Fig.20.
Fig.20.
Excellent clouds may also be produced by the stump and crayon on tissue paper, many of the effects of delicate clouds being capable of being produced in this manner. A certain amount of skill is required in producing them, but nothing beyond that which a little practice can give.
We may add that, instead of using this cardboard shade, some printers prefer first to entirely mask the sky and print in the landscape, than to mask the landscape, and to use a movablescreen over the negative, drawing it backwards and forwards during exposure, taking the precaution that the top of the sky receives the most exposure. The method of using the cloud negative, we have already said, will be found in the chapter on "Combination Printing." Above all things, the printer must bear in mind that if there be anydistancein the picture, the sky, when it meets the margin, must be only very delicately tinted. Let it be remembered that a picture is often spoilt by printing in clouds too heavily. The clouds for an effect should be most delicate, with no heavy massive shadows which overwhelm those of the landscape itself. We are only talking of the ordinary landscape when the effect of storms is not desired. It is not within the scope of this work to show how a landscape and a sky negative may be printed into one plate to form a transparency from which a new negative may be made; suffice it to say that, by using collodio-chloride, or by the use of a slow dry plate and exposing to candle light, the former may be produced in almost the same way that the print is produced, and a negative may then be produced in the camera or by a dry plate.
Somuch has been written on the subject of what is called "retouching" the negative, that it would be a waste of space to enter very fully into details here. It is now generally admitted that working on the negative is not only legitimate, but that it is absolutely necessary, if a presentable portrait is to be printed. The only question is, where to stop. Professional retouchers, in too many cases, do too much, and by doing so they "overstep the modesty of nature," and turn the lovely delicacy, softness, and texture of living nature into the appearance of hard and cold marble statuary. Everything that is necessary to do to a portrait negative is very simple; it should be corrected, not remodelled. Freckles and accidental spots should be stopped out, high lights may be strengthened, and shadows softened. We may here briefly indicate the technical methods of performing these operations.
Some operators pour a solution of gum over the negative after fixing, and when it is dry work upon the surface of the gum; but it is better and safer to retouch the negative after it has been varnished. The varnish must be allowed to become thoroughlyhard before any working upon it is attempted. A negative varnished at night should be ready to be retouched the next morning. If very little has to be done to the negative, it may be done at once without preparation; but it is often advisable to prepare the surface of the varnish to take the lead pencil, with which the greater part of the work is done. This is done with "retouching medium."
Several preparations under this or similar names are sold by stock dealers, all of them giving, as far as we have tried them, equally good results. If the photographer prefers to make his own medium, he may do so by diluting mastic, or any similar varnish, such as copal, with turpentine. Apply the medium to the parts that it is intended to work on with the finger, and allow to dry, which it does in a few minutes. Place the negative on a retouching desk, and commence to fill up with the point of the pencil all spots that are not required, such as freckles or uneven marks. Some operators begin at the top of a face and work evenly downwards. This is a bad plan, and usually results in a mechanical flattening of the face; it is better to fill in here and there as necessity appears to arise. The high lights may now be strengthened, taking care not to make them violent or spotty. The shadows of the face will be found to require softening, but the general shape of the shadows must not be altered, and in modifying lines—such as the lines in the forehead and under the eye—take care not to remove them altogether. An old man without wrinkles is an unnatural and ghastly object—the "marble brow" of the poet should be left to literature. The best pencils to use are Faber's Siberian lead, the hard ones in preference. HH and HHH are the sorts usually employed. The pencils must be kept very finely pointed. To ensure this, a piece of wood covered with glass cloth should be kept always at hand on which to grind the leads to a point.
Sometimes there are portions of a negative that require more filling up than can be done with a pencil; in this case water-colourmust be employed. Indigo or Prussian blue is, perhaps, best for the purpose, because these pigments allow a more appreciable or visible quantity to be laid on without becoming opaque than any of the warm colours. Sometimes parts—such as the arm of a child—will print too dark when in contrast with a white dress; in this case it will be necessary to paint over the part on the back of the negative, or to cut out a piece ofpapier mineraleto the shape, and paste it over the dark part, also on the glass side of the negative.
Ofthe many varieties of small portraiture, the vignette is, perhaps, the most popular, and, when well done, is certainly the most refined and delicate. Two things are to be especially avoided in vignetting. The form of the vignette should not follow the form of the figure closely, as it is too often made to do, and dark backgrounds should not be employed. The qualities to endeavour to attain are softness of gradation, and an arrangement of the forms of the vignette that shall throw out the head and figure, and the resulting print should somewhat resemble a sketch, finished if you like, but sketchy in effect. Although the background should be light, it ought not to be white, but of a tint that would just throw up the white of a lady's head-dress. If the background screen could be painted so that a little shade should appear over the shoulders of a sitter for a head, or rather darker behind the lower part of a three-quarter figure, so much the better would be the effect. It would be difficult to find a case where gradation could not be of advantage in a background; however slight, it conduces especially to relief.
Having stated what should be aimed at in vignettes, we now come to the technical methods of producing them.
