinguished several degrees of civilization in Asia. If no American nation had reached the Greeks and Romans, or our modern polished and improved civilization; it is not extraordinary. But the Peruvians, Muyzcas, Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Talascas, &c., were nearly[pg 072]equal to the Chinese, Egyptians and Hindus in civilization; not far removed from the European civilization of the 15th century: nay, in some things superior. The second degree of American civilization found in Chili, Florida, Cumana, the Antilles, Popayan, the Linapis, Omaguas &c. was equal to that of the Arabs, Malays, Celts, Cantabrians, Pelagians, &c. While the third degree found in all the barbarous nations, Innuit or Esquimaux, Shoshonis, Caribs, Brazilians, &c. was not worse than what we find among the Fins, Laplanders, Tartars, Sames, Negroes and Hottentots.Individual property in land was almost unknown in America; but feodal and tribal property well understood. Common property of tribes and villages over their territories, was the most usual tenure, modified by wars, conquests, tributes. Individual property existed only for tenements and personal property. Warfares, marriages and funerals were very different in every nation. The weapons of war were clubs, arrows, darts, lances, axes, Macana swords, Sarbacanes or blowing tubes, slings, nooses, thronged balls, &c. as elsewhere. There was a peculiar diplomacy, with heralds, envoys, messengers. Shields, towers, forts, walls, ditches, were used for defence, besidesEstopilsa peculiar quilted armor. Flags, banners, and standards were known. The calumets, leaves or green feathers,[pg 073]council fires, and white flags were emblems of peace. Alliances and confederations existed from earliest times, also the adoption of tribes and prisoners. Slavery was hardly known; but vassalage much extended over conquered tribes.Dresses and ornaments were quite various. Seal skins used by the Innuit. Deer skins and furs by the tribes of North America. In tropical America many tribes went nearly naked, with a mere apron or pagne of cotton or grass cloth. But the civilized nations were decently clothed with cotton shirts and feather mantles. ThePonchois a true American dress known from Mexico to Chili, hardly known out of America except Polynesia.4Women wore long pagnes or gowns. They made cloths of lama wool in Peru; of cotton, hemp, nettles, grass, feathers &c. there and elsewhere; either twisted, plaited or woven. The Peruvians and Chilians had a peculiar loom and plough. Cotton looms were used in Florida, Mexico, and all over South America, even by the Caribs to make hamacs or hanging beds. Among some nations women had the most labor to perform; yet even the men assumed hunting, making canoes, huts, weapons, &c. More civilized tribes worked together in the fields: The proud and warlike employed vassals or slaves.Painting the body or face, was usual among many nations, but not general. It[pg 074]was useful against heat and flies, or was used to inspire love or terror. Ornaments to the head, ears, nose, lips, wrists, legs, &c., were more or less adopted by men and women. The hair was usually worn long; but many tribes cut it in various ways, as a crown or tuft. The beard even when scanty was deemed unbecoming by many tribes, and totally eradicated; but some tribes wore beards. The head was often left uncovered; but hats were worn in the N. W. and Central America, turbans in Paria and Florida, feather crowns in the tropics,Lautasor diadem-bands in Peru and the Andes. Shoes and gloves were unknown; but sandals, leggings, leather clods, and mocassins or slippers of various substances, commonly used; with singular snow shoes of bark in winter by northern tribes.[pg 076]
Chapter II.Materials for the history of the Americans.—Authors, Documents, Sciences.—Languages, Civilization, &c.Far from following the example of many American historians, who often take a single guide for their crude compilations, or avoid the trouble to consult all the historical sources, I have taken care in my researches to employ all the possible means to reach the truth, and collect all the facts that are scattered among a crowd of writers. I have carefully analysed, compared and judged the materials, details and events[pg 036]thus procured: nay, all the auxiliary sciences have afforded additional fragments or proofs.These materials may be divided into 10 series or kinds1. Works, printed or manuscript.2. Documents and monuments.3. Maps, plans, views, &c.4. Natural sciences.5. Ethnography.6. Traditions and annals.7. Chronology and astronomy.8. Languages and philology.9. Religion, mythologies, &c.10. Civilization, laws and manners.The writers upon America are very numerous; but mostly defective or local. A number, however, have attempted to consider the whole continent: the principal among those containing facts upon all parts of America are chieflyHerrera, History and Geography of Spanish America carried till the year 1554.Delaet, Historical Geography of America, till 1630.Garcias, Origins of the Americans.—Spanish work.Carli, American Letters.—Italian work.Ogilby, History and Geography of America, till 1670.Raynal, European Settlements in America, till 1774.Alcedo, Geographical Dictionary of Spanish America in 1786.—Spanish work.[pg 037]Maltebrun, Improved Geography, 1820.Touron, History of America, chiefly ecclesiastical, and incomplete, 14 volumes 1768-70, in French.Robertson, false History of America or Spanish Conquests of Mexico or Peru.The collections of travels by Hackluyt, Purchas, Harris, Ramusio, Barcias, Prevost, &c.The American researches of Ulloa, Humboldt, M'Culloh, &c.I have consulted and analyzed all these general works, and many others of less account; but I have not yet read Hervas nor Compagnone, knowing them merely through quotationsThe firstBibliotheca Americanaor catalogue of writers on America, was given by Kennet in 1701 and 1713. Another appeared in England in 1719; a third in France in 1820. They contain the names, authors, editions, dates, &c. of over 300 works relating to America. Robertson has given a list of nearly as many, which he pretends to have consulted, although he neglected what they tell us. Humboldt has also a catalogue of 250 authors, consulted by him. In 1831, Aspinwall published his American Library containing 771 works; and Warden, in Paris, his own, containing 977 American works with 133 atlasses and maps.All this does not complete the account of books on America; since I have seen[pg 038]many omitted in all these catalogues; although I never could meet some mentioned there. I will carefully notice them, that it may be known where I found my materials, and what may yet have escaped my researches. I have already consulted upwards of 600 writers on both Americas, and there are at least 1000 already printed, I mean special or local works connected with history. If we were to add to these the botanists, naturalists, paltry compilers, and pamphlets, we might make a catalogue of 3000 works on America, her inhabitants and productions.I will refer gradually to them, and have collected them all in my manuscript illustrations;materials,printed works. Therefore we do not lack printed materials: but the choice of the best is difficult: since many works merely consist in fables, blunders, errors, hypotheses and their constant repetitions: which ought to be rejected in order to gather facts and the truth. But we must not reject as pyrrhoniams all that may clash with our ideas and systems: it is chiefly needful so recall and restore the events and facts mentioned by the earliest travellers and observers.These numerous local writers ought to be divided into three classes. 1. historians and annalists, 2. travellers and geographers, 3. antiquarians and philologists. I shall now merely mention the most useful (which I have all consulted) upon the Peruvian and Austral regions of South America.[pg 039]1st. The principal historians are, 1. Molina, History of Chili, 2. Funes, Civil History of Buenos Ayres, Paraguay and Tucuman, 3. Lavega, History of Peru, 4. Debrizoffer, history of Abipones, 5. Charlevoix of Paraguay, 6. Techo, on Ditto, 7, 8. Lozano and Jolis on Chaco, 9. Muratori, and 10. Renger, Paraguay.2d. The principal writers who have furnished historical facts, with geographical and ethnographical materials, areold travellers, 1. Pigafetta and Magellan, 2. Cabot, 3. Shmidel, 4. Drake, 5. Cavendish, 6. Acarete, 7. Knivet, 8. Frezier, 9. Sepp, 10. Brewer, 11. Nyel, 12. Schmidtmeyer.The modern travellers are, 1. Azara, 2. D'Ulloa, 3. Humboldt, 4. Cook, 5. Byron, 6. Laperouse, 7. Stevenson, 8. Myers, 9. Heyn, 10. Beaumont, 11. Gillespie, 12. Vidal, 13. Wedel, 14. King, 15. Morrell, 16. Andrew, 17. Temple, 18. Mawe, 19. Proctor, 20. Graham, 21. Head, 22. Pernetty.The principal original geographers and ethnographers are, 1. Fernandez on Chiquitos 1726, 2. Bueno, Ditto 1800, 3. Falkner, on Patagonia 1774, 4. Molina on Chili and Cuyo, 5. Lozano on Chaco 1733, 6. Skinner, Memoirs on Peru, 7. Gili, South America 1782.3d. Lastly the auxiliary writers on philology, antiquities and other historical branches are, 1. Adelung, Vater, Maltebrun, Balbi, &c., on all American languages, 2. American researches of Humboldt, Macculoh[pg 040]1829. Those of Depaw and Ranking are shameful, perverting every thing to support false systems.Manuscripts.There are yet many such extant on America, in the libraries of both hemispheres. Clavigero gave a long list of Mexican Manuscripts. Funes quotes several on Austral America. There are several extant in Central America and South America, in Peru and Brazil. Many have been lost through wilful neglect, or destroyed at the Spanish Conquest, the expulsion of Jesuits, &c. Those in the ancient languages, Mexican, Tarasca, Tzendal, &c., are now very rare, and much esteemed. Those burnt by Zumaraga, the Mexican Omar, have been often regretted. Lord Kingborough has lately published some at a great cost.The manuscripts which I could consult on South America are but few. Those on North America are more numerous and very important; particularly the traditions of the Linapis, Shawanis, &c., they are chiefly on wood, bark, skins or Mosaic strings. But I have received several manuscript vocabularies of the languages of Guyana, Brazil, Texas, Mexico, &c. and I have consulted several manuscripts in the libraries of Philadelphia.There are, besides, in the public or private libraries of all the great cities of both Americas, several interesting historical works, which have never been published.[pg 041]There are several in Philadelphia, particularly the historical collections of Simetierre. Often the best or most important works cannot be printed: while a crowd of paltry compilations are ushered to deceive the public. This may be deemed a remainder of the prevailing ignorance and error. Instead of appreciating the learned and useful works, the prevailing taste is for historical romances and systematic fables. It is needful to seek these previous labors, which run the risk of being totally lost, if we will not have again to blush hereafter for these historical losses.I give the list of such among my own manuscripts, as have been employed to write this history. They are yet in my possession, but I wish to see them deposited in a great public library; where they might be consulted.1. Materials for the history, ethnography, &c. of the Americans, their annals, chronology, &c. 40 books, begun in 1820, continued ever since, and not yet closed.2. Vocabularies of the ancient and modern languages of both Americas, symbols, glyphs, &c., 4 books, begun 1824.3. Comparative geography and ethnography of ancient and modern America, 5 books, with maps, &c., begun 1824.4. Ancient monuments of North and South America, compared with the primitive monuments of the eastern hemisphere, 3 books and 200 plans, &c., 1822.[pg 042]5.Tellus, or the primitive History of the Earth and Mankind in Protholia, Oceania and Neotholia, with the ancient and modern general ethnography, 30 books, begun in 1821.6. Synglosson, or compared examination of all languages and nations, 6 books, begun 1825.7. Iconographical Illustrations of all my historical works and travels, containing over 1000 maps, plans, views, costumes, portraits, alphabets, symbols, implements, &c., in 10 cartoons, begun 1816.8. Travels in North America, in 1802, 3, 4, and from 1815 to 1835. In many manuscript books and journals.I have often been apprehensive of the fate of Boturini, for these interesting manuscript and long researches. This has happened already for one of my manuscripts. As early as 1825 I sent to the Academy of Science in Boston, a manuscript of 240 pages, being anaccount of the materials yet existing for the history of the nations and tribes of America before Columbus. This was for an offered prize of $100: which was never awarded, although my memoir was declared the best sent. And instead of depositing this manuscript in the library of the American Antiquarian Society as requested, it has beenlostorstolen. If never recovered, and that the public may judge of the merits of it, at such an early period of my historical studies: I will state[pg 043]the principal results of my enquiries therein; which tenor, together with their length, were the ostensible reasons for not awarding a prize probably never meant to be awarded.I therein proved in 1825, 1st. that there are yet materials enough, notwithstanding the loss of many, for an ancient history of America.2. That a complete American history ought to employ and combine all the materials afforded by geology, geography, physics, chronology, physiology, ethnology, archeology, philology, on America, with all the traditions of the Americans.3. Geology and physical geography indicates the cradles and ancient settlements of mankind, the revolutions of nature, the places unfit for population, the means of access, probable route of colonies, &c.4. America has an ancient geography previous to 1492, which ought to be restored.5. The coincidence of names of nations and tribes, afford a comparitive concordance, indicating ancient connections or identity.6. The ancient American population, must have been derived from the nearest shores of Africa, Europe and Asia. The points where all the indications and traditions tend, are the Antilles, next Paria and Guyana in South America; Anian or Tollan and Alaska in the N. W with Sucanunga or Groenland to the N. E.[pg 044]7. The philological solution of historical affinities must be sought in the roots of the languages, their conformity or analogies, the number of similar sounds, roots and words; which are susceptible of a mathematical calculation, and referable to the theory of probabilities.8. Many primitive nations in all parts of the earth, may thus be proved to have been akin or related.9. Noah's flood was nearly general; but perhaps not universal. His ark or THBE was perhaps Thibet: and his 3 sons 3 nations saved there.10. It has been proved that all the antidiluvian patriarchs were Nations, their long ages being the duration of dynasties or states. This opinion may also be entertained of many other ancient patriarchs or heads of tribes, every where, by the usual figure of personification.11. Peleg's flood was volcanic, not so general as Noah's. There may have been many successive cataclysms blended in this, as this has been often mistaken in date for Noah's.12. The cradle of the Tulans or Mexican nations, must have been the Tulan of Asia, since Turan and Tartary. There are many places called Tula, all over the earth, indicating settlements of Atlantes.13. The ancient chronology of America may be restored. Several dates given, a system proposed.[pg 045]14. All the races and complexions of mankind are found in America.15. America was known to the ancient nations, particularly the Atlantes, Pelagians, Phenicians, &c.16. Some highlands of America were not covered at Noah's flood, and might become the azylums of men, animals, and vegetation. However, but few nations can be traced to these azylums in America.17. The ancient monuments of both Americas, are similar to the primitive monuments of Asia, Africa and Europe.18. The ancient inscriptions of America can be explained. A key may be found for all: some are evidently pelagic.19. The religions of the Americans, were similar to the primitive religions of the eastern hemisphere.20. The manners and customs, of the Americans, are very various, and form no peculiar test.21. Many American nations were highly civilized, besides the Mexicans and Peruvians: skilful in agriculture, and the arts, having cattle, colleges, &c.My reward for having ascertained and proved those facts, was to be denied the prize, and to have my manuscript mislaid or lost or stolen! My historical researches ever since have continued to confirm nearly all these facts.12.Documents and monuments.The historical titles and proofs, inscriptions,[pg 046]medals, coins, charters, &c., which are so common elsewhere, are but few as yet, in America, belonging to early times: most belong to modern history.There are some ancient inscriptions scattered in South America; but not yet published. Molina speaks of one on a pyramid of Cuyo, which late travellers have not found. Those of Otolum near Palenqué in Central America begin to excite great attention; and I have sought a key for them.2Ancient metallic coins and medals, really Americans, are exceedingly scarce: yet there are some in Central America. Several medals, perhaps foreign and indicating a communication, have been found, but again lost or neglected; few have been figured or explained.Implements, tools, sculptures, objects of arts, pottery, weapons, &c. of the ancient Americans are found in all the museums; but excite little attention, by not being concentrated, accumulated nor classified. Many fine specimens of arts have been melted, or broken and lost. The astronomical stones of the Mexicans and Muyzcas have been preserved; but those of Peru and Central America are lost; as well as that beautiful one of the Talegas of North America, a dodecagone, with 144 hieroglyphic signs, found in the Ohio, and once kept in a museum of Philadelphia.The ancient monuments of both Americas,[pg 047]are very numerous, indicating a dense population in places since become wild and desolate, as in North America, Guyana, Brazil, &c. They are most numerous in the central parts of both Americas, and lessen towards both ends. Yet they are met from lat. 45 N. to 45 S. They are very variable in different parts; by no means identic, indicating different builders or many degrees of civilization, from the rudest arts to the most refined: employing many materials, earth, clay, gravel, stone, wood, unbaked bricks; being either irregular cyclopian structures, or regular buildings of rough or cut stones,pizéor beaten clay, &c.We do not know as yet one half of those in existence, and many have never been described nor figured. Yet they afford every where, one of the most evident and certain base of historical researches, confirming traditions, or revealing the seats of former empires, their civilization, &c. They consist chiefly in mounds, altars, tumuli or tombs, ruined cities, villages and forts, temples and dwellings; but we find besides in various places, traces of ancient palaces, bridges, roads, causeways, canals, mines, dromes, baths, pyramids, towers, pillars, rocking stones, walls, wells, pits &c. They generally resemble the primitive monuments of the same kind, met with in the eastern hemisphere, from England and Ireland to Mauritania and Africa, extending[pg 048]east to Lybia, Syria, Russia, Persia, Tartary, &c. They have less resemblance with the monuments of Egypt, Greece, Rome, India and