Valerian, (herb,)1 ounce.Powdered skunk cabbage,1 tea-spoonful.
Steep in half a gallon of boiling water. When cold, strain and administer.
Suppose the animal to be in poor condition; then put her on a nourishing diet, and give tonics and stimulants, as follows:—
Powdered gentian,1 ounce.Powdered sassafras,1 ounce.Linseed or flaxseed,1 pound.
Mix. Divide into six portions, and give one, night and morning, in the food, which ought to consist of scalded meal and shorts. A sufficient quantity of hay should be allowed; yet grass will be preferable, if the season permits.
Suppose the animal to have received an injury; then rest and a scalded diet are all that are necessary. As a means of prevention, see articleFeeding, page 17.
This malady makes its appearance on the cow's teats in the form of small pustules, which, after the inflammatory stage, suppurate. A small quantity of matter then escapes, and forms a crust over the circumference of each pustule. If the crust be suffered to remain until new skin is formed beneath, they will heal without any interference. It often happens, however, that, in the process of milking, the scabs are rubbed off. The following wash must then be resorted to:—
Pyroligneous acid,a wine-glass.Water,1 pint.
Wet the parts two or three times a day; medicine is unnecessary. A few meals of scalded food will complete the cure.
"Mange may be generated either from excitement of the skin itself, or through the medium of that sympathetic influence which is known to exist between the skin and organs of digestion. We have, it appears to me, an excellent illustration of this in the case of mange supervening upon poverty—a fact too notorious to be disputed, though there may be different ways of theorizing on it."
Mr. Blanie says, "Mange has three origins—filth, debility, and contagion."
Treatment.—Rid the system of morbific materials with the following:—
Powdered sassafras,2 ounces.Powdered charcoal,1 handful.Sulphur,1 ounce.
Mix, and divide into six parts; one to be given in the feed, night and morning. The daily use of the following wash will then complete the cure, provided proper attention be paid to the diet.
Wash for Mange.
Pyroligneous acid,4 ounces.Water,a pint.
The mange is known to be infectious: this suggests the propriety of removing the animal from the rest of the herd.
This is seldom, if ever, a primary disease. The known sympathy existing between the digestive organs and the skin enables us to trace the malady to acute or chronic indigestion.
Treatment.—The indications to be fulfilled are, to invite action to the surface by the aid of warmth, moisture, friction, and stimulants, to tone up the digestive organs, and relax the whole animal. The latter indications are fulfilled by the use of the following:—
Powdered balmony, (snakehead,)2 ounces.Powdered sassafras,1 ounce.Linseed,2 pounds.Sulphur,1 ounce.
Mix together, and divide the mass into eight equal parts, and give one night and morning, in scalded shorts or meal; the better way, however, is, to turn it down the throat.
A few boiled carrots should be allowed, especially in the winter season, for they possess peculiar remedial properties, which are generally favorable to the cure.
Treatment.—Wash the skin, night and morning, with the following:—
Powdered lobelia seeds,2 ounces.Boiling water,1 quart.
After standing a few hours, it is fit for use, and can be applied with a sponge.
This is a subject of great importance to the farmer; for many of the diseases of cattle arise from the filthy, obstructed state of the surface. This neglect of cleansing the hide of cattle arises, in some cases, from the absurd notion (often expressed to the author) that the hide of cattle is so thick and dense that they never sweat, except on the muzzle! For the information of those who may have formed such an absurd and dangerous notion, we give the views of Professor Bouley. "In all animals, from the exterior tegumentary surface incessantly exhale vaporous or gaseous matters, the products of chemical operations going on in the interior of the organism, of which the uninterrupted elimination is a necessary condition for the regular continuance of the functions. Regarded in this point of view, the skin may be considered as a dependency of the respiratory apparatus, of which it continues and completes the function, by returning incessantly to the atmosphere the combusted products, which are water and carbonic acid.
"Therefore the skin, properly speaking, is an expiratory apparatus, which, under ordinary conditions of the organism, exhales, in an insensible manner, products analogous to those expired from the pulmonary surface; with this difference, that the quantity of carbonic acid is very much less considerable in the former than in the latter of these exhalations; according to Burbach, the proportion of carbonic acid, as inhaled by the skin, being to that expired by the lungs as 350 to 23,450, or as 1 to 67.
"The experiments made on inferior animals, such as frogs, toads, salamanders, or fish, have demonstrated the waste by general transpiration to be, in twenty-four hours, little less than half the entire weight of the body."
The same author remarks, "Direct experiment has shown,in the clearest manner, the close relation of function existing between the perspiratory and respiratory membranes."
"M. Fourcault, with a view of observing, through different species of animals, the effect of the suppression of perspiration, conceived the notion of having the skins of certain live animals covered with varnish. After having been suitably prepared, some by being plucked, others by being shorn, he smeared them with varnish of variable composition; the substances employed being tar, paste, glue, pitch, and other plastic matters. Sometimes these, one or more of them, were spread upon parts, sometimes upon the whole of the body. The effects of the operation have varied, showing themselves, soon or late afterwards, decisively or otherwise, according as the varnishing has been complete or general, or only partial, thick, thin, &c. In every instance, the health of the animal has undergone strange alterations, and life has been grievously compromised. Those that have been submitted to experiment under our eyes have succumbed in one, two, three days, and even at the expiration of some hours." (SeeLondon Veterinarianfor 1850, p. 353.)
In a subsequent number of the same work we find the subject resumed; from which able production we select the following:—
"The suppression of perspiration has at all times been thought to have a good deal to do with the production of disease. Without doubt this has been exaggerated. But, allowing this exaggeration, is it not admitted by all practitioners that causes which act through the medium of the skin are susceptible, in sufficient degree, of being appreciated in the circumstances ushering in the development of very many diseases, especially those characterized by any active flux of the visceral organs? For example, is it not an incontestable pathological fact, that catarrhal, bronchial, pulmonic, and pleuritic affections, congestions of the most alarming description in the vascular abdominal system of the horse, inflammation of the peritoneum and womb following labor,catarrhal inflammations of the bowels, even congestions of the feet, &c., derive their origin, in a great number of instances, from cold applied to the skin in a state of perspiration? What happens in the organism after the application of such a cause? Is its effect instantaneous? Let us see. Immediately on the repercussive action of cold being felt by the skin, the vascular system of internal parts finds itself filled with repelled blood. Though this effect, however, be simply hydrostatic, the diseased phenomena consecutive on it are far otherwise.
"It is quite certain that, in the immense system of communicating vessels forming the circulating apparatus, whenever any large quantity of blood flows to any one particular part of the body, the other vessels of the system must be comparatively empty.[14]The knowledge of this organic hydrostatic fact it is that has given origin to the use of revulsives under their various forms, and we all well know how much service we derive from their use.
"But in what does this diseased condition consist? Whereabouts is it seated?
"The general and undefined mode it has of showing its presence in the organism points this out. Immediately subsequent to the action of the cause, the actual seat of the generative condition of the disease about to appear is the blood; this fluid it is which, having become actually modified in its chemical compositions under the influence of the cause that has momentarily obstructed the cutaneous exhalations, carries about every where with it the disordered condition, and ultimately giving rise, through it, to some local disease, as a sort of eruptive effort, analogous in its object, but often less salutary in its effect; owing to the functional importance of the part attacked, to the external eruptions produced by thepresence in the blood of virus, which alters both its dynamic and chemical properties.
"But what is the nature of this alteration? In this case, every clew to the solution of this question fails us. We know well, when the experiment is designedly prolonged, the blood grows black, as inasphyxia, (loss of pulse,) through the combination with it of carbonic acid, whose presence is opposed to the absorption of oxygen. But what relation is there between this chemical alteration of blood here and the modifications in composition it may undergo under the influence of instantaneous suppression, but not persistent, of the cutaneous exhalations and secretions? The experiments of Dr. Fourcault tend, on the whole, to explain this. His experiments discover the primitive form and almost the nature of the alteration the blood undergoes under the influence of the cessation of the functions of the skin. They demonstrate that under these conditions the regularity of the course of this fluid is disturbed—that it has a tendency to accumulate and stagnate within the internal organs: witness the abdominal pains so frequently consequent on the application of plasters upon the skin, and the congestions of the abdominal and pulmonary vascular systems met with almost always on opening animals which have been suffocated through tar or pitch plasters.
"They prove, in fact, the thorough aptitude of impression of the nervous system to blood altered in its chemical properties, while they afford us an explication of the phenomena of depression, and muscular prostration, and weakness, which accompany the beginning of disease consecutive on the operation of cold.
"How often do we put a stop to the ulterior development of disease by restoring the function of the skin by mere [dry] friction, putting on thick clothing, exposing to exciting fumigation, applying temporary revulsives in the shape of mustard poultices, administering diffusible stimuli made warm in drenches, trying every means to force the skin, and so tend, by the reëstablishment of its exhalent functions, to permitthe elimination of blood saturated with carbonic matters opposed to the absorption by it of oxygen!
"Do we not here perceive, so to express ourselves, the evil enter and depart through the skin?
"M. Roche-Lubin gives an account of some lambs which were exposed, after being shorn, to a humid icy cold succeeding upon summer heat. These animals all died; and their post mortem examination disclosed nothing further than a blackened condition of blood throughout the whole circulating system, with stagnation in some organs, such as the liver, the spleen, or abdominal vascular system.
"From the foregoing disclosures, which might be multiplied if there was need of it, we learn that the regularity or perversion of the functions of the skin exercises an all-powerful influence over the conservation or derangement of the health, and that very many diseases can be traced to no other origin than the interruption, more or less, of these functions."
These remarks are valuable, inasmuch as they go to prove the importance, in the treatment of disease, of a restoration of the lost function. Our system of applying friction, warmth, and moisture to the external surface, in all cases of internal disease, here finds, in the authors just quoted, able advocates.
[14]What a destructive system, then, must blood-letting be, which proposes to supply this deficiency in the empty vessels by opening a vein and suffering the contents of the overcharged vessels to fall to the ground! If the blood abstracted from the full veins could be returned into those "empty" ones, then there would be some sense in blood-letting.