China; yet some kinds somewhat assimilate. In fact, there are, throughout both Americas, three very distinct classes of monuments, indicating distinct arts and architecture.The first or rudest, assimilate nearly to those yet used by the rudest tribes in the north or in Brazil, Antilles, &c., indicating a similar barbarous state.The second or primitive, is known by using wood and earth instead of stones for buildings.The third or most refined, employed stones, often well cut as in Mexico, Central America, Peru, &c., and indicates arts nearly equal to those of Egypt and India.Besides such great monumental remains; there are lesser antiquities; fragments of sculpture, statues, idols, painting, Mosaic, &c., either in metals, stones, pottery, beads, &c., found every where mixed with the others.But the most singular and dubious relics of antiquity, are subteraneous or in excavations: these are in caves, mines, pits, &c.: while under ground are found trees, stumps, charcoal, ashes, shells, pavements, walls, houses, &c. that must have been buried by alluvions, diluvions or new formed soil. It has been surmised or ascertained that some may be antidiluvian: although those in[pg 049]deep alluvial soils, near streams, and connected with graves, may have been buried by men, or fluvial inundations. Mummies, skeletons and bones, with human apparel and implements have been found in caves, evidently buried there by human means, and not by floods. Human remains are but seldom if ever connected with the organic remains of the soil and caves, even of the latest geological date.3.Geography, Maps, &c.The knowledge of the regions and localities inhabited by mankind, or where colonies are sent, empires founded, is needful to history, in order to understand and treat the events and migrations. The physical configuration of the land, the climates, plains, mountains and streams, have a great influence on civilization and communications. Physical geography is constant and invariable: while civil or ethnographical geography is constantly fluctuating in limits and names.If we had complete series of maps by chronological order upon America; we should find therein the materials for a comparative historical geography, and successive ethnography, showing the gradual revolutions of mankind. The old maps of America, those of Laet, the old geographers &c. are very valuable for this object. Many travellers in America, have given original maps, which furnish similar materials. I have chiefly used for Peru and Austral America, the maps of Laet, Acarete,[pg 050]D'Anville, Molina, Falkner, Cochrane, Wedel, the Jesuits, &c. Among the modern general maps, relating to South America, the Spanish maps of 1810 and 1822, the English of 1815, the French of 1830, the latest American of Tanner, &c. By those materials I have been able to trace and fix four periods of American geography, 2 ancient and 2 modern.I. Primitive geography of America.II. Ancient ditto, or between 1400 and 1500.III. Modern colonial geography.IV. Modern independent geography.I have formed Mpt. maps of the two first periods, which shall be published gradually, or in my Illustrations of the Ancient Geography of America. We have thousands of maps on the early geography of the Eastern Hemisphere, and no one as yet on the Western Hemisphere! to show the respective limits and positions of Ancient Empires, Nations, Cities, &c., except Clavigero's map of Anahuac at the Spanish conquest, those of Hayti, Laet, &.c.We have the plans of Ancient Mexico and Cuzco; but lack those of Tiahuanaco, Otolum, and many more important for ancient history. Several plans of ancient sites of civilization have been given, along with those of monuments. I have many in Mpt. yet unpublished. The greatest part of modern cities, are built on ancient sites, from Mexico to Chili. In North[pg 051]America, the same happens with Cincinnati, Louisville, Pittsburg, St. Louis, Philadelphia, Savannah, &c. The views of ruined cities, and those of actual cities, are partly historical, connected with the knowledge of gradual American civilization.Many ancient names of islands, lakes, streams and mountains, are preserved in actual names. Such are Cuba, Hayti—Ontario, Erie, Titicaca—Ohio, Alatamaha, Maranon, Parana, Rivers.—Alleghanies, Andes, Parima, Mountains, &c. When the names have been changed, it is the duty of the historical geographer to compare the old and new names.The Mexicans and other civilized ancient nations, could draw and paint maps. Even our North American tribes can draw rude maps on skins or bark. Some of these are preserved in museums; but none have ever been published: although some are pretty correct and deserving it.4.Natural Sciences.They are now becoming sisters of history. Geology is connected with geography. Botany and Zoology, acquaint us with trees, plants and animals, which were used in the arts and agriculture at different periods. The Asiatic origin of maize, calledmazaby Hesiod and known to the Pelagians (Hughes Greece,) has been unperceived by Humboldt and many others, although it throws some light on the early migrations and[pg 052]communications of tribes. Maize was cultivated in Assyria, West Tartary, North Africa and Java, before 1492, as asserted by Marco Polo, Crawford, Raffles. Gebelin, &c.3America had anciently several cereal plants, besides maize, two kinds of indigenous wheat and barley in Chili. The Quinoa and Zizania, the rice of South and North America. Many roots, beans, seeds, fruits and flowers, were cultivated from Canada to Chili. Native dies were abundant, the indigo and annato were natives. Red and yellow cochineal were nursed and collected. Many peculiar kinds of cotton, silks, hemp, flax, agave, palm, &c., were cultivated or collected to use for cloths, threads, ropes, &c.Paleontology, a new science, seeks for the remains of animals dwelling on earth, before mankind. America has already afforded the huge mastodons, elephants, megatherium, megalonyx, as primitive land animals, and many large reptiles, crocodiles of streams and lakes.American Zoology is very peculiar: a few arctic quadrupeds, birds and insects excepted; all the animals of this hemisphere are peculiar to it. Reptiles almost entirely such, even in the North. All the American monkeys form distinct species. The tropical animals of the two hemispheres are distinct, even often in genera. Out of 33[pg 053]quadrupeds formerly domesticated in America, the dog only may be deemed a stranger: and it had even many American varieties.The domestic quadrupeds of ancient America were 33, while only 25 in Asia, Africa and Europe. Among them were 4 species of Vicunia, 4 of Agutis, 2 deer, 2 hogs, 10 monkeys, &c. See my dissertation on the domestic animals of both hemispheres, 1832. Americans had also tamed 22 birds or fowls, as many as Asia, &c., and even some reptiles, fishes, insects, &c., had become domestic: altogether 112 in America and only 80 in Europe, Asia, &c., before 1492.American botany offers many peculiar regions; in the North only, akin to Asiatic or European botany; but becoming quite distinct in the tropics, still more so in Austral America. Since 1492 the European colonists have brought many plants, that are become spontaneous from Canada to Chili: these must be carefully separated from the ancient indigenous plants.The American Floras are nearly as many as the 15 natural regions already indicated, each having a focal seat or cradle in some range of mountains. They become richer or more abundant in species within the tropics, decreasing to the North and South. Trees and palm abound there, and disappear near the poles, the palms are unknown beyond the 36 degrees North and South. The equator has 500 species of trees; in[pg 054]latitude 40 N. and S. only 100 kinds are found, or even less. Social plants and grasses abound in plains, and in the North dwindle to mosses and lichens.Trees were early tools of civilization, affording timber, fuel, dies, houses, boats, weapons, &c. Fruit trees afforded food in abundance: even the tribes of North America near latitude 40 d. had 40 kinds of native wild fruits, and had begun to plant orchards of plumtrees, peachtrees, crab-trees, nut-trees. They knew how to make oils of nuts, to dry the fruits, make sugars out of maples and other trees.Fish has always afforded an ample supply of food to early nations, whence the preference to dwell near streams, Lakes and shores. Notwithstanding the swimming rambles of fishes, it is only the pelagic or oceanic tribes of them that are common to both hemispheres. Most of the resident shore fishes of America are peculiar species. Still more so with lacustral and fluviatile fishes. These are divided into peculiar regions. Our northern lakes form one; and almost every large stream has a peculiar generation of finny tribes: such are the Mississippi, Maranon, Parana, the Atlantic streams and rivers, those of Brazil, &c.Minerals abound in both Americas. It was gold and silver that drew hither the greedy Spanish freebooters. The civilized nations knew mining, smelting, casting and forging. They used gold, silver, copper,[pg 055]brass, lead, &c.; collected and prized gems, emeralds, agats, volcanic glass, &c. Even the less civilized tribes of North America used copper and lead, clays for pipes, pottery, &c. Iron was scarce because so hard to melt, and highly prized; but iron-rings have been found as jewels around the wrists of skeletons.Metallic coins were little known except in Central America; but bits of silver, gold, tin, iron, were used as such. The other mediums of exchange were skins, mats, nuts, cacao, shells, beads, mosaic works, &c. Commerce was well known to many nations; traders went 500 miles to exchange commodities in Florida, Mexico, Yucatan, Peru, &c. Navigators went by sea for the same purpose all over the Antilles, coast of Peru, and in the great streams. It is thus that were found many strange and foreign objects, jewels, medals, metals, &c., all over America, and in early tombs.5.Ethnography.This new science which undertakes to describe nations, reckons already many peculiar branches. Anthropography or the knowledge of physical mankind. Philology or the comparative study of human speech and languages. Besides the nameless branch attending to the moral ideas, arts, institutions, manners, civilization, governments and religions of mankind; which might be called moral ethnography.All these studies become the philosophy[pg 056]of history, and shall duly command my attention. Some writers neglect them altogether; others, like Robertson, do not know how to collect and accumulate facts instead of systems: Rollin has shown in his Ancient History, how useful moral ethnography may be as an auxiliary: although he omitted philology and physical facts.I have studied the men of all the parts of the world, in order to know and compare them, better than had been done. All the errors on the histories of nations, proceed commonly from the slender or partial views acquired or admitted by the writers. There is much to glean on the ethnography of modern nations, and therefrom we may ascend to ancient ethnography. It would be needful to study well the physical and moral features of all; the shapes of bodies, skulls, faces and limbs; the complexions of the skin, hairs and eyes; with the casual or permanent varieties.But, above all, we must better study all the spoken languages and dialects. It is strange that we hardly know anything, and sometimes nothing at all, on the languages of many existing tribes, with whom we have intercourse in both Americas. It would be desirable to procure at least a vocabulary of 100 essential words, in each. Such words, including the cardinal numbers, will soon become the key of ethnographical philology. While the additional study of[pg 057]phonology or sounds of languages, their idioms and grammars, their roots, and verbs, the alphabets, glyphs and symbols used to communicate ideas, will combine to furnish the complete knowledge of philology as a separate science. Although I have not always carried so far my researches; I did so for a few, applying chiefly myself to the essential features of languages; and the unexpected results will be surprising.American anthropography will teach that there were men of all sizes, features and complexions, in this hemisphere before 1492: notwithstanding the false assertions of many writers, who take one nation for the whole American group. The Uskihs, the Puruays, the Parias, the Chons, &c. were as white as the Spaniards, 50 such tribes were found in South America; while many tribes of Choco, the Manabis, the Yaruras, &c., were as black as negroes. All the other shades of brown, tawny and coppery, were scattered every where. There was not a single red man in America, unless painted such. Some tribes had scanty beards as the Tartars, Chinese, Berbers, &c., others bushy beards. The Tinguis or Patagons were 7 or 8 feet high, and the Guaymas only 4 or 5 feet.6.Traditions and Annals.Many American nations preserve a memory of historical events by unwritten traditions, repeated from fathers to sons; or communicated[pg 058]orally by the priests, chiefs or elderly men. Many are preserved yet to this day, by frequent repetitions, being embodied in songs, hymns, maxims, tales, drawings, or even symbolic figures and signs. Many of those traditions are precious for history, notwithstanding the fables, allegories, metaphors, personifications, &c., which partly conceal them or render the meaning obscure. We must learn to decipher them as we do old inscriptions and medals.Although many such are now nearly lost for us, by the extinction of the living books, who kept the remembrance: there are many already collected, and of which we ought to make a good use. But there are as many more, which have never been collected nor printed. I have collected many such in North America in manuscript. It often happens that the American tribes will not communicate them to their foes or oppressors; but their friends and allies may hope to receive the deposit of them. Every enlightened traveller ought to seek for them wherever he goes. Yet after being acquired, they are sometimes lost again, by neglect. I have known some learned and unlearned men despise them equally asIndian Stories, because they despise the ancient American race. There are, however, as yet many historical songs, poems and tales to collect among all the American tribes, which falling in good[pg 059]hands cannot fail to attract notice and be employed usefully. Every one who neglects or destroys them acts as a vandal. Malcolm has said at the outset of his history of Persia, that we ought never to neglect the original notions of a people on its origin, or early history, since therein is found the germ and spring of their subsequent conduct, actions and opinions.My illustrations shall contain many unpublished or forgotten traditions, whereof I shall avail myself in all my historical annals and researches. I consider those of the Uskihs, Dinnis, Ongwis, Linapis, Shawanis, Cados, Natchez, Ozages, Atakapas, Apalachians, &c., as highly important for the annals of North America. The same may be said of the Mexicans, Zapotecas, Mayas, Toltecas, Chols, &c., for Central America. Of the Haytians, Cubans and Caribs for the Antilles. And in South America those of the Muyzcas, Cumanans, Tamanacs, Popayans, Peruvians, Chilians, Brazilians, Abipons, &c.7.Chronology and Astronomy.These two sciences always go together, and form a double key of history. The American chronology is by no means fixed before 1492, and requires a skillful hand to preserve and compare all the heterogenous dates heretofore collected. I shall attempt to elucidate it gradually; but may often be compelled, as in geology, to relate only successive events without dates, and merely[pg 060]referred to a series of gradual facts. In Austral America, we are told that none had notions of astronomy and dates, except the Chilians; yet their chronology begins only in 1450. I doubt this: I rather believe that their oral traditions have been neglected, as well as those of their neighbours.In Peru, there are many positive dates, yet I was the first to reduce them to chronological order. In Brazil and Guyana, but few dates are found. The Muyzcas had very early dates, yet few have been preserved; much obscured by personifications of dynasties, and Pietrahita begins their real annals only in 1490, or 45 years before the Spanish invasion. In the Antilles the dates are quite loose, and difficult to reduce even to a serial order.But in Central and Mexican America, we find many early dates with a regular chronology. Yet some are extravagant or contradictory. I shall endeavour to elucidate them, so as to reduce the whole to order. They must form the base of a regular American chronology, that ascends by dates to the flood and creation. In Yucatan the first regular date only reach to 940 after Christ.In North America, where the smallest number of dates existed; we have unexpectedly and quite lately, found that many ancient dates could be procured. Cusick has published those of the Ongwi traditions,[pg 061]and I have ascertained those of the Linapis. Both of which reach to the flood and creation, and afford series of available dates as early as 1600 years before our era; thus nearly as ample as those of the TOL-tecas, and as plain in some instances.Astronomy was cultivated by all the civilized nations of ancient America. They had cycles of 144, 104, 60, 52, 20, 15 and 13 solar years. Humboldt has well written on that subject; but much remains to be gleaned. The northern tribes reckon by generations as the Greeks, the Polynesians, &c., and by winters instead of years, moons instead of solar months. They had also a cycle of 60 years. In Central America, &c. the months were of 20 days, including 4 weeks of 5 days. But the Peruvians had months of 27 days, or 3 weeks of 9 days as the Etruscans. The Muyzcas small weeks of 3 days, &c. No where in ancient America, was found the sabatical week of days, based on the 7 planets and the 4 quarters of a lunation. This is remarkable, as evincing a remote antiquity, and separation before this week was adopted in Egypt, India, Syria, Celtica, &c.Until 120 years before Christ the TOL-tecas reckoned only 365 days in the solar year, as the primitive nations of Asia: then they added the hours to the year. This forms their astronomical era. The Muyzcas had a very complicated astronomy, and three kinds of years. The usual was of 20[pg 062]moons, and the ecclesiastical of 37 moons. The horal division unknown in many parts of America, was of 4 hours in the day for the Muyzcas and Mexicans, elsewhere of 5, 10 and 20. The 24 hours and the Zodiac of 12 signs with 360 degrees were not known. The Mexican Zodiac had 13 signs and 104 degrees.Arithmetic is intimately connected with astronomy. A complete decimal numeration was known to all the civilized American nations, and even to the northern tribes. The most rude tribes reckoned by 5 or the manual mode; there are traces also of a binary numeration, the most simple of all: while others had complex calculations by 13 and by 20 or scores. We find no trace of any by 7, and but slight indications of a ternary numeration by 3 and 9. All these American modes of reckoning may thus be reduced to thebinary, by two or pairs; and the quinary or manual by the five fingers, of which the decimal is the double, and by 20 the quadruple.8.Languages.They are becoming one of the most important aids in history. When the annals are ample and clear, the examination of the languages is merely a supplement to historical knowledge; but when they are obscure, mutilated or totally lost; languages then supply more or less to their defects or loss. Their comparative study furnish us new lights to ascertain the origines, parentage, dispersions, colonies, alliances,[pg 063]wars, &c., of the nations thus deprived of written annals or even traditions. They serve also to rectify the imperfect annals or the fabulous traditions. This study may lead besides to trace the manners, religions, intercourse, arts and sciences of nearly all nations; since the proper languages of each people offers a picture of the civilization, acquired or borrowed knowledge, modes of life, &c. of each.It is above all in both Americas that this study is indispensable in historical researches: I will therefore apply to languages in all cases, and make constant use of them; and they will unfold new facts quite unknown, although very important, Historical lights shall thereby be thrown on many obscure subjects, whence astonishing and unexpected results may spring, in which I shall depend as much as upon mutilated and neglectful traditions.By taking into view all the American languages or as many as are already known, we shall easily dispel the errors and absurd systems of philosophers and philologists, who taking only a few as samples of the whole, have either deemedall the Americans, as many Jews, or Tartars, or Atlantes, or sprung from the ground, and so on. Now the fact is that these writers have never taken the trouble to compare the numerous American languages and dialects, reduce them to groups, and seek their affinities elsewhere.