[14]What a destructive system, then, must blood-letting be, which proposes to supply this deficiency in the empty vessels by opening a vein and suffering the contents of the overcharged vessels to fall to the ground! If the blood abstracted from the full veins could be returned into those "empty" ones, then there would be some sense in blood-letting.
The castration of cows has been practised for several years in different parts of the world, with such remarkable success, that no one will doubt there are advantages to be derived from it. For the benefit of those who may have doubts on this subject, we give the opinions of a committee appointed by the Rheims Academy to investigate the matter.
"To the question put to the committee—
"1st. Is the spaying of cows a dangerous operation?
"The answer is, This operation, in itself, involves no moredanger than many others of as bold a character, (as puncture of the rumen,) which are performed without accident by men even strangers to the veterinary art. Two minutes suffice for the extraction of the ovaries; two minutes more for suturing the wound.
"2dly. Will not the spaying of cows put an end to the production of the species?
"Without doubt, this is an operation which must be kept within bounds. It is in the vicinity of large towns that most benefit will be derived from it, where milk is most generally sought after, and where pasturage is scanty, and consequently food for cows expensive. On this account it is not the practice to raise calves about the environs of Paris. Indeed, at Cormenteul, near Rheims, out of one hundred and forty-five cows kept, not more than from ten to fifteen calves are produced yearly.
"3dly. Is spaying attended with amelioration of the quality of the meat?
"That cows fatten well after being spayed is an incontestable fact, long known to agriculturists.
"4thly. Does spaying prolong the period of lactation, and increase the quantity of milk?
"The cow will be found to give as much milk after eighteen months as immediately after the operation; and there was found in quantity, in favor of the spayed cows, a great difference.
"5thly. Is the quality of the milk ameliorated by spaying?
"To resolve this question, we have thought proper to make an appeal to skilful chemists resident in the neighborhood; and they have determined that the milk abounds more by one third in cheese and butter than that of ordinary cows."
Mr. Percival says, "No person hesitates to admit the advantages derivable from the castration of bulls and stallions. I do not hesitate to aver, that equal, if not double, advantages are to be derived from the same operation when performed on cows."
"It is to America we are indebted for this discovery. In1832, an American traveller, a lover of milk, no doubt, asked for some of a farmer at whose house he was. Surprised at finding at this farm better milk than he had met with elsewhere, he wished to know the reason of it. After some hesitation, the farmer avowed, that he had been advised to perform on his cows the same operation as was practised on the bulls. The traveller was not long in spreading this information. The Veterinary Society of the country took up the discovery, when it got known in America. The English—those ardent admirers of beefsteaks and roast beef—profited by the new procedure, as they know how to turn every thing to account, and at once castrated their heifers, in order to obtain a more juicy meat.
"The Swiss, whose principal employment is agricultural, had the good fortune to possess a man distinguished in his art, who foresaw, and was anxious to realize, the advantages of castrating milch cows. M. Levrat, veterinary surgeon at Lausanne, found in the government of his country an enlightened assistant in his praiseworthy and useful designs, so that, at the present day, instructions in the operation of spaying enter into the requirements of the programme of the professors of agriculture, and the gelders of the country are not permitted to exercise their calling until they have proved their qualifications on the same point."—London Vet.p. 274, 1850.
For additional evidence in favor of spaying, see Albany Cultivator, p. 195, vol. vi.
We have conversed with several farmers in this section of the United States, and find, as a general thing, that they labor under the impression that spaying is chiefly resorted to with a view of fattening cattle for the market. We have, on all occasions, endeavored to correct this erroneous conclusion, and at the same time to point out the benefits to be derived from this practice. The quality of the milk is superior, and the quantity is augmented. Many thousands of the miserable specimens of cows, that the farmer, with all his care, and having, at the same time an abundance of the best kind of provender, is unable to fatten, might, after the operation of spaying, beeasily fattened, and rendered fit for the market; or, if they shall have had calves, they may be made permanent, and, of course, profitable milkers.
If a cow be in a weak, debilitated state, or, in other words, "out of condition," she may turn out to be a source of great loss to the owner. In the first place, her offspring will be weak and inefficient; successive generations will deteriorate; and if the offspring be in a close degree of relationship, they will scarcely be worth the trouble of rearing. The spaying of such a cow, rather than she shall give birth to weak and worthless offspring, would be a great blessing; for then one of the first causes of degeneracy in live stock will have been removed.
Again, a cow in poor condition is a curse to the farmer; for she is often the medium through which epidemics, infectious diseases, puerperal fever, &c., are communicated to other stock. If there are such diseases in the vicinity, those in poor flesh are sure to be the first victims; and they, coming in contact with others laboring under a temporary indisposition, involve them in the general ruin. If prevention be cheaper than cure,—and who doubts it?—then the farmer should avail himself of the protection which spaying seems to hold out.
OPERATION OF SPAYING.
The first and most important object in the successful performance of this operation is to secure the cow, so that she shall not injure herself, nor lie down, nor be able to kick or injure the operator. The most convenient method of securing the cow is, to place her in the trevis;[15]the hind legsshould then be securely tied in the usual manner: the band used for the purpose of raising the hind quarters when being shod must be passed under the belly, and tightened just sufficient to prevent the animal lying down. Having secured the band in this position, we proceed, with the aid of two or more assistants, in case the animal should be irritable, to perform the operation. And here, for the benefit of that portion of our readers who desire to perform the operationsecundum artem, we detail the method recommended by Morin, a French veterinary surgeon; although it has been, and can again be, performed with a common knife, a curved needle, and a few silken threads to close the external wound. The author is acquainted with a farmer, now a resident of East Boston, who has performed this operation with remarkable success, both inthis country and Scotland, with no other instruments than a common shoemaker's knife and a curved needle. The fact is, the ultimate success of the operation does not depend so much on the instruments as on the skill of the operator. If he is an experienced man, understands the anatomy of the parts, and is well acquainted, by actual experience, with the nature of the operation, then the instruments become a matter of taste. The best operators are those who devote themselves entirely to the occupation. (See Mr. Blane's account of his "first essay in firing," p. 85, note.) Morin advises us to secure the cow, by means of five rings, to the wall. (See Albany Cultivator, vol. vi. p. 244, 1850.) "The cow being conveniently disposed of, and the instruments and appliances,—such as curved scissors, upon a table, a convex-edged bistoury, a straight one, and one buttoned at the point, suture needle filled with double thread of desired length, pledgets of lint of appropriate size and length, a mass of tow (in pledgets) being collected in a shallow basket, held by an assistant,—we place ourselves opposite to the left flank, our back turned a little towards the head of the animal; we cut off the hair which covers the hide in the middle of the flanks, at an equal distance between the back and hip, for the space of thirteen or fourteen centimetres in circumference; this done, we take the convex bistoury, and place it open between our teeth, the edge out, the point to the left; then, with both hands, we seize the hide in the middle of the flank, and form of it a wrinkle of the requisite elevation, and running lengthwise of the body.
"We then direct an assistant to seize, with his right hand, the right side of this wrinkle. We then take the bistoury, and cut the wrinkle at one stroke through the middle, the wrinkle having been suffered to go down, a separation of the hide is presented of sufficient length to enable us to introduce the hand; thereupon we separate the edges of the hide with the thumb and fore finger of the left hand, and, in like manner, we cut through the abdominal muscles, the iliac, (rather obliquely,) and the lumbar, (cross,) for a distance ofa centimetre from the lower extremity of the incision made in the hide: this done, armed with the straight bistoury, we make a puncture of the peritoneum, at the upper extremity of the wound; we then introduce the buttoned bistoury, and we move it obliquely from above to the lower part up to the termination of the incision made in the abdominal muscles. The flank being opened, we introduce the right hand into the abdomen, and direct it along the right side of the cavity of the pelvis, behind the paunch and underneath the rectum, where we find the horns of the uterus; after we have ascertained the position of these viscera, we search for the ovaries, which are at the extremity of thecornua, or horns, (fallopian tubes,) and when we have found them, we seize them between the thumb and fore finger, detach them completely from the ligaments that keep them in their place, pull lightly, separating the cord, and the vessels (uterine or fallopian tubes) at their place of union with the ovarium, by means of the nails of the thumb and fore finger, which presents itself at the point of touch; in fact, we break the cord, and bring away the ovarium.
"We then introduce again the hand in the abdominal cavity, and we proceed in the same manner to extract the other ovarium.
"This operation terminated, we, by the assistance of a needle, place a suture of three or four double threads, waxed, at an equal distance, and at two centimetres, or a little less, from the lips of the wound; passing it through the divided tissues, we move from the left hand with the piece of thread; having reached that point, we fasten with a double knot; we place the seam in the intervals of the thread from the right, and as we approach the lips of the wound, we fasten by a simple knot, being careful not to close too tightly the lower part of the seam, so that the suppuration, which may be established in the wound, may be able to escape.
"The operation effected, we cover up the wound with a pledget of lint, kept in its place by three or four threads passed through the stitches, and all is completed.
"It happens, sometimes, that in cutting the muscles of which we have before spoken, we cut one or two of the arteries, which bleed so much that there is necessity for a ligature before opening the peritoneal sac, because, if this precaution be omitted, blood will escape into the abdomen, and may occasion the most serious consequences."
The best time for spaying cows, with a view of making them permanent milkers, is between the ages of five and seven, especially if they have had two or three calves. If intended to be fattened for beef, the operation should not be performed until the animal has passed its second year, nor after the twelfth.
We usually prepare the animal by allowing a scalded mash every night, within a few days of the operation. The same precaution is observed after the operation.
If, after the operation, the animal appears dull and irritable, and refuses her food, the following drink must be given:—
Valerian,2 ounces.Boiling water,2 quarts.
Set the mixture aside to cool. Then strain, and add infusion of marshmallows (seeAppendix) one quart; which may be given in pint doses every two hours.