[pg 064]Adelung and Vater had once stated without proof, that nearly 1200 languages existed in America. Balbi has reduced them to 423, of which 212 in South America; but they can be much further reduced, most of them being mere dialects. The whole may be comprised in 25 groups of languages, or even less; which were certainly identic in 25 languages 2 or 3000 years ago: and all of which have astonishing affinities with the groups of the eastern hemisphere, so as to indicate a parentage 4 or 5000 years ago.Vater and Maltebrun have given a few hundred examples of such analogies: and the systematic writers have supposed that they had exhausted the comparisons. Yet a single language, the Chilian, has by itself more affinities with the languages of Europe, than all those mentioned by Vater and others, put together! The foreign or transatlantic affinities of American languages, vary from 10 to 70 per cent, according to the nations. If we suppose that there are 400 languages in America, and as many in the eastern hemisphere, and each to have about 2000 roots or essential words only; while the mean affinities are only 25 per cent: we shall find as many as 200,000 affinities! out of America, in every American language; and in all the 400, as many as 80 millions! instead of the paltry reckoning of 1000 or so. All this is susceptible[pg 065]of mathematical proofs, and shall be unfolded gradually in these pages.The theory about the common exclusive grammatical structure of all the American languages, is equally erroneous and based upon partial facts. Instead of all the American languages being polysynthetic by amalgamating words, we find in America many mixt forms, and even the pure monosylabic: while the amalgamation of words prevails more or less in Europe and Africa; chiefly in the Bask, Italian dialects, Greek, Berber and other Atlantic dialects, the Negro languages, those of Caffraria, the Sanscrit and all the derived languages.It had been asserted that no American language was monosylabic: yet Balbi states that the Guarani and Maya are such; Nasera has lately proved the same of the Othomi. Thus we have at least 3 such American groups of languages. But there are more; nay many American languages have monosylabic roots, even among the most amalgamated groups.The most obvious grammatical classification of American languages, has escaped the acuteness of philologists. I find it in the epithetic structure, or relative position of ideas. Under this view all the languages arrange themselves in three great classes or groups. 1. Regular, 2. Resupinate, 3. Mixt.1.The Regularis the most simple and natural form: where the roots or nouns are[pg 066]prefixed, and the adjuncts or adjectives, expressing epithetes or qualities follow or are added. This group includes in the Eastern Continent 1. All the Semetic languages, Arabic, Hebrew, &c. 2. All the Atlantic and Egyptian languages. 3. All the Celtic and Cantabrian languages. 4. All the Polynesian and Malay languages. 5. The Bhotiya and many languages of Thibet. 6. Most of the Negro languages. 7. Yakut of Siberia, &c.In America this group includes my groups 1. Innuit or Uski. 2. Ongwi. 3. Capaha. 4. Chactah. 5. All the languages related thereto in North-west America, the Kaluchi, Mandan, &c. 6. All the Guarani languages of South America, and perhaps many others, Mayna, Mobima, &c.2.The Resupinate or Reflexed Group: where the roots or nouns substantive are reversed, following the adjective or epithetes, which are prefixed. This second mode of uniting ideas prevails 1. In all the languages of China and Tartary. 2. In all the Teutonic languages German, Swede, English. 3. In most of the Thracian, Illyrian, Greek and Slavonic languages. 4. In all the Turkish languages of Turan, Bokhara, Turkey. 5. The Newari of Imalaya. 6. The Qua or Hottentot of South Africa.In America, it is the most prevailing form, found in my groups 1. Linni or Linapis. 2. Otali or Cheroki. 3. In all the Mexican[pg 067]and Othomi languages. 4. Chontal. 5. Skereh or Pani and Shoshoni, of North America,—and in South America. 6. Chili. 7. Yarura. 8. Mbaya and probably many more: although hardly indicated by the philologists.3.Mixt Form, which employs or adopts more or less the two former modes; although there is always a prevailing form, that indicates the original mode of uniting ideas. This mixt form appears 1. In the Sanscrit and all derived languages. 2. In the Zend and Persian languages of Iran. 3. In the Pelagic and Italic languages, the Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, Greek. 4. The Japanese, &c.While in America it is found 1. In the Aruac languages. 2. The Muyzca. 3. The Peruvian languages, &c. of South America, and in North America. 4. The Atalan. 5. Mizteca. 6. Opata, and probably some others.This comparative classification of languages, will greatly help future investigations. It will show the improbability of the two opposite modes of annexing ideas having been entertained, by the same people at any time; while the mixt form evinces amalgamations of ancient nations. We have thus acquired another clue to trace primitive connections, another available mean to pursue the human steps on earth.9.Religions and Mythologies.The human opinions on the past and future form[pg 068]every where ample themes of thoughts and actions. From revelations, inspirations, oracles, wisdom and priestcraft comingled, have arisen all the worships, and rites, dogmas and creeds, swaying the human mind, through hope or fear, love or hatred. The history of religious ideas, is in fact the history of civilization, since they have sprung together in social men. Nearly all the religions of Asia (which from hence have spread throughout the earth along with mankind) were found in America: except the modern creeds. But the traces of Judaism and Budhism were very faint and local. Mahometism was unknown, Braminism hardly known. Christianity or some of its rites are traced to Yucatan only, and may arise from other sources. The most prevailing worships were the primitive Sabeism, Solar worship, Polytheism, Dualism or Manicheism, Shamanism or worship of Spirits, Idolatry, and Fetichism or animal worship. We find throughout America many modifications of these creeds: with several complex mythologies, more or less analogous to eastern dogmas.The investigation of these American religions affords not only an insight into the ancient civilization, but many proofs of ancient communications with Asia or Africa. Throughout North America the Dualism, mythologies and fabulous traditions point to a connexion with Tartary. In Florida, Mexico and Yucatan, begin to appear the[pg 069]Solar worship, and a cruel idolatry foreign to it. This Solar worship appears in a purer form in North America, as far as Peru. While in the Antilles, Guyana, Brazil and Chili, prevailed several worships of heavenly and terrestial spirits; somewhat akin to the primitive idolatry of Africa, Europe, Iran, India, China and Polynesia.American religions admitted, like many others, of Priests, oracles, temples, shrines, pilgrimages, holy places, sacrifices, expiations, confessions, offerings, hymns, veneration for animals, men and stars. Idols painted or sculptured in wood, pottery, stone, metals, &c.; bloody rites by human sacrifices, scarifications, circumscision, &c. But none of these practices were general, some were quite local and circumscribed. Thus circumscision was only used by the Mayas of Yucatan, the Calchaquis of Tucuman, &c. Traces of a triple god or Indian Trimurti have been met from Ohio to Peru; but it was no where the prevailing religion. As the same idea was found among the Celts and Polynesians, it may have come by the east rather than Polynesia in the west.10.Civilization and Manners.This completes the history of all nations. When their annals are well known, it becomes a very proper appendix to them; when they are not, it is a very needful supplement to the traditions, &c. But we must not make any history consist merely in such an account,[pg 070]as often done by negligent writers. The manners and customs of every people, are so fluctuating, liable to be changed, or improved by civilization, imitation, arts and sciences, &c.; that they cannot afford any test of connections. They are often borrowed, from neighbors or strangers, disused after awhile by whims or wars, invented to suit the climate and productions it may afford. We have positive proofs that the Europeans have since 1492 greatly modified the customs of all the tribes they conquered or visited. This must have happened formerly also, by other visits or communications. Yet, notwithstanding the uncertainty of the origin and duration of the primitive American customs, they must be studied, as one of the sources and objects of history.We find, in ancient America, nearly all the forms of social civilization and manners of the east. But the Nomadic life with camels, oxen and sheep, was unknown, as well as those animals. The American cattle or lamas, &c. of South America, hogs of Coriana, dogs and rabbits of Mexico, deers of Florida, buffalos of Taos, were kept by sedentary civilized tribes. The Nomadic wandering tribes of America were chiefly hunters and fishermen: scattered around the agricultural nations, spreading from Canada to Chili.All the kinds of governments were known in America: Theocracy, despotism, monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy. But[pg 071]the most prevailing were theocracy among the civilized nations, oligarchy among the barbarous nations: with two peculiar modifications, of double kings as among Arabs, civil and military; and chiefs of families or tribes, as among all primitive nations. Queens were known to but few tribes, although the female line was often hereditary. Written laws and codes were known to the Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Mayans, Muyzcas, Panos, Peruvians, &c. Oral laws were elsewhere preserved by priests or magistrates.Polygamy prevailed among some tribes or castes, but was not universal. The 4 castes of Indians are distinctly found in nearly all the civilized nations, often modified into priests, nobles, vassals and slaves. The arts of music, medicine, smithery, painting, sculpture, architecture, agriculture, pottery, &c., were well known to nearly all. The sciences of geometry, geography, botany, astronomy, &c., were cultivated from Mexico to Peru, even taught in schools and colleges; with the arts, the laws, the rites, and history of the country.Marsden has well distinguished several degrees of civilization in Asia. If no American nation had reached the Greeks and Romans, or our modern polished and improved civilization; it is not extraordinary. But the Peruvians, Muyzcas, Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Talascas, &c., were nearly[pg 072]equal to the Chinese, Egyptians and Hindus in civilization; not far removed from the European civilization of the 15th century: nay, in some things superior. The second degree of American civilization found in Chili, Florida, Cumana, the Antilles, Popayan, the Linapis, Omaguas &c. was equal to that of the Arabs, Malays, Celts, Cantabrians, Pelagians, &c. While the third degree found in all the barbarous nations, Innuit or Esquimaux, Shoshonis, Caribs, Brazilians, &c. was not worse than what we find among the Fins, Laplanders, Tartars, Sames, Negroes and Hottentots.Individual property in land was almost unknown in America; but feodal and tribal property well understood. Common property of tribes and villages over their territories, was the most usual tenure, modified by wars, conquests, tributes. Individual property existed only for tenements and personal property. Warfares, marriages and funerals were very different in every nation. The weapons of war were clubs, arrows, darts, lances, axes, Macana swords, Sarbacanes or blowing tubes, slings, nooses, thronged balls, &c. as elsewhere. There was a peculiar diplomacy, with heralds, envoys, messengers. Shields, towers, forts, walls, ditches, were used for defence, besidesEstopilsa peculiar quilted armor. Flags, banners, and standards were known. The calumets, leaves or green feathers,[pg 073]council fires, and white flags were emblems of peace. Alliances and confederations existed from earliest times, also the adoption of tribes and prisoners. Slavery was hardly known; but vassalage much extended over conquered tribes.Dresses and ornaments were quite various. Seal skins used by the Innuit. Deer skins and furs by the tribes of North America. In tropical America many tribes went nearly naked, with a mere apron or pagne of cotton or grass cloth. But the civilized nations were decently clothed with cotton shirts and feather mantles. ThePonchois a true American dress known from Mexico to Chili, hardly known out of America except Polynesia.4Women wore long pagnes or gowns. They made cloths of lama wool in Peru; of cotton, hemp, nettles, grass, feathers &c. there and elsewhere; either twisted, plaited or woven. The Peruvians and Chilians had a peculiar loom and plough. Cotton looms were used in Florida, Mexico, and all over South America, even by the Caribs to make hamacs or hanging beds. Among some nations women had the most labor to perform; yet even the men assumed hunting, making canoes, huts, weapons, &c. More civilized tribes worked together in the fields: The proud and warlike employed vassals or slaves.Painting the body or face, was usual among many nations, but not general. It[pg 074]was useful against heat and flies, or was used to inspire love or terror. Ornaments to the head, ears, nose, lips, wrists, legs, &c., were more or less adopted by men and women. The hair was usually worn long; but many tribes cut it in various ways, as a crown or tuft. The beard even when scanty was deemed unbecoming by many tribes, and totally eradicated; but some tribes wore beards. The head was often left uncovered; but hats were worn in the N. W. and Central America, turbans in Paria and Florida, feather crowns in the tropics,Lautasor diadem-bands in Peru and the Andes. Shoes and gloves were unknown; but sandals, leggings, leather clods, and mocassins or slippers of various substances, commonly used; with singular snow shoes of bark in winter by northern tribes.[pg 076]
Chapter II.Materials for the history of the Americans.—Authors, Documents, Sciences.—Languages, Civilization, &c.Far from following the example of many American historians, who often take a single guide for their crude compilations, or avoid the trouble to consult all the historical sources, I have taken care in my researches to employ all the possible means to reach the truth, and collect all the facts that are scattered among a crowd of writers. I have carefully analysed, compared and judged the materials, details and events[pg 036]thus procured: nay, all the auxiliary sciences have afforded additional fragments or proofs.These materials may be divided into 10 series or kinds1. Works, printed or manuscript.2. Documents and monuments.3. Maps, plans, views, &c.4. Natural sciences.5. Ethnography.6. Traditions and annals.7. Chronology and astronomy.8. Languages and philology.9. Religion, mythologies, &c.10. Civilization, laws and manners.The writers upon America are very numerous; but mostly defective or local. A number, however, have attempted to consider the whole continent: the principal among those containing facts upon all parts of America are chieflyHerrera, History and Geography of Spanish America carried till the year 1554.Delaet, Historical Geography of America, till 1630.Garcias, Origins of the Americans.—Spanish work.Carli, American Letters.—Italian work.Ogilby, History and Geography of America, till 1670.Raynal, European Settlements in America, till 1774.Alcedo, Geographical Dictionary of Spanish America in 1786.—Spanish work.[pg 037]Maltebrun, Improved Geography, 1820.Touron, History of America, chiefly ecclesiastical, and incomplete, 14 volumes 1768-70, in French.Robertson, false History of America or Spanish Conquests of Mexico or Peru.The collections of travels by Hackluyt, Purchas, Harris, Ramusio, Barcias, Prevost, &c.The American researches of Ulloa, Humboldt, M'Culloh, &c.I have consulted and analyzed all these general works, and many others of less account; but I have not yet read Hervas nor Compagnone, knowing them merely through quotationsThe firstBibliotheca Americanaor catalogue of writers on America, was given by Kennet in 1701 and 1713. Another appeared in England in 1719; a third in France in 1820. They contain the names, authors, editions, dates, &c. of over 300 works relating to America. Robertson has given a list of nearly as many, which he pretends to have consulted, although he neglected what they tell us. Humboldt has also a catalogue of 250 authors, consulted by him. In 1831, Aspinwall published his American Library containing 771 works; and Warden, in Paris, his own, containing 977 American works with 133 atlasses and maps.All this does not complete the account of books on America; since I have seen[pg 038]many omitted in all these catalogues; although I never could meet some mentioned there. I will carefully notice them, that it may be known where I found my materials, and what may yet have escaped my researches. I have already consulted upwards of 600 writers on both Americas, and there are at least 1000 already printed, I mean special or local works connected with history. If we were to add to these the botanists, naturalists, paltry compilers, and pamphlets, we might make a catalogue of 3000 works on America, her inhabitants and productions.I will refer gradually to them, and have collected them all in my manuscript illustrations;materials,printed works. Therefore we do not lack printed materials: but the choice of the best is difficult: since many works merely consist in fables, blunders, errors, hypotheses and their constant repetitions: which ought to be rejected in order to gather facts and the truth. But we must not reject as pyrrhoniams all that may clash with our ideas and systems: it is chiefly needful so recall and restore the events and facts mentioned by the earliest travellers and observers.These numerous local writers ought to be divided into three classes. 