If a bad discharge sets up from the wound,—but this will seldom happen, unless the system abounds in morbific materials,—then, in addition to the drink, wash the wound with
Pyroligneous acid,2 ounces.Water,2 quarts.
Mix.
[15]Although we recommend that cows be confined in the trevis for the purpose of performing this operation, it by no means follows that it cannot be done as well in other ways. In fact, the trevis is inadmissible where chloroform is used. The animal must be cast in order to use that agent with any degree of safety. If the trevis is not at hand, we should prefer to operate, having the cow secured to the floor, or held in that position by trusty assistants. We lately operated on a cow, the property of Mr. C. Drake of Holliston, in this state, under very unfavorable circumstances; yet, as will appear from the accompanying note, the cow is likely to do well, notwithstanding. The history of the case is as follows: We were sent for by Mr. D. to see a heifer having a swelling under the jaw, which proved to be a scirrhous gland. After giving our opinion and prescribing the usual remedies, the conversation turned upon spaying cattle; and Mr. D. remarked that he had a five year old cow, on which we might, if we chose, operate. This we rather objected to at first, as the cow was in a state of plethora, and the stomach very much distended with food; yet, as the owner appeared willing to share the responsibility, we consented to perform the operation. The cow was accordingly cast, in the usual manner, she lying on her right side, her head being firmly held by an assistant. We then made an incision through the skin, muscles, and peritoneum. The hand was then introduced, and each ovary in its turn brought as near to the external wound as possible, and separated from its attachment with a button-pointed bistoury. The wound was then brought together with four interrupted sutures, and dressed as already described. Directions were given to keep the animal quiet, and on a light diet: the calf, which was four weeks old, to suckle as usual. The operation was performed on the 17th of January, 1851, and on the 27th, the following communication was received:—Dr. Dadd.Dear Sir: Agreeably to request, I will inform you as regards the cow. I must say that, so far as appearances are concerned, she is doing well. She has a good appetite, and chews her cud, and the wound is not swelled or inflamed.Yours truly,C. Drake.Holliston,Jan 27, 1851.
[15]Although we recommend that cows be confined in the trevis for the purpose of performing this operation, it by no means follows that it cannot be done as well in other ways. In fact, the trevis is inadmissible where chloroform is used. The animal must be cast in order to use that agent with any degree of safety. If the trevis is not at hand, we should prefer to operate, having the cow secured to the floor, or held in that position by trusty assistants. We lately operated on a cow, the property of Mr. C. Drake of Holliston, in this state, under very unfavorable circumstances; yet, as will appear from the accompanying note, the cow is likely to do well, notwithstanding. The history of the case is as follows: We were sent for by Mr. D. to see a heifer having a swelling under the jaw, which proved to be a scirrhous gland. After giving our opinion and prescribing the usual remedies, the conversation turned upon spaying cattle; and Mr. D. remarked that he had a five year old cow, on which we might, if we chose, operate. This we rather objected to at first, as the cow was in a state of plethora, and the stomach very much distended with food; yet, as the owner appeared willing to share the responsibility, we consented to perform the operation. The cow was accordingly cast, in the usual manner, she lying on her right side, her head being firmly held by an assistant. We then made an incision through the skin, muscles, and peritoneum. The hand was then introduced, and each ovary in its turn brought as near to the external wound as possible, and separated from its attachment with a button-pointed bistoury. The wound was then brought together with four interrupted sutures, and dressed as already described. Directions were given to keep the animal quiet, and on a light diet: the calf, which was four weeks old, to suckle as usual. The operation was performed on the 17th of January, 1851, and on the 27th, the following communication was received:—
Dr. Dadd.
Dear Sir: Agreeably to request, I will inform you as regards the cow. I must say that, so far as appearances are concerned, she is doing well. She has a good appetite, and chews her cud, and the wound is not swelled or inflamed.
Yours truly,C. Drake.
Holliston,Jan 27, 1851.
Three South Down WethersThree South Down WethersThe Property of Mr. Jonas Webb of Babraham, near Cambridge, which obtained Prizes in their respective classes at the Smithfield Cattle Show, Decr. 1839.
Three South Down Wethers
The Property of Mr. Jonas Webb of Babraham, near Cambridge, which obtained Prizes in their respective classes at the Smithfield Cattle Show, Decr. 1839.
Many of the diseases to which sheep are subject can be traced to want of due care in their management. The common practice of letting them range in marshy lands is one of the principal causes of disease.
The feet of sheep are organized in such a manner as to be capable, when in a healthy state, of eliminating from the system a large amount of worn-out materials—excrementitious matter, which, if retained in the system, would be injurious. The direct application of cold tends to contract the mouths of excrementitious vessels, and the morbid matter accumulates. This is not all. There are in the system numerous outlets,—for example, the kidneys, lungs, surface, feet, &c. The health of the animal depends on all these functions being duly performed. If a certain function be interrupted for any length of time, it is sure to derange the system. Diseases of the feet are very common in wet situations, and are a source of great loss to the farming community. Hence it becomes a matter of great importance to know how to manage them so as to prevent diseases of the feet.
Professor Simonds says, "No malady was probably so much feared by the agriculturist as the rot; and with reason, for it was most destructive to his hopes. It was commonly believed to be incurable, and therefore it was all important toinquire into the causes which gave rise to it. Some pastures were notorious for rotting sheep; on other lands, sheep, under all ordinary circumstances, were pastured with impunity; but, as a broad principle, it might be laid down that an excess of moisture is prejudicial to the health of the animal. Sheep, by nature, are not only erratic animals, wandering over a large space of ground, but are also inhabitants of arid districts. The skill of man has increased and improved the breed, and has naturalized the animal in moist and temperate climates. But, nevertheless, circumstances now and then take place which show that its nature is not entirely changed; thus, a wet season occurs, the animals are exposed to the debilitating effects of moisture, and the rot spreads among them to a fearful extent. The malady is not confined to England or to Europe; it is found in Asia and Africa, and occurs also in Egypt on the receding of the waters of the Nile.
"These facts are valuable, because they show that the cause of the disease is not local—that it is not produced by climate or temperature; for it is found that animals in any temperature become affected, and on any soil in certain seasons. A great deal had been written on rot in sheep, which it were to be wished had not been. Many talented individuals had devoted their time to its investigation, endeavoring to trace out a cause for it, as if it originated from one cause alone. But the facts here alluded to would show that it arose from more causes than one. He had mentioned the circumstance with regard to land sometimes producing rot, and sometimes not; but he would go a step further, and ask, Was there any particular period of the year when animals were subject to the attack? Undoubtedly there was. In the rainy season, the heat and moisture combined would produce a most luxuriant herbage; but that herbage would be deficient in nutriment, and danger would be run; the large quantity of watery matter in the food acting as a direct excitement to the abnormal functions of the digestive organs. Early disturbance of the liver led to the accumulation of fat, (state of plethora;) consequently, an animal being 'touched with therot' thrived much more than usual. This reminded him that the celebrated Bakewell was said to be in the habit of placing his sheep on land notorious for rotting them, in order to prevent other people from getting his stock, and likewise to bring them earlier to market for the butcher."
Referring to diseases of the liver, Professor S. remarked, that "the bile in rot, in consequence of the derangement of the liver being continued, lost the property of converting the chymous mass into nutritious matter, and the animal fell away in condition. Every part of the system was now supplied with impure blood, for we might as well expect pure water from a poisoned fountain as pure blood when the secretion of bile was unhealthy. This state of the liver and the system was associated with the existence of parasites in the liver.
"Some persons suppose that these parasites, which, from their particular form, were called flukes, were the cause of the rot. They are only the effect; yet it is to be remembered that they multiply so rapidly that they become the cause of further diseased action. Sheep, in the earlier stages of the affection, before their biliary ducts become filled with flukes, may be restored; but, when the parasites existed in abundance, there was no chance of the animal's recovery. Those persons who supposed flukes to be the cause of rot had, perhaps, some reason for that opinion. Flukes are oviparous; their ova mingle with the biliary secretion, and thus find their way out of the intestinal canal into the soil; as in the feculent matter of rotten sheep may be found millions of flukes. A Mr. King, of Bath, (England,) had unhesitatingly given it as his opinion that flukes were the cause of rot; believing that, if sheep were pastured on land where the ova existed, they would be taken up with the food, enter into the ramifications of the biliary ducts, and thus contaminate the whole liver. There appeared some ground for this assertion, because very little indeed was known with reference to the duration of life in its latent form in the egg. How long the eggs of birds would remain without undergoing change, ifnot placed under circumstances favorable to the development of life in a more active form, was undecided. It was the same with the ova of these parasites; so long as they remained on the pasture they underwent no change; but place them in the body of the animal, and subject them to the influence of heat, &c., then those changes would commence which ended in the production of perfect flukes. Take another illustration of the long duration of latent life: Wheat had been locked up for hundreds of years—nay, for thousands—in Egyptian mummies, without undergoing any change, and yet, when planted, had been found prolific.
... He was not, then, to say that rot was in all cases a curable affection; but at the same time he was fully aware that many animals, that are now considered incurable, might be restored, if sufficient attention was given to them. About two years ago, he purchased seven or eight sheep, all of them giving indisputable proof of rot in its advanced stage. He intended them for experiment and dissection; but as he did not require all of them, and during the winter season only he could dissect, he kept some till summer. They were supplied with food of nutritious quality, free from moisture; they were also protected from all storms and changes of weather, being placed in a shed. The result was, that without any medicine, two of these rotten sheep quite recovered; and when he killed them, although he found that the liver had undergone some change, still the animals would have lived on for years. Rot, in its advanced stage, was a disease which might be considered as analogous to dropsy. A serous fluid accumulates in various parts of the body, chiefly beneath the cellular tissue; consequently, some called it thewaterrot, others theflukerot; but these were merely indications of the same disease in different stages. If flukes were present, it was evident that, in order to strike at the root of the malady, they must get rid of theseentozoa, and that could only be effected by bringing about a healthy condition of the system. Nothing that could be done by the application of medicine would act on them to affect theirvitality. It was only by strengthening their animal powers that they were enabled to give sufficient tone to the system to throw off the flukes; for this purpose many advocated salt. Salt was an excellent stimulative to the digestive organs, and might also be of service in restoring the biliary secretion, from the soda which it contained. So well is its stimulative action known, that some individuals always keep salt in the troughs containing the animal's food. This was a preventive, they had good proof, seeing that it mattered not how moist the soil might be in salt marshes; no sheep were ever attacked by rot in them, whilst those sent there infected very often came back free. Salt, therefore, must not be neglected; but then came the question, Could they not do something more? He believed they could give tonics with advantage....