1. historians and annalists, 2. travellers and geographers, 3. antiquarians and philologists. I shall now merely mention the most useful (which I have all consulted) upon the Peruvian and Austral regions of South America.[pg 039]1st. The principal historians are, 1. Molina, History of Chili, 2. Funes, Civil History of Buenos Ayres, Paraguay and Tucuman, 3. Lavega, History of Peru, 4. Debrizoffer, history of Abipones, 5. Charlevoix of Paraguay, 6. Techo, on Ditto, 7, 8. Lozano and Jolis on Chaco, 9. Muratori, and 10. Renger, Paraguay.2d. The principal writers who have furnished historical facts, with geographical and ethnographical materials, areold travellers, 1. Pigafetta and Magellan, 2. Cabot, 3. Shmidel, 4. Drake, 5. Cavendish, 6. Acarete, 7. Knivet, 8. Frezier, 9. Sepp, 10. Brewer, 11. Nyel, 12. Schmidtmeyer.The modern travellers are, 1. Azara, 2. D'Ulloa, 3. Humboldt, 4. Cook, 5. Byron, 6. Laperouse, 7. Stevenson, 8. Myers, 9. Heyn, 10. Beaumont, 11. Gillespie, 12. Vidal, 13. Wedel, 14. King, 15. Morrell, 16. Andrew, 17. Temple, 18. Mawe, 19. Proctor, 20. Graham, 21. Head, 22. Pernetty.The principal original geographers and ethnographers are, 1. Fernandez on Chiquitos 1726, 2. Bueno, Ditto 1800, 3. Falkner, on Patagonia 1774, 4. Molina on Chili and Cuyo, 5. Lozano on Chaco 1733, 6. Skinner, Memoirs on Peru, 7. Gili, South America 1782.3d. Lastly the auxiliary writers on philology, antiquities and other historical branches are, 1. Adelung, Vater, Maltebrun, Balbi, &c., on all American languages, 2. American researches of Humboldt, Macculoh[pg 040]1829. Those of Depaw and Ranking are shameful, perverting every thing to support false systems.Manuscripts.There are yet many such extant on America, in the libraries of both hemispheres. Clavigero gave a long list of Mexican Manuscripts. Funes quotes several on Austral America. There are several extant in Central America and South America, in Peru and Brazil. Many have been lost through wilful neglect, or destroyed at the Spanish Conquest, the expulsion of Jesuits, &c. Those in the ancient languages, Mexican, Tarasca, Tzendal, &c., are now very rare, and much esteemed. Those burnt by Zumaraga, the Mexican Omar, have been often regretted. Lord Kingborough has lately published some at a great cost.The manuscripts which I could consult on South America are but few. Those on North America are more numerous and very important; particularly the traditions of the Linapis, Shawanis, &c., they are chiefly on wood, bark, skins or Mosaic strings. But I have received several manuscript vocabularies of the languages of Guyana, Brazil, Texas, Mexico, &c. and I have consulted several manuscripts in the libraries of Philadelphia.There are, besides, in the public or private libraries of all the great cities of both Americas, several interesting historical works, which have never been published.[pg 041]There are several in Philadelphia, particularly the historical collections of Simetierre. Often the best or most important works cannot be printed: while a crowd of paltry compilations are ushered to deceive the public. This may be deemed a remainder of the prevailing ignorance and error. Instead of appreciating the learned and useful works, the prevailing taste is for historical romances and systematic fables. It is needful to seek these previous labors, which run the risk of being totally lost, if we will not have again to blush hereafter for these historical losses.I give the list of such among my own manuscripts, as have been employed to write this history. They are yet in my possession, but I wish to see them deposited in a great public library; where they might be consulted.1. Materials for the history, ethnography, &c. of the Americans, their annals, chronology, &c. 40 books, begun in 1820, continued ever since, and not yet closed.2. Vocabularies of the ancient and modern languages of both Americas, symbols, glyphs, &c., 4 books, begun 1824.3. Comparative geography and ethnography of ancient and modern America, 5 books, with maps, &c., begun 1824.4. Ancient monuments of North and South America, compared with the primitive monuments of the eastern hemisphere, 3 books and 200 plans, &c., 1822.[pg 042]5.Tellus, or the primitive History of the Earth and Mankind in Protholia, Oceania and Neotholia, with the ancient and modern general ethnography, 30 books, begun in 1821.6. Synglosson, or compared examination of all languages and nations, 6 books, begun 1825.7. Iconographical Illustrations of all my historical works and travels, containing over 1000 maps, plans, views, costumes, portraits, alphabets, symbols, implements, &c., in 10 cartoons, begun 1816.8. Travels in North America, in 1802, 3, 4, and from 1815 to 1835. In many manuscript books and journals.I have often been apprehensive of the fate of Boturini, for these interesting manuscript and long researches. This has happened already for one of my manuscripts. As early as 1825 I sent to the Academy of Science in Boston, a manuscript of 240 pages, being anaccount of the materials yet existing for the history of the nations and tribes of America before Columbus. This was for an offered prize of $100: which was never awarded, although my memoir was declared the best sent. And instead of depositing this manuscript in the library of the American Antiquarian Society as requested, it has beenlostorstolen. If never recovered, and that the public may judge of the merits of it, at such an early period of my historical studies: I will state[pg 043]the principal results of my enquiries therein; which tenor, together with their length, were the ostensible reasons for not awarding a prize probably never meant to be awarded.I therein proved in 1825, 1st. that there are yet materials enough, notwithstanding the loss of many, for an ancient history of America.2. That a complete American history ought to employ and combine all the materials afforded by geology, geography, physics, chronology, physiology, ethnology, archeology, philology, on America, with all the traditions of the Americans.3. Geology and physical geography indicates the cradles and ancient settlements of mankind, the revolutions of nature, the places unfit for population, the means of access, probable route of colonies, &c.4. America has an ancient geography previous to 1492, which ought to be restored.5. The coincidence of names of nations and tribes, afford a comparitive concordance, indicating ancient connections or identity.6. The ancient American population, must have been derived from the nearest shores of Africa, Europe and Asia. The points where all the indications and traditions tend, are the Antilles, next Paria and Guyana in South America; Anian or Tollan and Alaska in the N. W with Sucanunga or Groenland to the N. E.[pg 044]7. The philological solution of historical affinities must be sought in the roots of the languages, their conformity or analogies, the number of similar sounds, roots and words; which are susceptible of a mathematical calculation, and referable to the theory of probabilities.8. Many primitive nations in all parts of the earth, may thus be proved to have been akin or related.9. Noah's flood was nearly general; but perhaps not universal. His ark or THBE was perhaps Thibet: and his 3 sons 3 nations saved there.10. It has been proved that all the antidiluvian patriarchs were Nations, their long ages being the duration of dynasties or states. This opinion may also be entertained of many other ancient patriarchs or heads of tribes, every where, by the usual figure of personification.11. Peleg's flood was volcanic, not so general as Noah's. There may have been many successive cataclysms blended in this, as this has been often mistaken in date for Noah's.12. The cradle of the Tulans or Mexican nations, must have been the Tulan of Asia, since Turan and Tartary. There are many places called Tula, all over the earth, indicating settlements of Atlantes.13. The ancient chronology of America may be restored. Several dates given, a system proposed.[pg 045]14. All the races and complexions of mankind are found in America.15. America was known to the ancient nations, particularly the Atlantes, Pelagians, Phenicians, &c.16. Some highlands of America were not covered at Noah's flood, and might become the azylums of men, animals, and vegetation. However, but few nations can be traced to these azylums in America.17. The ancient monuments of both Americas, are similar to the primitive monuments of Asia, Africa and Europe.18. The ancient inscriptions of America can be explained. A key may be found for all: some are evidently pelagic.19. The religions of the Americans, were similar to the primitive religions of the eastern hemisphere.20. The manners and customs, of the Americans, are very various, and form no peculiar test.21. Many American nations were highly civilized, besides the Mexicans and Peruvians: skilful in agriculture, and the arts, having cattle, colleges, &c.My reward for having ascertained and proved those facts, was to be denied the prize, and to have my manuscript mislaid or lost or stolen! My historical researches ever since have continued to confirm nearly all these facts.12.Documents and monuments.The historical titles and proofs, inscriptions,[pg 046]medals, coins, charters, &c., which are so common elsewhere, are but few as yet, in America, belonging to early times: most belong to modern history.There are some ancient inscriptions scattered in South America; but not yet published. Molina speaks of one on a pyramid of Cuyo, which late travellers have not found. Those of Otolum near Palenqué in Central America begin to excite great attention; and I have sought a key for them.2Ancient metallic coins and medals, really Americans, are exceedingly scarce: yet there are some in Central America. Several medals, perhaps foreign and indicating a communication, have been found, but again lost or neglected; few have been figured or explained.Implements, tools, sculptures, objects of arts, pottery, weapons, &c. of the ancient Americans are found in all the museums; but excite little attention, by not being concentrated, accumulated nor classified. Many fine specimens of arts have been melted, or broken and lost. The astronomical stones of the Mexicans and Muyzcas have been preserved; but those of Peru and Central America are lost; as well as that beautiful one of the Talegas of North America, a dodecagone, with 144 hieroglyphic signs, found in the Ohio, and once kept in a museum of Philadelphia.The ancient monuments of both Americas,[pg 047]are very numerous, indicating a dense population in places since become wild and desolate, as in North America, Guyana, Brazil, &c. They are most numerous in the central parts of both Americas, and lessen towards both ends. Yet they are met from lat. 45 N. to 45 S. They are very variable in different parts; by no means identic, indicating different builders or many degrees of civilization, from the rudest arts to the most refined: employing many materials, earth, clay, gravel, stone, wood, unbaked bricks; being either irregular cyclopian structures, or regular buildings of rough or cut stones,pizéor beaten clay, &c.We do not know as yet one half of those in existence, and many have never been described nor figured. Yet they afford every where, one of the most evident and certain base of historical researches, confirming traditions, or revealing the seats of former empires, their civilization, &c. They consist chiefly in mounds, altars, tumuli or tombs, ruined cities, villages and forts, temples and dwellings; but we find besides in various places, traces of ancient palaces, bridges, roads, causeways, canals, mines, dromes, baths, pyramids, towers, pillars, rocking stones, walls, wells, pits &c. They generally resemble the primitive monuments of the same kind, met with in the eastern hemisphere, from England and Ireland to Mauritania and Africa, extending[pg 048]east to Lybia, Syria, Russia, Persia, Tartary, &c. They have less resemblance with the monuments of Egypt, Greece, Rome, India and China; yet some kinds somewhat assimilate. In fact, there are, throughout both Americas, three very distinct classes of monuments, indicating distinct arts and architecture.The first or rudest, assimilate nearly to those yet used by the rudest tribes in the north or in Brazil, Antilles, &c., indicating a similar barbarous state.The second or primitive, is known by using wood and earth instead of stones for buildings.The third or most refined, employed stones, often well cut as in Mexico, Central America, Peru, &c., and indicates arts nearly equal to those of Egypt and India.Besides such great monumental remains; there are lesser antiquities; fragments of sculpture, statues, idols, painting, Mosaic, &c., either in metals, stones, pottery, beads, &c., found every where mixed with the others.But the most singular and dubious relics of antiquity, are subteraneous or in excavations: these are in caves, mines, pits, &c.: while under ground are found trees, stumps, charcoal, ashes, shells, pavements, walls, houses, &c. that must have been buried by alluvions, diluvions or new formed soil. It has been surmised or ascertained that some may be antidiluvian: although those in[pg 049]deep alluvial soils, near streams, and connected with graves, may have been buried by men, or fluvial inundations. Mummies, skeletons and bones, with human apparel and implements have been found in caves, evidently buried there by human means, and not by floods. Human remains are but seldom if ever connected with the organic remains of the soil and caves, even of the latest geological date.3.Geography, Maps, &c.The knowledge of the regions and localities inhabited by mankind, or where colonies are sent, empires founded, is needful to history, in order to understand and treat the events and migrations. The physical configuration of the land, the climates, plains, mountains and streams, have a great influence on civilization and communications. Physical geography is constant and invariable: while civil or ethnographical geography is constantly fluctuating in limits and names.If we had complete series of maps by chronological order upon America; we should find therein the materials for a comparative historical geography, and successive ethnography, showing the gradual revolutions of mankind. The old maps of America, those of Laet, the old geographers &c. are very valuable for this object. Many travellers in America, have given original maps, which furnish similar materials. I have chiefly used for Peru and Austral America, the maps of Laet, Acarete,[pg 050]D'Anville, Molina, Falkner, Cochrane, Wedel, the Jesuits, &c. Among the modern general maps, relating to South America, the Spanish maps of 1810 and 1822, the English of 1815, the French of 1830, the latest American of Tanner, &c. By those materials I have been able to trace and fix four periods of American geography, 2 ancient and 2 modern.I. Primitive geography of America.II. Ancient ditto, or between 1400 and 1500.III. Modern colonial geography.IV. Modern independent geography.I have formed Mpt. maps of the two first periods, which shall be published gradually, or in my Illustrations of the Ancient Geography of America. We have thousands of maps on the early geography of the Eastern Hemisphere, and no one as yet on the Western Hemisphere! to show the respective limits and positions of Ancient Empires, Nations, Cities, &c., except Clavigero's map of Anahuac at the Spanish conquest, those of Hayti, Laet, &.c.We have the plans of Ancient Mexico and Cuzco; but lack those of Tiahuanaco, Otolum, and many more important for ancient history. Several plans of ancient sites of civilization have been given, along with those of monuments. I have many in Mpt. yet unpublished. The greatest part of modern cities, are built on ancient sites, from Mexico to Chili. In North[pg 051]America, the same happens with Cincinnati, Louisville, Pittsburg, St. Louis, Philadelphia, Savannah, &c. The views of ruined cities, and those of actual cities, are partly historical, connected with the knowledge of gradual American civilization.Many ancient names of islands, lakes, streams and mountains, are preserved in actual names. Such are Cuba, Hayti—Ontario, Erie, Titicaca—Ohio, Alatamaha, Maranon, Parana, Rivers.—Alleghanies, Andes, Parima, Mountains, &c. When the names have been changed, it is the duty of the historical geographer to compare the old and new names.The Mexicans and other civilized ancient nations, could draw and paint maps. Even our North American tribes can draw rude maps on skins or bark. Some of these are preserved in museums; but none have ever been published: although some are pretty correct and deserving it.4.Natural Sciences.They are now becoming sisters of history. Geology is connected with geography. Botany and Zoology, acquaint us with trees, plants and animals, which were used in the arts and agriculture at different periods. The Asiatic origin of maize, calledmazaby Hesiod and known to the Pelagians (Hughes Greece,) has been unperceived by Humboldt and many others, although it throws some light on the early migrations and[pg 052]communications of tribes. Maize was cultivated in Assyria, West Tartary, North Africa and Java, before 1492, as asserted by Marco Polo, Crawford, Raffles. Gebelin, &c.3America had anciently several cereal plants, besides maize, two kinds of indigenous wheat and barley in Chili. The Quinoa and Zizania, the rice of South and North America. Many roots, beans, seeds, fruits and flowers, were cultivated from Canada to Chili. Native dies were abundant, the indigo and annato were natives. Red and yellow cochineal were nursed and collected. Many peculiar kinds of cotton, silks, hemp, flax, agave, palm, &c., were cultivated or collected to use for cloths, threads, ropes, &c.Paleontology, a new science, seeks for the remains of animals dwelling on earth, before mankind. America has already afforded the huge mastodons, elephants, megatherium, megalonyx, as primitive land animals, and many large reptiles, crocodiles of streams and lakes.American Zoology is very peculiar: a few arctic quadrupeds, birds and insects excepted; all the animals of this hemisphere are peculiar to it. Reptiles almost entirely such, even in the North. All the American monkeys form distinct species. The tropical animals of the two hemispheres are distinct, even often in genera. Out of 33[pg 053]quadrupeds formerly domesticated in America, the dog only may be deemed a stranger: and it had even many American varieties.The domestic quadrupeds of ancient America were 33, while only 25 in Asia, Africa and Europe. Among them were 4 species of Vicunia, 4 of Agutis, 2 deer, 2 hogs, 10 monkeys, &c. See my dissertation on the domestic animals of both hemispheres, 1832. Americans had also tamed 22 birds or fowls, as many as Asia, &c., and even some reptiles, fishes, insects, &c., had become domestic: altogether 112 in America and only 80 in Europe, Asia, &c., before 1492.American botany offers many peculiar regions; in the North only, akin to Asiatic or European botany; but becoming quite distinct in the tropics, still more so in Austral America. Since 1492 the European colonists have brought many plants, that are become spontaneous from Canada to Chili: these must be carefully separated from the ancient indigenous plants.The American Floras are nearly as many as the 15 natural regions already indicated, each having a focal seat or cradle in some range of mountains. They become richer or more abundant in species within the tropics, decreasing to the North and South. Trees and palm abound there, and disappear near the poles, the palms are unknown beyond the 36 degrees North and South. The equator has 500 species of trees; in[pg 054]latitude 40 N. and S. only 100 