"The principles he wished to lay down were, to husband the animals' powers by placing them in a situation where they should not be exposed to the debilitating effects of cold storms; to supply them with nutritious food, and such as contained but a small quantity of water; and, as a stimulant to the digestive organs, to mix it with salt."
The remarks of Professor S. are valuable to the American farmer. First, because they throw some light on the character of a disease but imperfectly understood; secondly, they recommend a safe, efficient, and common-sense method of treating it; and lastly, they recommend such preventive measures as, in this enlightened age, every farmer must acknowledge to be the better part of sheep doctoring. The reader will easily perceive the reason why the food of sheep is injurious when wet or saturated with its own natural juices, when he learns that the digestive process is greatly retarded, unless the masticated food be well saturated with the gastric fluid. If the gastric fluid cannot pervade it, then fermentation takes place; by which process the nutritive properties of the food are partly destroyed, and what remains cannot be taken up before it passes from the vinous into the acetous or putrefactive fermentation; the natural consequence is, that internal disease ensues, which often gravitates to the feet, therebyproducing rot. This is not all. Such food does not furnish sufficient material to replenish the daily waste and promote the living integrity. In short, it produces debility, and debility includes one half the causes of disease. It must be a matter of deep interest to the farmer to know how to prevent disease in his flock, and improve their condition, &c.; for if he possessed the requisite knowledge, he would not be compelled to offer mutton at so low a rate as from three to four cents a pound, at which price it is often sold in the Boston market. We have already alluded to the fact that neat cattle can, with the requisite knowledge, be improved at least twenty-five per cent.; and we may add, without fear of contradiction, that the same applies to sheep. If, then, their value can be increased in the same ratio as that of other classes of live stock, how much will the proprietors of sheep gain by the operation? Suppose we set down the number of sheep in the United States at twenty-seven millions,—which will not fall far short of the mark,—and value them at the low price of one dollar per head: we get a clear gain, in the carcasses alone, of six millions seven hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The increase in the quantity, and of course in the value, of wool would pay the additional expenses incurred. It is a well-known fact that, when General Washington left his estate to engage in the councils of his country, his sheep then yielded five pounds of wool. At the time of his return, the animals had so degenerated as to yield but two and a half pounds per fleece. This was not altogether owing to the quality of their food, but in part to want of due care in breeding.
It is well known that many diseases are propagated and aggravated through the sexual congress; and no matter how healthy the dam is, or how much vital resistance she possesses,—if the male be weak and diseased, the offspring will be more or less diseased at birth. (See articleBreeding.)
Dr. Whitlaw observes, "The Deity has given power to man to ameliorate his condition, as may be truly seen by strict attention to the laws of nature. An attentive observer may soon perceive, that milk, butter, and meat, of animals that feedon good herbage, in high and dry soils, are the best; and that strong nourishment is the produce of those animals that feed on bottom land; but those that feed on a marshy, wet soil produce more acrid food, even admitting that the herbage be of the bland and nutritious kind; but if it be composed in part of poisonous plants, the sheep become diseased and rotten, much more so than cattle, for they do not drink to the same degree, and therefore (particularly those that chew the cud) are not likely to throw off the poison. Horses would be more liable to disease than cattle were it not for their sagacity in selecting the wholesome from the poisonous herbage.
"A great portion of the mutton slaughtered is unfit for food, from the fact that their lungs are often in a state of decomposition, their livers much injured by insects, and their intestines in a state of ulceration, from eating poisonous herbs."
Linnæus says, "A dry place renders plants sapid; a succulent place, insipid; and a watery place, corrosive."
One farmer, in the vicinity of Sherburne, (England,) had, during the space of a few weeks, lost nearly nine hundred sheep by the rot. The fear of purchasing diseased mutton is so prevalent in families, that the demand for mutton has become extremely limited.
In the December number of the London Veterinarian we find an interesting communication from the pen of Mr. Tavistock, V. S., which will throw some light on the causes of disease in sheep. The substance of these remarks is as follows: "On a large farm, situated in the fertile valley of the Tavey, is kept a large flock of sheep, choice and well bred. It is deemed an excellent sheep farm, and for some years no sheep could be healthier than were his flock. About eighteen months ago, however, some ewes were now and then found dead. This was attributed to some of the many maladies sheep-flesh is 'heir to,' and thought no more about. Still it did not cease; another and another died, from time to time, until at length, it becoming a question of serious consequence, my attention was called to them. I made, as opportunities occurred, minute post mortem examinations. The sheep didnot die rapidly, but one a week, and sometimes one a fortnight, or even three weeks. No previous illness whatever was manifested. They were always found dead in the attitude of sleep; the countenance being tranquil and composed, not a blade of grass disturbed by struggling; nor did any circumstance evidence that pain or suffering was endured. It was evident that the death was sudden. We fancied the ewes must obtain something poisonous from the herbage, and the only place they could get any thing different from the other sheep was in the orchards, since there the ewes went at the lambing time, and occasionally through the summer. But so they had done for years before, and yet contracted no disease. Well, then, the orchards were the suspected spots, and it was deemed expedient to request Mr. Bartlett, a botanist, to make a careful examination of the orchards, and give us his opinion thereon. The following is the substance of his report:—
"The part of the estate to which the sheep unfortunately had access, where the predisposing causes of disease prevailed, was an orchard, having a gradual slope of about three quarters of a mile in extent, from the high ground to the bed of the river, ranging about east and west; the hills on each side being constituted of argillaceous strata of laminated slate, which, although having an angle of inclination favoring drainage on the slopes, yet in the valleys often became flat or horizontal, and on which also accumulated the clays, and masses of rock, in detached blocks, often to the depth of twenty feet—a state of things which gives the valley surface and soil a very rugged and unequal outline; the whole, at the same time, offering the greatest obstruction to regular drainage.
"These are spots selected for orchard draining in England; the truth being lost sight of, that surfaces and soil for apple-tree growth require the most perfect admixture with atmospheric elements, and the freest outlet for the otherwise accumulating moisture, to prevent dampness and acidity, the result of the shade of the tree itself, produced by the fall of the leaf.
"On this estate these things had never been dreamt of before planting the orchards. The apple-tree, in short, as soonas its branches and leaves spread with the morbid growth of a dozen years, aids itself in the destructive process; the soil becomes yearly more poisonous, the roots soon decay, and the tree falls to one side, as we witness daily, while the herbage beneath and around becomes daily more unfit to sustain animal life. Numerous forms of poisonous fungi, microscopic and otherwise, are here at home, and nourished by the carburetted and other forms of hydrogen gas hourly engendered and saturating the soil; while on the dampest spots the less noxious portions of such hydrates are assimilated by the mint plant in the shape of oil; and which disputes with sour, poisonous, and blossomless grasses for the occupancy of the surface, mingled with the still more noxious straggling forms of the ethusa, occasionally the angelica, vison, conium, &c.
"This state of things, brought into existence by this wretched and barbarous mode of planting orchard valleys, usually reaches its consummation in about thirty years, and sometimes much less, as in the valley under notice. Thus it is that such spots, often the richest in capabilities on the estate, (the deep soil being the waste and spoil of the higher ground and slopes,) become a bane to every form of useful vegetation; and, at the same time, are a hotbed of luxuriance to every thing that is poisonous, destructive, and deleterious to almost every form of animal life. And such an animal as the sheep, while feeding among such herbage, would inhale a sufficiency of noxious gases, especially in summer, through the nostrils alone, to produce disease even in a few hours, though the herbage devoured should lie harmless in the stomach. But with regard to the sheep in the present case, we fear they had no choice in the matter, and were driven by hunger to feed, being shut into these orchards; and thus not only ate the poisoned grasses, but with every mouthful swallowed a portion of the water-engendering mint, the acrid crowfoot, ranunculus leaves, &c., surrounding every blade of grass; while the other essential elements of vegetable poison, the most virulent forms of agarici and their spawn, with other destructive fungi, were swallowed as a sauce to the whole.This fearful state of things, to which sheep had access, soon manifested its results; for although a hog or a badger might here fatten, yet to an animal so susceptible to atmospheric influences, unwholesome, undrained land, &c., as the sheep, the organization forbids the assimilation of such food; and although a process of digestion goes on, yet its hydrous results (if we may use such a term) not only overcharge the blood with serum, but, through unnatural channels, cause effusion into the chest, heart, veins, &c., when its effects are soon manifested in sudden and quick dissolution, being found dead in the attitude of sleep."
It is probable that the gases which arose from this imperfectly drained estate played their part in the work of destruction; not only by coming in immediate contact with the blood through the medium of the air-cells in the lungs, but by mixing with the food in the process of digestion. This may appear a new idea to those who have never given the subject a thought; yet it is no less true. During the mastication of food, the saliva possesses the remarkable property of enclosing air within its globules. Professor Liebig tells us that "the saliva encloses air in the shape of froth, in a far higher degree than even soap-suds. This air, by means of the saliva, reaches the stomach with the food, and there its oxygen enters into combination, while its nitrogen is given out through the skin and lungs." This applies to pure air. Now, suppose the sheep are feeding in pastures notorious for giving out noxious gases, and at the same time the function of the skin or lungs is impaired; instead of the "nitrogen" or noxious gases being set free, they will accumulate in the alimentary canal and cellular tissues, to the certain destruction of the living integrity. Prof. L. further informs us that "the longer digestion continues,—that is, the greater resistance offered to the solvent action by the food,—the more saliva, and consequently the more air, enter the stomach."