kinds are found, or even less. Social plants and grasses abound in plains, and in the North dwindle to mosses and lichens.Trees were early tools of civilization, affording timber, fuel, dies, houses, boats, weapons, &c. Fruit trees afforded food in abundance: even the tribes of North America near latitude 40 d. had 40 kinds of native wild fruits, and had begun to plant orchards of plumtrees, peachtrees, crab-trees, nut-trees. They knew how to make oils of nuts, to dry the fruits, make sugars out of maples and other trees.Fish has always afforded an ample supply of food to early nations, whence the preference to dwell near streams, Lakes and shores. Notwithstanding the swimming rambles of fishes, it is only the pelagic or oceanic tribes of them that are common to both hemispheres. Most of the resident shore fishes of America are peculiar species. Still more so with lacustral and fluviatile fishes. These are divided into peculiar regions. Our northern lakes form one; and almost every large stream has a peculiar generation of finny tribes: such are the Mississippi, Maranon, Parana, the Atlantic streams and rivers, those of Brazil, &c.Minerals abound in both Americas. It was gold and silver that drew hither the greedy Spanish freebooters. The civilized nations knew mining, smelting, casting and forging. They used gold, silver, copper,[pg 055]brass, lead, &c.; collected and prized gems, emeralds, agats, volcanic glass, &c. Even the less civilized tribes of North America used copper and lead, clays for pipes, pottery, &c. Iron was scarce because so hard to melt, and highly prized; but iron-rings have been found as jewels around the wrists of skeletons.Metallic coins were little known except in Central America; but bits of silver, gold, tin, iron, were used as such. The other mediums of exchange were skins, mats, nuts, cacao, shells, beads, mosaic works, &c. Commerce was well known to many nations; traders went 500 miles to exchange commodities in Florida, Mexico, Yucatan, Peru, &c. Navigators went by sea for the same purpose all over the Antilles, coast of Peru, and in the great streams. It is thus that were found many strange and foreign objects, jewels, medals, metals, &c., all over America, and in early tombs.5.Ethnography.This new science which undertakes to describe nations, reckons already many peculiar branches. Anthropography or the knowledge of physical mankind. Philology or the comparative study of human speech and languages. Besides the nameless branch attending to the moral ideas, arts, institutions, manners, civilization, governments and religions of mankind; which might be called moral ethnography.All these studies become the philosophy[pg 056]of history, and shall duly command my attention. Some writers neglect them altogether; others, like Robertson, do not know how to collect and accumulate facts instead of systems: Rollin has shown in his Ancient History, how useful moral ethnography may be as an auxiliary: although he omitted philology and physical facts.I have studied the men of all the parts of the world, in order to know and compare them, better than had been done. All the errors on the histories of nations, proceed commonly from the slender or partial views acquired or admitted by the writers. There is much to glean on the ethnography of modern nations, and therefrom we may ascend to ancient ethnography. It would be needful to study well the physical and moral features of all; the shapes of bodies, skulls, faces and limbs; the complexions of the skin, hairs and eyes; with the casual or permanent varieties.But, above all, we must better study all the spoken languages and dialects. It is strange that we hardly know anything, and sometimes nothing at all, on the languages of many existing tribes, with whom we have intercourse in both Americas. It would be desirable to procure at least a vocabulary of 100 essential words, in each. Such words, including the cardinal numbers, will soon become the key of ethnographical philology. While the additional study of[pg 057]phonology or sounds of languages, their idioms and grammars, their roots, and verbs, the alphabets, glyphs and symbols used to communicate ideas, will combine to furnish the complete knowledge of philology as a separate science. Although I have not always carried so far my researches; I did so for a few, applying chiefly myself to the essential features of languages; and the unexpected results will be surprising.American anthropography will teach that there were men of all sizes, features and complexions, in this hemisphere before 1492: notwithstanding the false assertions of many writers, who take one nation for the whole American group. The Uskihs, the Puruays, the Parias, the Chons, &c. were as white as the Spaniards, 50 such tribes were found in South America; while many tribes of Choco, the Manabis, the Yaruras, &c., were as black as negroes. All the other shades of brown, tawny and coppery, were scattered every where. There was not a single red man in America, unless painted such. Some tribes had scanty beards as the Tartars, Chinese, Berbers, &c., others bushy beards. The Tinguis or Patagons were 7 or 8 feet high, and the Guaymas only 4 or 5 feet.6.Traditions and Annals.Many American nations preserve a memory of historical events by unwritten traditions, repeated from fathers to sons; or communicated[pg 058]orally by the priests, chiefs or elderly men. Many are preserved yet to this day, by frequent repetitions, being embodied in songs, hymns, maxims, tales, drawings, or even symbolic figures and signs. Many of those traditions are precious for history, notwithstanding the fables, allegories, metaphors, personifications, &c., which partly conceal them or render the meaning obscure. We must learn to decipher them as we do old inscriptions and medals.Although many such are now nearly lost for us, by the extinction of the living books, who kept the remembrance: there are many already collected, and of which we ought to make a good use. But there are as many more, which have never been collected nor printed. I have collected many such in North America in manuscript. It often happens that the American tribes will not communicate them to their foes or oppressors; but their friends and allies may hope to receive the deposit of them. Every enlightened traveller ought to seek for them wherever he goes. Yet after being acquired, they are sometimes lost again, by neglect. I have known some learned and unlearned men despise them equally asIndian Stories, because they despise the ancient American race. There are, however, as yet many historical songs, poems and tales to collect among all the American tribes, which falling in good[pg 059]hands cannot fail to attract notice and be employed usefully. Every one who neglects or destroys them acts as a vandal. Malcolm has said at the outset of his history of Persia, that we ought never to neglect the original notions of a people on its origin, or early history, since therein is found the germ and spring of their subsequent conduct, actions and opinions.My illustrations shall contain many unpublished or forgotten traditions, whereof I shall avail myself in all my historical annals and researches. I consider those of the Uskihs, Dinnis, Ongwis, Linapis, Shawanis, Cados, Natchez, Ozages, Atakapas, Apalachians, &c., as highly important for the annals of North America. The same may be said of the Mexicans, Zapotecas, Mayas, Toltecas, Chols, &c., for Central America. Of the Haytians, Cubans and Caribs for the Antilles. And in South America those of the Muyzcas, Cumanans, Tamanacs, Popayans, Peruvians, Chilians, Brazilians, Abipons, &c.7.Chronology and Astronomy.These two sciences always go together, and form a double key of history. The American chronology is by no means fixed before 1492, and requires a skillful hand to preserve and compare all the heterogenous dates heretofore collected. I shall attempt to elucidate it gradually; but may often be compelled, as in geology, to relate only successive events without dates, and merely[pg 060]referred to a series of gradual facts. In Austral America, we are told that none had notions of astronomy and dates, except the Chilians; yet their chronology begins only in 1450. I doubt this: I rather believe that their oral traditions have been neglected, as well as those of their neighbours.In Peru, there are many positive dates, yet I was the first to reduce them to chronological order. In Brazil and Guyana, but few dates are found. The Muyzcas had very early dates, yet few have been preserved; much obscured by personifications of dynasties, and Pietrahita begins their real annals only in 1490, or 45 years before the Spanish invasion. In the Antilles the dates are quite loose, and difficult to reduce even to a serial order.But in Central and Mexican America, we find many early dates with a regular chronology. Yet some are extravagant or contradictory. I shall endeavour to elucidate them, so as to reduce the whole to order. They must form the base of a regular American chronology, that ascends by dates to the flood and creation. In Yucatan the first regular date only reach to 940 after Christ.In North America, where the smallest number of dates existed; we have unexpectedly and quite lately, found that many ancient dates could be procured. Cusick has published those of the Ongwi traditions,[pg 061]and I have ascertained those of the Linapis. Both of which reach to the flood and creation, and afford series of available dates as early as 1600 years before our era; thus nearly as ample as those of the TOL-tecas, and as plain in some instances.Astronomy was cultivated by all the civilized nations of ancient America. They had cycles of 144, 104, 60, 52, 20, 15 and 13 solar years. Humboldt has well written on that subject; but much remains to be gleaned. The northern tribes reckon by generations as the Greeks, the Polynesians, &c., and by winters instead of years, moons instead of solar months. They had also a cycle of 60 years. In Central America, &c. the months were of 20 days, including 4 weeks of 5 days. But the Peruvians had months of 27 days, or 3 weeks of 9 days as the Etruscans. The Muyzcas small weeks of 3 days, &c. No where in ancient America, was found the sabatical week of days, based on the 7 planets and the 4 quarters of a lunation. This is remarkable, as evincing a remote antiquity, and separation before this week was adopted in Egypt, India, Syria, Celtica, &c.Until 120 years before Christ the TOL-tecas reckoned only 365 days in the solar year, as the primitive nations of Asia: then they added the hours to the year. This forms their astronomical era. The Muyzcas had a very complicated astronomy, and three kinds of years. The usual was of 20[pg 062]moons, and the ecclesiastical of 37 moons. The horal division unknown in many parts of America, was of 4 hours in the day for the Muyzcas and Mexicans, elsewhere of 5, 10 and 20. The 24 hours and the Zodiac of 12 signs with 360 degrees were not known. The Mexican Zodiac had 13 signs and 104 degrees.Arithmetic is intimately connected with astronomy. A complete decimal numeration was known to all the civilized American nations, and even to the northern tribes. The most rude tribes reckoned by 5 or the manual mode; there are traces also of a binary numeration, the most simple of all: while others had complex calculations by 13 and by 20 or scores. We find no trace of any by 7, and but slight indications of a ternary numeration by 3 and 9. All these American modes of reckoning may thus be reduced to thebinary, by two or pairs; and the quinary or manual by the five fingers, of which the decimal is the double, and by 20 the quadruple.8.Languages.They are becoming one of the most important aids in history. When the annals are ample and clear, the examination of the languages is merely a supplement to historical knowledge; but when they are obscure, mutilated or totally lost; languages then supply more or less to their defects or loss. Their comparative study furnish us new lights to ascertain the origines, parentage, dispersions, colonies, alliances,[pg 063]wars, &c., of the nations thus deprived of written annals or even traditions. They serve also to rectify the imperfect annals or the fabulous traditions. This study may lead besides to trace the manners, religions, intercourse, arts and sciences of nearly all nations; since the proper languages of each people offers a picture of the civilization, acquired or borrowed knowledge, modes of life, &c. of each.It is above all in both Americas that this study is indispensable in historical researches: I will therefore apply to languages in all cases, and make constant use of them; and they will unfold new facts quite unknown, although very important, Historical lights shall thereby be thrown on many obscure subjects, whence astonishing and unexpected results may spring, in which I shall depend as much as upon mutilated and neglectful traditions.By taking into view all the American languages or as many as are already known, we shall easily dispel the errors and absurd systems of philosophers and philologists, who taking only a few as samples of the whole, have either deemedall the Americans, as many Jews, or Tartars, or Atlantes, or sprung from the ground, and so on. Now the fact is that these writers have never taken the trouble to compare the numerous American languages and dialects, reduce them to groups, and seek their affinities elsewhere.[pg 064]Adelung and Vater had once stated without proof, that nearly 1200 languages existed in America. Balbi has reduced them to 423, of which 212 in South America; but they can be much further reduced, most of them being mere dialects. The whole may be comprised in 25 groups of languages, or even less; which were certainly identic in 25 languages 2 or 3000 years ago: and all of which have astonishing affinities with the groups of the eastern hemisphere, so as to indicate a parentage 4 or 5000 years ago.Vater and Maltebrun have given a few hundred examples of such analogies: and the systematic writers have supposed that they had exhausted the comparisons. Yet a single language, the Chilian, has by itself more affinities with the languages of Europe, than all those mentioned by Vater and others, put together! The foreign or transatlantic affinities of American languages, vary from 10 to 70 per cent, according to the nations. If we suppose that there are 400 languages in America, and as many in the eastern hemisphere, and each to have about 2000 roots or essential words only; while the mean affinities are only 25 per cent: we shall find as many as 200,000 affinities! out of America, in every American language; and in all the 400, as many as 80 millions! instead of the paltry reckoning of 1000 or so. All this is susceptible[pg 065]of mathematical proofs, and shall be unfolded gradually in these pages.The theory about the common exclusive grammatical structure of all the American languages, is equally erroneous and based upon partial facts. Instead of all the American languages being polysynthetic by amalgamating words, we find in America many mixt forms, and even the pure monosylabic: while the amalgamation of words prevails more or less in Europe and Africa; chiefly in the Bask, Italian dialects, Greek, Berber and other Atlantic dialects, the Negro languages, those of Caffraria, the Sanscrit and all the derived languages.It had been asserted that no American language was monosylabic: yet Balbi states that the Guarani and Maya are such; Nasera has lately proved the same of the Othomi. Thus we have at least 3 such American groups of languages. But there are more; nay many American languages have monosylabic roots, even among the most amalgamated groups.The most obvious grammatical classification of American languages, has escaped the acuteness of philologists. I find it in the epithetic structure, or relative position of ideas. Under this view all the languages arrange themselves in three great classes or groups. 1. Regular, 2. Resupinate, 3. Mixt.1.The Regularis the most simple and natural form: where the roots or nouns are[pg 066]prefixed, and the adjuncts or adjectives, expressing epithetes or qualities follow or are added. This group includes in the Eastern Continent 1. All the Semetic languages, Arabic, Hebrew, &c. 2. All the Atlantic and Egyptian languages. 3. All the Celtic and Cantabrian languages. 4. All the Polynesian and Malay languages. 5. The Bhotiya and many languages of Thibet. 6. Most of the Negro languages. 7. Yakut of Siberia, &c.In America this group includes my groups 1. Innuit or Uski. 2. Ongwi. 3. Capaha. 4. Chactah. 5. All the languages related thereto in North-west America, the Kaluchi, Mandan, &c. 6. All the Guarani languages of South America, and perhaps many others, Mayna, Mobima, &c.2.The Resupinate or Reflexed Group: where the roots or nouns substantive are reversed, following the adjective or epithetes, which are prefixed. This second mode of uniting ideas prevails 1. In all the languages of China and Tartary. 2. In all the Teutonic languages German, Swede, English. 3. In most of the Thracian, Illyrian, Greek and Slavonic languages. 4. In all the Turkish languages of Turan, Bokhara, Turkey. 5. The Newari of Imalaya. 6. The Qua or Hottentot of South Africa.In America, it is the most prevailing form, found in my groups 1. Linni or Linapis. 2. Otali or Cheroki. 3. In all the Mexican[pg 067]and Othomi languages. 4. Chontal. 5. Skereh or Pani and Shoshoni, of North America,—and in South America. 6. Chili. 7. Yarura. 8. Mbaya and probably many more: although hardly indicated by the philologists.3.Mixt Form, which employs or adopts more or less the two former modes; although there is always a prevailing form, that indicates the original mode of uniting ideas. This mixt form appears 1. In the Sanscrit and all derived languages. 2. In the Zend and Persian languages of Iran. 3. In the Pelagic and Italic languages, the Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, Greek. 4. The Japanese, &c.While in America it is found 1. In the Aruac languages. 2. The Muyzca. 3. The Peruvian languages, &c. of South America, and in North America. 4. The Atalan. 5. Mizteca. 6. Opata, and probably some others.This comparative classification of languages, will greatly help future investigations. It will show the improbability of the two opposite modes of annexing ideas having been entertained, by the same people at any time; while the mixt form evinces amalgamations of ancient nations. We have thus acquired another clue to trace primitive connections, another available mean to pursue the human steps on earth.9.Religions and Mythologies.The human opinions on the past and future form[pg 068]every where ample themes of thoughts and actions. From revelations, inspirations, oracles, wisdom and priestcraft comingled, have arisen all the worships, and rites, dogmas and creeds, swaying the human mind, through hope or fear, love or hatred. The history of religious ideas, is in fact the history of civilization, since they have sprung together in social men. Nearly all the religions of Asia (which from hence have spread throughout the earth along with mankind) were found in America: except the modern creeds. But the traces of Judaism and Budhism were very faint and local. Mahometism was unknown, Braminism hardly known. Christianity or some of its rites are traced to Yucatan only, and may arise from other sources. The most prevailing worships were the primitive Sabeism, Solar worship, Polytheism, Dualism or Manicheism, Shamanism or worship of Spirits, Idolatry, and Fetichism or animal worship. We find throughout America many modifications of these creeds: with several complex mythologies, more or less analogous to eastern dogmas.The investigation of these American religions affords not only an insight into the ancient civilization, but many proofs of ancient communications with Asia or Africa. Throughout North America the Dualism, mythologies and fabulous traditions point to a connexion with Tartary. In Florida, Mexico and Yucatan, begin to appear the[pg 069]Solar worship, and a cruel idolatry foreign to it. This Solar worship appears in a purer form in North America, as far as Peru. While in the Antilles, Guyana, Brazil and Chili, prevailed several worships of heavenly and terrestial spirits; somewhat akin to the primitive idolatry of Africa, Europe, Iran, India, China and Polynesia.American religions admitted, like many others, of Priests, oracles, temples, shrines, pilgrimages, holy places, sacrifices, expiations, confessions, offerings, hymns, veneration for animals, men and stars. Idols painted or sculptured in wood, pottery, stone, metals, &c.; bloody rites by human sacrifices, scarifications, circumscision, &c. But none of these practices were general, some were quite local and circumscribed. Thus circumscision was only used by the Mayas of Yucatan, the Calchaquis of Tucuman, &c. Traces of a triple god or Indian Trimurti have been met from Ohio to Peru; but it was no where the prevailing religion. As the same idea was found among the Celts and Polynesians, it may have come by the east rather than Polynesia in the west.10.Civilization and Manners.This completes the history of all nations. When their annals are well known, it becomes a very proper appendix to them; when they are not, it is a very needful supplement to the traditions, &c. But we must not make any history consist merely in such an account,[pg 070]as often done by negligent writers. The manners and customs of every people, are so fluctuating, liable to be changed, or improved by civilization, imitation, arts and sciences, &c.; that they cannot afford any test of connections. They are often borrowed, from neighbors or strangers, disused after awhile by whims or wars, invented to suit the climate and productions it may afford. We have positive proofs that the Europeans have since 1492 greatly modified the customs of all the tribes they conquered or visited. This must have happened formerly also, by other visits or communications. Yet, notwithstanding the uncertainty of the origin and duration of the primitive American customs, they must be studied, as one of the sources and objects of history.We find, in ancient America, nearly all the forms of social civilization and manners of the east. But the Nomadic life with camels, oxen and sheep, was unknown, as well as those animals. The American cattle or lamas, &c. of South America, hogs of Coriana, dogs and rabbits of Mexico, deers of Florida, buffalos of Taos, were kept by sedentary civilized tribes. The Nomadic wandering tribes of America were chiefly hunters and fishermen: scattered around the agricultural nations, spreading from Canada to Chili.All the kinds of governments were known in America: Theocracy, despotism, monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy. But[pg 071]the most prevailing were theocracy among the civilized nations, oligarchy among the barbarous nations: with two peculiar modifications, of double kings as among Arabs, civil and military; and chiefs of families or tribes, as among all primitive nations. Queens were known to but few tribes, although the female line was often hereditary. Written laws and codes were known to the Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Mayans, Muyzcas, Panos, Peruvians, &c. Oral laws were elsewhere preserved by priests or magistrates.Polygamy prevailed among some tribes or castes, but was not universal. The 4 castes of Indians are distinctly found in nearly all the civilized nations, often modified into priests, nobles, vassals and slaves. The arts of music, medicine, smithery, painting, sculpture, architecture, agriculture, pottery, &c., were well known to nearly all. The sciences of geometry, geography, botany, astronomy, &c., were cultivated from Mexico to Peru, even taught in schools and colleges; with the arts, the laws, the rites, and history of the country.Marsden has well distinguished several degrees of civilization in Asia. If no American nation had reached the Greeks and Romans, or our modern polished and improved civilization; it is not extraordinary. But the Peruvians, Muyzcas, Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Talascas, &c., were nearly[pg 072]equal to the Chinese, Egyptians and Hindus in civilization; not far removed from the European civilization of the 15th century: nay, in some things superior. The second degree of American civilization found in Chili, Florida, Cumana, the Antilles, Popayan, the Linapis, Omaguas &c. was equal to that of the Arabs, Malays, Celts, Cantabrians, Pelagians, &c. While the third degree found in all the barbarous nations, Innuit or Esquimaux, Shoshonis, Caribs, Brazilians, &c. was not worse than what we find among the Fins, Laplanders, Tartars, Sames, Negroes and Hottentots.Individual property in land was almost unknown in America; but feodal and tribal property well understood. Common property of tribes and villages over their territories, was the most usual tenure, modified by wars, conquests, tributes. Individual property existed only for tenements and personal property. Warfares, marriages and funerals were very different in every nation. The weapons of war were clubs, arrows, darts, lances, axes, Macana swords, Sarbacanes or blowing tubes, slings, nooses, thronged balls, &c. as elsewhere. There was a peculiar diplomacy, with heralds, envoys, messengers. Shields, towers, forts, walls, ditches, were used for defence, besidesEstopilsa peculiar quilted armor. Flags, banners, and standards were known. The calumets, leaves or green feathers,[pg 073]council fires, and white flags were emblems of peace. Alliances and confederations existed from earliest times, also the adoption of tribes and prisoners. Slavery was hardly known; but vassalage much extended over conquered tribes.Dresses and ornaments were quite various. Seal skins used by the Innuit. Deer skins and furs by the tribes of North America. In tropical America many tribes went nearly naked, with a mere apron or pagne of cotton or grass cloth. But the civilized nations were decently clothed with cotton shirts and feather mantles. ThePonchois a true American dress known from Mexico to Chili, hardly known out of America except Polynesia.4Women wore long pagnes or gowns. They made cloths of lama wool in Peru; of cotton, hemp, nettles, grass, feathers &c. there and elsewhere; either twisted, plaited or woven. The Peruvians and Chilians had a peculiar loom and plough. Cotton looms were used in Florida, Mexico, and all over South America, even by the Caribs to make hamacs or hanging beds. Among some nations women had the most labor to perform; yet even the men assumed hunting, making canoes, huts, weapons, &c. More civilized tribes worked together in the fields: The proud and warlike employed vassals or slaves.Painting the body or face, was usual among many nations, but not general. It[pg 074]was useful against heat and flies, or was used to inspire love or terror. Ornaments to the head, ears, nose, lips, wrists, legs, &c., were more or less adopted by men and women. The hair was usually worn long; but many tribes cut it in various ways, as a crown or tuft. The beard even when scanty was deemed unbecoming by many tribes, and totally eradicated; but some tribes wore beards. The head was often left uncovered; but hats were worn in the N. W. and Central America, turbans in Paria and Florida, feather crowns in the tropics,Lautasor diadem-bands in Peru and the Andes. Shoes and gloves were unknown; but sandals, leggings, leather clods, and mocassins or slippers of various substances, commonly used; with singular snow shoes of bark in winter by northern tribes.
Materials for the history of the Americans.—Authors, Documents, Sciences.—Languages, Civilization, &c.
Far from following the example of many American historians, who often take a single guide for their crude compilations, or avoid the trouble to consult all the historical sources, I have taken care in my researches to employ all the possible means to reach the truth, and collect all the facts that are scattered among a crowd of writers. I have carefully analysed, compared and judged the materials, details and events[pg 036]thus procured: nay, all the auxiliary sciences have afforded additional fragments or proofs.
These materials may be divided into 10 series or kinds
1. Works, printed or manuscript.2. Documents and monuments.3. Maps, plans, views, &c.4. Natural sciences.5. Ethnography.6. Traditions and annals.7. Chronology and astronomy.8. Languages and philology.9. Religion, mythologies, &c.10. Civilization, laws and manners.
1. Works, printed or manuscript.
2. Documents and monuments.
3. Maps, plans, views, &c.
4. Natural sciences.
5. Ethnography.
6. Traditions and annals.
7. Chronology and astronomy.
8. Languages and philology.
9. Religion, mythologies, &c.
10. Civilization, laws and manners.
The writers upon America are very numerous; but mostly defective or local. A number, however, have attempted to consider the whole continent: the principal among those containing facts upon all parts of America are chiefly
Herrera, History and Geography of Spanish America carried till the year 1554.
Delaet, Historical Geography of America, till 1630.
Garcias, Origins of the Americans.—Spanish work.
Carli, American Letters.—Italian work.
Ogilby, History and Geography of America, till 1670.
Raynal, European Settlements in America, till 1774.
Alcedo, Geographical Dictionary of Spanish America in 1786.—Spanish work.
Maltebrun, Improved Geography, 1820.
Touron, History of America, chiefly ecclesiastical, and incomplete, 14 volumes 1768-70, in French.
Robertson, false History of America or Spanish Conquests of Mexico or Peru.
The collections of travels by Hackluyt, Purchas, Harris, Ramusio, Barcias, Prevost, &c.
The American researches of Ulloa, Humboldt, M'Culloh, &c.
I have consulted and analyzed all these general works, and many others of less account; but I have not yet read Hervas nor Compagnone, knowing them merely through quotations
The firstBibliotheca Americanaor catalogue of writers on America, was given by Kennet in 1701 and 1713. Another appeared in England in 1719; a third in France in 1820. They contain the names, authors, editions, dates, &c. of over 300 works relating to America. Robertson has given a list of nearly as many, which he pretends to have consulted, although he neglected what they tell us. Humboldt has also a catalogue of 250 authors, consulted by him. In 1831, Aspinwall published his American Library containing 771 works; and Warden, in Paris, his own, containing 977 American works with 133 atlasses and maps.
All this does not complete the account of books on America; since I have seen[pg 038]many omitted in all these catalogues; although I never could meet some mentioned there. I will carefully notice them, that it may be known where I found my materials, and what may yet have escaped my researches. I have already consulted upwards of 600 writers on both Americas, and there are at least 1000 already printed, I mean special or local works connected with history. If we were to add to these the botanists, naturalists, paltry compilers, and pamphlets, we might make a catalogue of 3000 works on America, her inhabitants and productions.
I will refer gradually to them, and have collected them all in my manuscript illustrations;materials,printed works. Therefore we do not lack printed materials: but the choice of the best is difficult: since many works merely consist in fables, blunders, errors, hypotheses and their constant repetitions: which ought to be rejected in order to gather facts and the truth. But we must not reject as pyrrhoniams all that may clash with our ideas and systems: it is chiefly needful so recall and restore the events and facts mentioned by the earliest travellers and observers.
These numerous local writers ought to be divided into three classes. 1. historians and annalists, 2. travellers and geographers, 3. antiquarians and philologists. I shall now merely mention the most useful (which I have all consulted) upon the Peruvian and Austral regions of South America.
1st. The principal historians are, 1. Molina, History of Chili, 2. Funes, Civil History of Buenos Ayres, Paraguay and Tucuman, 3. Lavega, History of Peru, 4. Debrizoffer, history of Abipones, 5. Charlevoix of Paraguay, 6. Techo, on Ditto, 7, 8. Lozano and Jolis on Chaco, 9. Muratori, and 10. Renger, Paraguay.
2d. The principal writers who have furnished historical facts, with geographical and ethnographical materials, areold travellers, 1. Pigafetta and Magellan, 2. Cabot, 3. Shmidel, 4. Drake, 5. Cavendish, 6. Acarete, 7. Knivet, 8. Frezier, 9. Sepp, 10. Brewer, 11. Nyel, 12. Schmidtmeyer.
The modern travellers are, 1. Azara, 2. D'Ulloa, 3. Humboldt, 4. Cook, 5. Byron, 6. Laperouse, 7. Stevenson, 8. Myers, 9. Heyn, 10. Beaumont, 11. Gillespie, 12. Vidal, 13. Wedel, 14. King, 15. Morrell, 16. Andrew, 17. Temple, 18. Mawe, 19. Proctor, 20. Graham, 21. Head, 22. Pernetty.
The principal original geographers and ethnographers are, 1. Fernandez on Chiquitos 1726, 2. Bueno, Ditto 1800, 3. Falkner, on Patagonia 1774, 4. Molina on Chili and Cuyo, 5. Lozano on Chaco 1733, 6. Skinner, Memoirs on Peru, 7. Gili, South America 1782.
3d. Lastly the auxiliary writers on philology, antiquities and other historical branches are, 1. Adelung, Vater, Maltebrun, Balbi, &c., on all American languages, 2. American researches of Humboldt, Macculoh[pg 040]1829. Those of Depaw and Ranking are shameful, perverting every thing to support false systems.
Manuscripts.There are yet many such extant on America, in the libraries of both hemispheres. Clavigero gave a long list of Mexican Manuscripts. Funes quotes several on Austral America. There are several extant in Central America and South America, in Peru and Brazil. Many have been lost through wilful neglect, or destroyed at the Spanish Conquest, the expulsion of Jesuits, &c. Those in the ancient languages, Mexican, Tarasca, Tzendal, &c., are now very rare, and much esteemed. Those burnt by Zumaraga, the Mexican Omar, have been often regretted. Lord Kingborough has lately published some at a great cost.
The manuscripts which I could consult on South America are but few. Those on North America are more numerous and very important; particularly the traditions of the Linapis, Shawanis, &c., they are chiefly on wood, bark, skins or Mosaic strings. But I have received several manuscript vocabularies of the languages of Guyana, Brazil, Texas, Mexico, &c. and I have consulted several manuscripts in the libraries of Philadelphia.
There are, besides, in the public or private libraries of all the great cities of both Americas, several interesting historical works, which have never been published.
There are several in Philadelphia, particularly the historical collections of Simetierre. Often the best or most important works cannot be printed: while a crowd of paltry compilations are ushered to deceive the public. This may be deemed a remainder of the prevailing ignorance and error. Instead of appreciating the learned and useful works, the prevailing taste is for historical romances and systematic fables. It is needful to seek these previous labors, which run the risk of being totally lost, if we will not have again to blush hereafter for these historical losses.
I give the list of such among my own manuscripts, as have been employed to write this history. They are yet in my possession, but I wish to see them deposited in a great public library; where they might be consulted.
1. Materials for the history, ethnography, &c. of the Americans, their annals, chronology, &c. 40 books, begun in 1820, continued ever since, and not yet closed.
2. Vocabularies of the ancient and modern languages of both Americas, symbols, glyphs, &c., 4 books, begun 1824.
3. Comparative geography and ethnography of ancient and modern America, 5 books, with maps, &c., begun 1824.
4. Ancient monuments of North and South America, compared with the primitive monuments of the eastern hemisphere, 3 books and 200 plans, &c., 1822.
5.Tellus, or the primitive History of the Earth and Mankind in Protholia, Oceania and Neotholia, with the ancient and modern general ethnography, 30 books, begun in 1821.
6. Synglosson, or compared examination of all languages and nations, 6 books, begun 1825.
7. Iconographical Illustrations of all my historical works and travels, containing over 1000 maps, plans, views, costumes, portraits, alphabets, symbols, implements, &c., in 10 cartoons, begun 1816.
8. Travels in North America, in 1802, 3, 4, and from 1815 to 1835. In many manuscript books and journals.
I have often been apprehensive of the fate of Boturini, for these interesting manuscript and long researches. This has happened already for one of my manuscripts. As early as 1825 I sent to the Academy of Science in Boston, a manuscript of 240 pages, being anaccount of the materials yet existing for the history of the nations and tribes of America before Columbus. This was for an offered prize of $100: which was never awarded, although my memoir was declared the best sent. And instead of depositing this manuscript in the library of the American Antiquarian Society as requested, it has beenlostorstolen. If never recovered, and that the public may judge of the merits of it, at such an early period of my historical studies: I will state[pg 043]the principal results of my enquiries therein; which tenor, together with their length, were the ostensible reasons for not awarding a prize probably never meant to be awarded.
I therein proved in 1825, 1st. that there are yet materials enough, notwithstanding the loss of many, for an ancient history of America.
2. That a complete American history ought to employ and combine all the materials afforded by geology, geography, physics, chronology, physiology, ethnology, archeology, philology, on America, with all the traditions of the Americans.
3. Geology and physical geography indicates the cradles and ancient settlements of mankind, the revolutions of nature, the places unfit for population, the means of access, probable route of colonies, &c.
4. America has an ancient geography previous to 1492, which ought to be restored.
5. The coincidence of names of nations and tribes, afford a comparitive concordance, indicating ancient connections or identity.
6. The ancient American population, must have been derived from the nearest shores of Africa, Europe and Asia. The points where all the indications and traditions tend, are the Antilles, next Paria and Guyana in South America; Anian or Tollan and Alaska in the N. W with Sucanunga or Groenland to the N. E.
7. The philological solution of historical affinities must be sought in the roots of the languages, their conformity or analogies, the number of similar sounds, roots and words; which are susceptible of a mathematical calculation, and referable to the theory of probabilities.
8. Many primitive nations in all parts of the earth, may thus be proved to have been akin or related.
9. Noah's flood was nearly general; but perhaps not universal. His ark or THBE was perhaps Thibet: and his 3 sons 3 nations saved there.
10. It has been proved that all the antidiluvian patriarchs were Nations, their long ages being the duration of dynasties or states. This opinion may also be entertained of many other ancient patriarchs or heads of tribes, every where, by the usual figure of personification.
11. Peleg's flood was volcanic, not so general as Noah's. There may have been many successive cataclysms blended in this, as this has been often mistaken in date for Noah's.
12. The cradle of the Tulans or Mexican nations, must have been the Tulan of Asia, since Turan and Tartary. There are many places called Tula, all over the earth, indicating settlements of Atlantes.
13. The ancient chronology of America may be restored. Several dates given, a system proposed.
14. All the races and complexions of mankind are found in America.
15. America was known to the ancient nations, particularly the Atlantes, Pelagians, Phenicians, &c.
16. Some highlands of America were not covered at Noah's flood, and might become the azylums of men, animals, and vegetation. However, but few nations can be traced to these azylums in America.
17. The ancient monuments of both Americas, are similar to the primitive monuments of Asia, Africa and Europe.
18. The ancient inscriptions of America can be explained. A key may be found for all: some are evidently pelagic.
19. The religions of the Americans, were similar to the primitive religions of the eastern hemisphere.
20. The manners and customs, of the Americans, are very various, and form no peculiar test.
21. Many American nations were highly civilized, besides the Mexicans and Peruvians: skilful in agriculture, and the arts, having cattle, colleges, &c.
My reward for having ascertained and proved those facts, was to be denied the prize, and to have my manuscript mislaid or lost or stolen! My historical researches ever since have continued to confirm nearly all these facts.1
2.Documents and monuments.The historical titles and proofs, inscriptions,[pg 046]medals, coins, charters, &c., which are so common elsewhere, are but few as yet, in America, belonging to early times: most belong to modern history.
There are some ancient inscriptions scattered in South America; but not yet published. Molina speaks of one on a pyramid of Cuyo, which late travellers have not found. Those of Otolum near Palenqué in Central America begin to excite great attention; and I have sought a key for them.2
Ancient metallic coins and medals, really Americans, are exceedingly scarce: yet there are some in Central America. Several medals, perhaps foreign and indicating a communication, have been found, but again lost or neglected; few have been figured or explained.
Implements, tools, sculptures, objects of arts, pottery, weapons, &c. of the ancient Americans are found in all the museums; but excite little attention, by not being concentrated, accumulated nor classified. Many fine specimens of arts have been melted, or broken and lost. The astronomical stones of the Mexicans and Muyzcas have been preserved; but those of Peru and Central America are lost; as well as that beautiful one of the Talegas of North America, a dodecagone, with 144 hieroglyphic signs, found in the Ohio, and once kept in a museum of Philadelphia.
The ancient monuments of both Americas,[pg 047]are very numerous, indicating a dense population in places since become wild and desolate, as in North America, Guyana, Brazil, &c. They are most numerous in the central parts of both Americas, and lessen towards both ends. Yet they are met from lat. 45 N. to 45 S. They are very variable in different parts; by no means identic, indicating different builders or many degrees of civilization, from the rudest arts to the most refined: employing many materials, earth, clay, gravel, stone, wood, unbaked bricks; being either irregular cyclopian structures, or regular buildings of rough or cut stones,pizéor beaten clay, &c.
We do not know as yet one half of those in existence, and many have never been described nor figured. Yet they afford every where, one of the most evident and certain base of historical researches, confirming traditions, or revealing the seats of former empires, their civilization, &c. They consist chiefly in mounds, altars, tumuli or tombs, ruined cities, villages and forts, temples and dwellings; but we find besides in various places, traces of ancient palaces, bridges, roads, causeways, canals, mines, dromes, baths, pyramids, towers, pillars, rocking stones, walls, wells, pits &c. They generally resemble the primitive monuments of the same kind, met with in the eastern hemisphere, from England and Ireland to Mauritania and Africa, extending[pg 048]east to Lybia, Syria, Russia, Persia, Tartary, &c. They have less resemblance with the monuments of Egypt, Greece, Rome, India and China; yet some kinds somewhat assimilate. In fact, there are, throughout both Americas, three very distinct classes of monuments, indicating distinct arts and architecture.
The first or rudest, assimilate nearly to those yet used by the rudest tribes in the north or in Brazil, Antilles, &c., indicating a similar barbarous state.
The second or primitive, is known by using wood and earth instead of stones for buildings.
The third or most refined, employed stones, often well cut as in Mexico, Central America, Peru, &c., and indicates arts nearly equal to those of Egypt and India.
Besides such great monumental remains; there are lesser antiquities; fragments of sculpture, statues, idols, painting, Mosaic, &c., either in metals, stones, pottery, beads, &c., found every where mixed with the others.
But the most singular and dubious relics of antiquity, are subteraneous or in excavations: these are in caves, mines, pits, &c.: while under ground are found trees, stumps, charcoal, ashes, shells, pavements, walls, houses, &c. that must have been buried by alluvions, diluvions or new formed soil. It has been surmised or ascertained that some may be antidiluvian: although those in[pg 049]deep alluvial soils, near streams, and connected with graves, may have been buried by men, or fluvial inundations. Mummies, skeletons and bones, with human apparel and implements have been found in caves, evidently buried there by human means, and not by floods. Human remains are but seldom if ever connected with the organic remains of the soil and caves, even of the latest geological date.
3.Geography, Maps, &c.The knowledge of the regions and localities inhabited by mankind, or where colonies are sent, empires founded, is needful to history, in order to understand and treat the events and migrations. The physical configuration of the land, the climates, plains, mountains and streams, have a great influence on civilization and communications. Physical geography is constant and invariable: while civil or ethnographical geography is constantly fluctuating in limits and names.
If we had complete series of maps by chronological order upon America; we should find therein the materials for a comparative historical geography, and successive ethnography, showing the gradual revolutions of mankind. The old maps of America, those of Laet, the old geographers &c. are very valuable for this object. Many travellers in America, have given original maps, which furnish similar materials. I have chiefly used for Peru and Austral America, the maps of Laet, Acarete,[pg 050]D'Anville, Molina, Falkner, Cochrane, Wedel, the Jesuits, &c. Among the modern general maps, relating to South America, the Spanish maps of 1810 and 1822, the English of 1815, the French of 1830, the latest American of Tanner, &c. By those materials I have been able to trace and fix four periods of American geography, 2 ancient and 2 modern.
I. Primitive geography of America.
II. Ancient ditto, or between 1400 and 1500.
III. Modern colonial geography.
IV. Modern independent geography.
I have formed Mpt. maps of the two first periods, which shall be published gradually, or in my Illustrations of the Ancient Geography of America. We have thousands of maps on the early geography of the Eastern Hemisphere, and no one as yet on the Western Hemisphere! to show the respective limits and positions of Ancient Empires, Nations, Cities, &c., except Clavigero's map of Anahuac at the Spanish conquest, those of Hayti, Laet, &.c.
We have the plans of Ancient Mexico and Cuzco; but lack those of Tiahuanaco, Otolum, and many more important for ancient history. Several plans of ancient sites of civilization have been given, along with those of monuments. I have many in Mpt. yet unpublished. The greatest part of modern cities, are built on ancient sites, from Mexico to Chili. In North[pg 051]America, the same happens with Cincinnati, Louisville, Pittsburg, St. Louis, Philadelphia, Savannah, &c. The views of ruined cities, and those of actual cities, are partly historical, connected with the knowledge of gradual American civilization.
Many ancient names of islands, lakes, streams and mountains, are preserved in actual names. Such are Cuba, Hayti—Ontario, Erie, Titicaca—Ohio, Alatamaha, Maranon, Parana, Rivers.—Alleghanies, Andes, Parima, Mountains, &c. When the names have been changed, it is the duty of the historical geographer to compare the old and new names.
The Mexicans and other civilized ancient nations, could draw and paint maps. Even our North American tribes can draw rude maps on skins or bark. Some of these are preserved in museums; but none have ever been published: although some are pretty correct and deserving it.
4.Natural Sciences.They are now becoming sisters of history. Geology is connected with geography. Botany and Zoology, acquaint us with trees, plants and animals, which were used in the arts and agriculture at different periods. The Asiatic origin of maize, calledmazaby Hesiod and known to the Pelagians (Hughes Greece,) has been unperceived by Humboldt and many others, although it throws some light on the early migrations and[pg 052]communications of tribes. Maize was cultivated in Assyria, West Tartary, North Africa and Java, before 1492, as asserted by Marco Polo, Crawford, Raffles. Gebelin, &c.3
America had anciently several cereal plants, besides maize, two kinds of indigenous wheat and barley in Chili. The Quinoa and Zizania, the rice of South and North America. Many roots, beans, seeds, fruits and flowers, were cultivated from Canada to Chili. Native dies were abundant, the indigo and annato were natives. Red and yellow cochineal were nursed and collected. Many peculiar kinds of cotton, silks, hemp, flax, agave, palm, &c., were cultivated or collected to use for cloths, threads, ropes, &c.
Paleontology, a new science, seeks for the remains of animals dwelling on earth, before mankind. America has already afforded the huge mastodons, elephants, megatherium, megalonyx, as primitive land animals, and many large reptiles, crocodiles of streams and lakes.
American Zoology is very peculiar: a few arctic quadrupeds, birds and insects excepted; all the animals of this hemisphere are peculiar to it. Reptiles almost entirely such, even in the North. All the American monkeys form distinct species. The tropical animals of the two hemispheres are distinct, even often in genera. Out of 33[pg 053]quadrupeds formerly domesticated in America, the dog only may be deemed a stranger: and it had even many American varieties.
The domestic quadrupeds of ancient America were 33, while only 25 in Asia, Africa and Europe. Among them were 4 species of Vicunia, 4 of Agutis, 2 deer, 2 hogs, 10 monkeys, &c. See my dissertation on the domestic animals of both hemispheres, 1832. Americans had also tamed 22 birds or fowls, as many as Asia, &c., and even some reptiles, fishes, insects, &c., had become domestic: altogether 112 in America and only 80 in Europe, Asia, &c., before 1492.
American botany offers many peculiar regions; in the North only, akin to Asiatic or European botany; but becoming quite distinct in the tropics, still more so in Austral America. Since 1492 the European colonists have brought many plants, that are become spontaneous from Canada to Chili: these must be carefully separated from the ancient indigenous plants.
The American Floras are nearly as many as the 15 natural regions already indicated, each having a focal seat or cradle in some range of mountains. They become richer or more abundant in species within the tropics, decreasing to the North and South. Trees and palm abound there, and disappear near the poles, the palms are unknown beyond the 36 degrees North and South. The equator has 500 species of trees; in[pg 054]latitude 40 N. and S. only 100 kinds are found, or even less. Social plants and grasses abound in plains, and in the North dwindle to mosses and lichens.
Trees were early tools of civilization, affording timber, fuel, dies, houses, boats, weapons, &c. Fruit trees afforded food in abundance: even the tribes of North America near latitude 40 d. had 40 kinds of native wild fruits, and had begun to plant orchards of plumtrees, peachtrees, crab-trees, nut-trees. They knew how to make oils of nuts, to dry the fruits, make sugars out of maples and other trees.
Fish has always afforded an ample supply of food to early nations, whence the preference to dwell near streams, Lakes and shores. Notwithstanding the swimming rambles of fishes, it is only the pelagic or oceanic tribes of them that are common to both hemispheres. Most of the resident shore fishes of America are peculiar species. Still more so with lacustral and fluviatile fishes. These are divided into peculiar regions. Our northern lakes form one; and almost every large stream has a peculiar generation of finny tribes: such are the Mississippi, Maranon, Parana, the Atlantic streams and rivers, those of Brazil, &c.
Minerals abound in both Americas. It was gold and silver that drew hither the greedy Spanish freebooters. The civilized nations knew mining, smelting, casting and forging. They used gold, silver, copper,[pg 055]brass, lead, &c.; collected and prized gems, emeralds, agats, volcanic glass, &c. Even the less civilized tribes of North America used copper and lead, clays for pipes, pottery, &c. Iron was scarce because so hard to melt, and highly prized; but iron-rings have been found as jewels around the wrists of skeletons.
Metallic coins were little known except in Central America; but bits of silver, gold, tin, iron, were used as such. The other mediums of exchange were skins, mats, nuts, cacao, shells, beads, mosaic works, &c. Commerce was well known to many nations; traders went 500 miles to exchange commodities in Florida, Mexico, Yucatan, Peru, &c. Navigators went by sea for the same purpose all over the Antilles, coast of Peru, and in the great streams. It is thus that were found many strange and foreign objects, jewels, medals, metals, &c., all over America, and in early tombs.
5.Ethnography.This new science which undertakes to describe nations, reckons already many peculiar branches. Anthropography or the knowledge of physical mankind. Philology or the comparative study of human speech and languages. Besides the nameless branch attending to the moral ideas, arts, institutions, manners, civilization, governments and religions of mankind; which might be called moral ethnography.
All these studies become the philosophy[pg 056]of history, and shall duly command my attention. Some writers neglect them altogether; others, like Robertson, do not know how to collect and accumulate facts instead of systems: Rollin has shown in his Ancient History, how useful moral ethnography may be as an auxiliary: although he omitted philology and physical facts.
I have studied the men of all the parts of the world, in order to know and compare them, better than had been done. All the errors on the histories of nations, proceed commonly from the slender or partial views acquired or admitted by the writers. There is much to glean on the ethnography of modern nations, and therefrom we may ascend to ancient ethnography. It would be needful to study well the physical and moral features of all; the shapes of bodies, skulls, faces and limbs; the complexions of the skin, hairs and eyes; with the casual or permanent varieties.
But, above all, we must better study all the spoken languages and dialects. It is strange that we hardly know anything, and sometimes nothing at all, on the languages of many existing tribes, with whom we have intercourse in both Americas. It would be desirable to procure at least a vocabulary of 100 essential words, in each. Such words, including the cardinal numbers, will soon become the key of ethnographical philology. While the additional study of[pg 057]phonology or sounds of languages, their idioms and grammars, their roots, and verbs, the alphabets, glyphs and symbols used to communicate ideas, will combine to furnish the complete knowledge of philology as a separate science. Although I have not always carried so far my researches; I did so for a few, applying chiefly myself to the essential features of languages; and the unexpected results will be surprising.
American anthropography will teach that there were men of all sizes, features and complexions, in this hemisphere before 1492: notwithstanding the false assertions of many writers, who take one nation for the whole American group. The Uskihs, the Puruays, the Parias, the Chons, &c. were as white as the Spaniards, 50 such tribes were found in South America; while many tribes of Choco, the Manabis, the Yaruras, &c., were as black as negroes. All the other shades of brown, tawny and coppery, were scattered every where. There was not a single red man in America, unless painted such. Some tribes had scanty beards as the Tartars, Chinese, Berbers, &c., others bushy beards. The Tinguis or Patagons were 7 or 8 feet high, and the Guaymas only 4 or 5 feet.
6.Traditions and Annals.Many American nations preserve a memory of historical events by unwritten traditions, repeated from fathers to sons; or communicated[pg 058]orally by the priests, chiefs or elderly men. Many are preserved yet to this day, by frequent repetitions, being embodied in songs, hymns, maxims, tales, drawings, or even symbolic figures and signs. Many of those traditions are precious for history, notwithstanding the fables, allegories, metaphors, personifications, &c., which partly conceal them or render the meaning obscure. We must learn to decipher them as we do old inscriptions and medals.
Although many such are now nearly lost for us, by the extinction of the living books, who kept the remembrance: there are many already collected, and of which we ought to make a good use. But there are as many more, which have never been collected nor printed. I have collected many such in North America in manuscript. It often happens that the American tribes will not communicate them to their foes or oppressors; but their friends and allies may hope to receive the deposit of them. Every enlightened traveller ought to seek for them wherever he goes. Yet after being acquired, they are sometimes lost again, by neglect. I have known some learned and unlearned men despise them equally asIndian Stories, because they despise the ancient American race. There are, however, as yet many historical songs, poems and tales to collect among all the American tribes, which falling in good[pg 059]hands cannot fail to attract notice and be employed usefully. Every one who neglects or destroys them acts as a vandal. Malcolm has said at the outset of his history of Persia, that we ought never to neglect the original notions of a people on its origin, or early history, since therein is found the germ and spring of their subsequent conduct, actions and opinions.
My illustrations shall contain many unpublished or forgotten traditions, whereof I shall avail myself in all my historical annals and researches. I consider those of the Uskihs, Dinnis, Ongwis, Linapis, Shawanis, Cados, Natchez, Ozages, Atakapas, Apalachians, &c., as highly important for the annals of North America. The same may be said of the Mexicans, Zapotecas, Mayas, Toltecas, Chols, &c., for Central America. Of the Haytians, Cubans and Caribs for the Antilles. And in South America those of the Muyzcas, Cumanans, Tamanacs, Popayans, Peruvians, Chilians, Brazilians, Abipons, &c.
7.Chronology and Astronomy.These two sciences always go together, and form a double key of history. The American chronology is by no means fixed before 1492, and requires a skillful hand to preserve and compare all the heterogenous dates heretofore collected. I shall attempt to elucidate it gradually; but may often be compelled, as in geology, to relate only successive events without dates, and merely[pg 060]referred to a series of gradual facts. In Austral America, we are told that none had notions of astronomy and dates, except the Chilians; yet their chronology begins only in 1450. I doubt this: I rather believe that their oral traditions have been neglected, as well as those of their neighbours.
In Peru, there are many positive dates, yet I was the first to reduce them to chronological order. In Brazil and Guyana, but few dates are found. The Muyzcas had very early dates, yet few have been preserved; much obscured by personifications of dynasties, and Pietrahita begins their real annals only in 1490, or 45 years before the Spanish invasion. In the Antilles the dates are quite loose, and difficult to reduce even to a serial order.
But in Central and Mexican America, we find many early dates with a regular chronology. Yet some are extravagant or contradictory. I shall endeavour to elucidate them, so as to reduce the whole to order. They must form the base of a regular American chronology, that ascends by dates to the flood and creation. In Yucatan the first regular date only reach to 940 after Christ.
In North America, where the smallest number of dates existed; we have unexpectedly and quite lately, found that many ancient dates could be procured. Cusick has published those of the Ongwi traditions,[pg 061]and I have ascertained those of the Linapis. Both of which reach to the flood and creation, and afford series of available dates as early as 1600 years before our era; thus nearly as ample as those of the TOL-tecas, and as plain in some instances.
Astronomy was cultivated by all the civilized nations of ancient America. They had cycles of 144, 104, 60, 52, 20, 15 and 13 solar years. Humboldt has well written on that subject; but much remains to be gleaned. The northern tribes reckon by generations as the Greeks, the Polynesians, &c., and by winters instead of years, moons instead of solar months. They had also a cycle of 60 years. In Central America, &c. the months were of 20 days, including 4 weeks of 5 days. But the Peruvians had months of 27 days, or 3 weeks of 9 days as the Etruscans. The Muyzcas small weeks of 3 days, &c. No where in ancient America, was found the sabatical week of days, based on the 7 planets and the 4 quarters of a lunation. This is remarkable, as evincing a remote antiquity, and separation before this week was adopted in Egypt, India, Syria, Celtica, &c.
Until 120 years before Christ the TOL-tecas reckoned only 365 days in the solar year, as the primitive nations of Asia: then they added the hours to the year. This forms their astronomical era. The Muyzcas had a very complicated astronomy, and three kinds of years. The usual was of 20[pg 062]moons, and the ecclesiastical of 37 moons. The horal division unknown in many parts of America, was of 4 hours in the day for the Muyzcas and Mexicans, elsewhere of 5, 10 and 20. The 24 hours and the Zodiac of 12 signs with 360 degrees were not known. The Mexican Zodiac had 13 signs and 104 degrees.
Arithmetic is intimately connected with astronomy. A complete decimal numeration was known to all the civilized American nations, and even to the northern tribes. The most rude tribes reckoned by 5 or the manual mode; there are traces also of a binary numeration, the most simple of all: while others had complex calculations by 13 and by 20 or scores. We find no trace of any by 7, and but slight indications of a ternary numeration by 3 and 9. All these American modes of reckoning may thus be reduced to thebinary, by two or pairs; and the quinary or manual by the five fingers, of which the decimal is the double, and by 20 the quadruple.
8.Languages.They are becoming one of the most important aids in history. When the annals are ample and clear, the examination of the languages is merely a supplement to historical knowledge; but when they are obscure, mutilated or totally lost; languages then supply more or less to their defects or loss. Their comparative study furnish us new lights to ascertain the origines, parentage, dispersions, colonies, alliances,[pg 063]wars, &c., of the nations thus deprived of written annals or even traditions. They serve also to rectify the imperfect annals or the fabulous traditions. This study may lead besides to trace the manners, religions, intercourse, arts and sciences of nearly all nations; since the proper languages of each people offers a picture of the civilization, acquired or borrowed knowledge, modes of life, &c. of each.
It is above all in both Americas that this study is indispensable in historical researches: I will therefore apply to languages in all cases, and make constant use of them; and they will unfold new facts quite unknown, although very important, Historical lights shall thereby be thrown on many obscure subjects, whence astonishing and unexpected results may spring, in which I shall depend as much as upon mutilated and neglectful traditions.
By taking into view all the American languages or as many as are already known, we shall easily dispel the errors and absurd systems of philosophers and philologists, who taking only a few as samples of the whole, have either deemedall the Americans, as many Jews, or Tartars, or Atlantes, or sprung from the ground, and so on. Now the fact is that these writers have never taken the trouble to compare the numerous American languages and dialects, reduce them to groups, and seek their affinities elsewhere.
Adelung and Vater had once stated without proof, that nearly 1200 languages existed in America. Balbi has reduced them to 423, of which 212 in South America; but they can be much further reduced, most of them being mere dialects. The whole may be comprised in 25 groups of languages, or even less; which were certainly identic in 25 languages 2 or 3000 years ago: and all of which have astonishing affinities with the groups of the eastern hemisphere, so as to indicate a parentage 4 or 5000 years ago.
Vater and Maltebrun have given a few hundred examples of such analogies: and the systematic writers have supposed that they had exhausted the comparisons. Yet a single language, the Chilian, has by itself more affinities with the languages of Europe, than all those mentioned by Vater and others, put together! The foreign or transatlantic affinities of American languages, vary from 10 to 70 per cent, according to the nations. If we suppose that there are 400 languages in America, and as many in the eastern hemisphere, and each to have about 2000 roots or essential words only; while the mean affinities are only 25 per cent: we shall find as many as 200,000 affinities! out of America, in every American language; and in all the 400, as many as 80 millions! instead of the paltry reckoning of 1000 or so. All this is susceptible[pg 065]of mathematical proofs, and shall be unfolded gradually in these pages.
The theory about the common exclusive grammatical structure of all the American languages, is equally erroneous and based upon partial facts. Instead of all the American languages being polysynthetic by amalgamating words, we find in America many mixt forms, and even the pure monosylabic: while the amalgamation of words prevails more or less in Europe and Africa; chiefly in the Bask, Italian dialects, Greek, Berber and other Atlantic dialects, the Negro languages, those of Caffraria, the Sanscrit and all the derived languages.
It had been asserted that no American language was monosylabic: yet Balbi states that the Guarani and Maya are such; Nasera has lately proved the same of the Othomi. Thus we have at least 3 such American groups of languages. But there are more; nay many American languages have monosylabic roots, even among the most amalgamated groups.
The most obvious grammatical classification of American languages, has escaped the acuteness of philologists. I find it in the epithetic structure, or relative position of ideas. Under this view all the languages arrange themselves in three great classes or groups. 1. Regular, 2. Resupinate, 3. Mixt.
1.The Regularis the most simple and natural form: where the roots or nouns are[pg 066]prefixed, and the adjuncts or adjectives, expressing epithetes or qualities follow or are added. This group includes in the Eastern Continent 1. All the Semetic languages, Arabic, Hebrew, &c. 2. All the Atlantic and Egyptian languages. 3. All the Celtic and Cantabrian languages. 4. All the Polynesian and Malay languages. 5. The Bhotiya and many languages of Thibet. 6. Most of the Negro languages. 7. Yakut of Siberia, &c.
In America this group includes my groups 1. Innuit or Uski. 2. Ongwi. 3. Capaha. 4. Chactah. 5. All the languages related thereto in North-west America, the Kaluchi, Mandan, &c. 6. All the Guarani languages of South America, and perhaps many others, Mayna, Mobima, &c.
2.The Resupinate or Reflexed Group: where the roots or nouns substantive are reversed, following the adjective or epithetes, which are prefixed. This second mode of uniting ideas prevails 1. In all the languages of China and Tartary. 2. In all the Teutonic languages German, Swede, English. 3. In most of the Thracian, Illyrian, Greek and Slavonic languages. 4. In all the Turkish languages of Turan, Bokhara, Turkey. 5. The Newari of Imalaya. 6. The Qua or Hottentot of South Africa.
In America, it is the most prevailing form, found in my groups 1. Linni or Linapis. 2. Otali or Cheroki. 3. In all the Mexican[pg 067]and Othomi languages. 4. Chontal. 5. Skereh or Pani and Shoshoni, of North America,—and in South America. 6. Chili. 7. Yarura. 8. Mbaya and probably many more: although hardly indicated by the philologists.
3.Mixt Form, which employs or adopts more or less the two former modes; although there is always a prevailing form, that indicates the original mode of uniting ideas. This mixt form appears 1. In the Sanscrit and all derived languages. 2. In the Zend and Persian languages of Iran. 3. In the Pelagic and Italic languages, the Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, Greek. 4. The Japanese, &c.
While in America it is found 1. In the Aruac languages. 2. The Muyzca. 3. The Peruvian languages, &c. of South America, and in North America. 4. The Atalan. 5. Mizteca. 6. Opata, and probably some others.
This comparative classification of languages, will greatly help future investigations. It will show the improbability of the two opposite modes of annexing ideas having been entertained, by the same people at any time; while the mixt form evinces amalgamations of ancient nations. We have thus acquired another clue to trace primitive connections, another available mean to pursue the human steps on earth.
9.Religions and Mythologies.The human opinions on the past and future form[pg 068]every where ample themes of thoughts and actions. From revelations, inspirations, oracles, wisdom and priestcraft comingled, have arisen all the worships, and rites, dogmas and creeds, swaying the human mind, through hope or fear, love or hatred. The history of religious ideas, is in fact the history of civilization, since they have sprung together in social men. Nearly all the religions of Asia (which from hence have spread throughout the earth along with mankind) were found in America: except the modern creeds. But the traces of Judaism and Budhism were very faint and local. Mahometism was unknown, Braminism hardly known. Christianity or some of its rites are traced to Yucatan only, and may arise from other sources. The most prevailing worships were the primitive Sabeism, Solar worship, Polytheism, Dualism or Manicheism, Shamanism or worship of Spirits, Idolatry, and Fetichism or animal worship. We find throughout America many modifications of these creeds: with several complex mythologies, more or less analogous to eastern dogmas.
The investigation of these American religions affords not only an insight into the ancient civilization, but many proofs of ancient communications with Asia or Africa. Throughout North America the Dualism, mythologies and fabulous traditions point to a connexion with Tartary. In Florida, Mexico and Yucatan, begin to appear the[pg 069]Solar worship, and a cruel idolatry foreign to it. This Solar worship appears in a purer form in North America, as far as Peru. While in the Antilles, Guyana, Brazil and Chili, prevailed several worships of heavenly and terrestial spirits; somewhat akin to the primitive idolatry of Africa, Europe, Iran, India, China and Polynesia.
American religions admitted, like many others, of Priests, oracles, temples, shrines, pilgrimages, holy places, sacrifices, expiations, confessions, offerings, hymns, veneration for animals, men and stars. Idols painted or sculptured in wood, pottery, stone, metals, &c.; bloody rites by human sacrifices, scarifications, circumscision, &c. But none of these practices were general, some were quite local and circumscribed. Thus circumscision was only used by the Mayas of Yucatan, the Calchaquis of Tucuman, &c. Traces of a triple god or Indian Trimurti have been met from Ohio to Peru; but it was no where the prevailing religion. As the same idea was found among the Celts and Polynesians, it may have come by the east rather than Polynesia in the west.
10.Civilization and Manners.This completes the history of all nations. When their annals are well known, it becomes a very proper appendix to them; when they are not, it is a very needful supplement to the traditions, &c. But we must not make any history consist merely in such an account,[pg 070]as often done by negligent writers. The manners and customs of every people, are so fluctuating, liable to be changed, or improved by civilization, imitation, arts and sciences, &c.; that they cannot afford any test of connections. They are often borrowed, from neighbors or strangers, disused after awhile by whims or wars, invented to suit the climate and productions it may afford. We have positive proofs that the Europeans have since 1492 greatly modified the customs of all the tribes they conquered or visited. This must have happened formerly also, by other visits or communications. Yet, notwithstanding the uncertainty of the origin and duration of the primitive American customs, they must be studied, as one of the sources and objects of history.
We find, in ancient America, nearly all the forms of social civilization and manners of the east. But the Nomadic life with camels, oxen and sheep, was unknown, as well as those animals. The American cattle or lamas, &c. of South America, hogs of Coriana, dogs and rabbits of Mexico, deers of Florida, buffalos of Taos, were kept by sedentary civilized tribes. The Nomadic wandering tribes of America were chiefly hunters and fishermen: scattered around the agricultural nations, spreading from Canada to Chili.
All the kinds of governments were known in America: Theocracy, despotism, monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy. But[pg 071]the most prevailing were theocracy among the civilized nations, oligarchy among the barbarous nations: with two peculiar modifications, of double kings as among Arabs, civil and military; and chiefs of families or tribes, as among all primitive nations. Queens were known to but few tribes, although the female line was often hereditary. Written laws and codes were known to the Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Mayans, Muyzcas, Panos, Peruvians, &c. Oral laws were elsewhere preserved by priests or magistrates.
Polygamy prevailed among some tribes or castes, but was not universal. The 4 castes of Indians are distinctly found in nearly all the civilized nations, often modified into priests, nobles, vassals and slaves. The arts of music, medicine, smithery, painting, sculpture, architecture, agriculture, pottery, &c., were well known to nearly all. The sciences of geometry, geography, botany, astronomy, &c., were cultivated from Mexico to Peru, even taught in schools and colleges; with the arts, the laws, the rites, and history of the country.
Marsden has well distinguished several degrees of civilization in Asia. If no American nation had reached the Greeks and Romans, or our modern polished and improved civilization; it is not extraordinary. But the Peruvians, Muyzcas, Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Talascas, &c., were nearly[pg 072]equal to the Chinese, Egyptians and Hindus in civilization; not far removed from the European civilization of the 15th century: nay, in some things superior. The second degree of American civilization found in Chili, Florida, Cumana, the Antilles, Popayan, the Linapis, Omaguas &c. was equal to that of the Arabs, Malays, Celts, Cantabrians, Pelagians, &c. While the third degree found in all the barbarous nations, Innuit or Esquimaux, Shoshonis, Caribs, Brazilians, &c. was not worse than what we find among the Fins, Laplanders, Tartars, Sames, Negroes and Hottentots.
Individual property in land was almost unknown in America; but feodal and tribal property well understood. Common property of tribes and villages over their territories, was the most usual tenure, modified by wars, conquests, tributes. Individual property existed only for tenements and personal property. Warfares, marriages and funerals were very different in every nation. The weapons of war were clubs, arrows, darts, lances, axes, Macana swords, Sarbacanes or blowing tubes, slings, nooses, thronged balls, &c. as elsewhere. There was a peculiar diplomacy, with heralds, envoys, messengers. Shields, towers, forts, walls, ditches, were used for defence, besidesEstopilsa peculiar quilted armor. Flags, banners, and standards were known. The calumets, leaves or green feathers,[pg 073]council fires, and white flags were emblems of peace. Alliances and confederations existed from earliest times, also the adoption of tribes and prisoners. Slavery was hardly known; but vassalage much extended over conquered tribes.
Dresses and ornaments were quite various. Seal skins used by the Innuit. Deer skins and furs by the tribes of North America. In tropical America many tribes went nearly naked, with a mere apron or pagne of cotton or grass cloth. But the civilized nations were decently clothed with cotton shirts and feather mantles. ThePonchois a true American dress known from Mexico to Chili, hardly known out of America except Polynesia.4
Women wore long pagnes or gowns. They made cloths of lama wool in Peru; of cotton, hemp, nettles, grass, feathers &c. there and elsewhere; either twisted, plaited or woven. The Peruvians and Chilians had a peculiar loom and plough. Cotton looms were used in Florida, Mexico, and all over South America, even by the Caribs to make hamacs or hanging beds. Among some nations women had the most labor to perform; yet even the men assumed hunting, making canoes, huts, weapons, &c. More civilized tribes worked together in the fields: The proud and warlike employed vassals or slaves.
Painting the body or face, was usual among many nations, but not general. It[pg 074]was useful against heat and flies, or was used to inspire love or terror. Ornaments to the head, ears, nose, lips, wrists, legs, &c., were more or less adopted by men and women. The hair was usually worn long; but many tribes cut it in various ways, as a crown or tuft. The beard even when scanty was deemed unbecoming by many tribes, and totally eradicated; but some tribes wore beards. The head was often left uncovered; but hats were worn in the N. W. and Central America, turbans in Paria and Florida, feather crowns in the tropics,Lautasor diadem-bands in Peru and the Andes. Shoes and gloves were unknown; but sandals, leggings, leather clods, and mocassins or slippers of various substances, commonly used; with singular snow shoes of bark in winter by northern tribes.