In many cases vignetting is considered to be a merely mechanicaloperation, and very often looks like it. Perhaps the trade have more to answer for than the printer, since the qualities of the wares advertised for the use of the vignetter are often exaggerated to such a degree that they are supposed to be suitable to any pictures. Vignette glasses are not so common as they used to be, but they certainly are useful in some instances; we almost think that the methods of producing vignetting apparatus which will be described shortly, superior to them. In case the printer should wish, however, to use these glasses, here is a method by which he may produce them. Have a piece of orange glass, flashed on one side only, rather larger than the size of the picture to be vignetted. Take a rough print, and trace round, in the proper position on the glass with an ink line, the point to which the picture should extend. This should be marked on the unflashed surface of the glass—that is, the surface on which the glass is uncoloured. Place the plate so marked on a white surface, flashed side uppermost, and make a solution of hydrofluoric acid and water, 1 part of the former to 3 of the latter, in a gutta-percha dish or bottle.[22]Make a pad of flannel and cotton wool at the end of a stick, about the size of a large nut, and drop this into the solution. Dab this on the coloured surface of the glass in the central portions where the print is to be completely printed in, gradually working out to the inked line. Always work from the centre to the edges, and dilute the acid with a little water as it approaches the margins. By degrees the flashing will be dissolved away in the centre, and, if properly performed, the colour will gradually be eaten away, till the glass is colourless in the centre, and keeping its full shade of orange at the ink lines. The glass is then washed, and is ready for use.
The most popular plan of vignetting is with cotton-wool. We believe that the greater part of the vignetting done in England is by this clumsy, costly, and difficult method. It requires more time and attention than any other way of producing the same results. Its advantages are, that it is more "elastic," and allows the operator more scope for attention than other methods. In the hands of a person who has very great skill, taste, and patience, it is undoubtedly most useful; but when used by anything lower than the highest skill, the results are almost always hard and inartistic. The operation is thus performed. A hole is cut in a piece of cardboard, which is placed over the negative. Under the edges of the cardboard is placed cotton-wool, which is lightly pulled out, so as to slightly shade the vignette, and produce the vignetting gradation.
The next methods of vignetting are dependent on simple laws of optics. Suppose you cut a round hole in a card, say, half-inch in diameter, and so arrange it that all the light getting to a sensitive paper comes through this hole, and that the card is for our experiment placed half-an-inch from the paper. Now place the hole so as to face the sky, but so as the sun has no direct rays falling through the hole. It will be found that the greatest darkening will not occupy a space exactly opposite the hole, but beaway from the side on which the light is brightest. The dark round patch will be shaded gradually off till a line is reached where, practically, the light has no effect—that is, if the surface of the card next the paper be blackened. It will be noted, however, that the shading is not equal on both sides, but that the gradation is most extended away from the side on which the light is brightest. A good example of what is meant will be to try the experiment of placing the paper and card flat on the ground in the angle between two walls, both of which are in shadow. It will be seen that the brightest gradation takes place in the direction exactly away from the angle of the walls. Next repeat the experiment, making the hole point to the sky, which is equally illuminatedand pointing well away from the sun. It will be found that the gradations are equal, and the greatest darkening exactly opposite the hole. Raise the card next to the height of one inch, and the gradations will be found to be more extended and softer. The reason of this can be well understood by a glance at the figures. In both, suppose A B to represent the section of the card, and C D the hole in it, and the dotted circle the sky, and E F the paper. Take the pointsa,b, andcon the paper, and let us in the three instances see what relative illumination they will receive.ais opposite the hole, and receives the light from a circle of sky of whichd eis diameter, andbfrom an ellipse of whichh kis one diameter, andefrom an ellipse of whichf gis one diameter. In the first case, where the card is1/2inch from the paper,h kis about one-fifth ofd e, andg fabout one-third ofd f, and since theellipses vary as their two diameters multiplied together, the pointbwould receive only one-twenty-fifth the light thatareceived, andcabout one-ninth.
Fig.21.
Fig.21.
Fig.22.
Fig.22.
Infig. 21the card is raised one inch from the paper, and heref gis about three-quarters ofd e, andh kabout two-fifths; therefore, in this case, the light on B would be onlyfour-twenty-fifths, or about one-sixth of that acting ona, and about nine-sixteenths or one-half nearly onc. It is thus evident that the further away the card is, the more extended will be the gradations. Again, suppose, in the last figure, the bit of sky atg fwas twice as bright as atd e, then the amount of light acting oncwould be the same as that acting ona. It will thus be seen how important it is for proper gradation that the hole in the card should be exposed to an equally illuminated sky, or that some artifice should be employed to render the illumination equal. If we paste a bit of tissue paper over C D, this is accomplished, for then it becomes the source of illumination, and it is illuminated equally all over, since on every part it receives the light of the whole sky; but this is not the case if it is transparent to diffused light, and is never the case if it is exposed to direct sunlight, since a shadow of the hole is always cast on the paper beneath. If you choose to put another piece of tissue paper, (say) one inch above the hole, and extending over the whole length of the card, this difficulty is got rid of, and this last piece of tissue paper illuminates that pasted over the hole C D, and the gradations will then be nearly perfect.
Now to apply the above to forming a vignetting block.
Suppose we have a one-inch head to vignette and to show the shoulders and chest, to be of the size of a carte-de-visite, that the background is about a half-tone between black and white, and that but a trace of it shall appear above the head. To make a good vignette, the graduation from black to perfect white should lie within a limit of half an inch for a carte size portrait. The question then arises at what distance from the plate should avignetting card be cut to help this object, and what shape should be made the hole in the card. We take it that one-fifth of the light necessary to produce a full black tone would hardly produce any effect on the sensitised paper; knowing this and the size of the aperture, we can calculate exactly what height the card could be raised. Take the breadth between the shoulders that is to be fully printed as 11/2inches, then by constructing a figure similar to figures 18 or 19 we shall find that the necessary height is about one-third of an inch.[23]
Fig.23.
Fig.23.
By judiciously cutting out an aperture in the card and vignetting, defects in a background may often be entirely eliminated from the print. Proceed in this way: Take a print of the portrait, and cut out the figure in such a way as to get rid of the defective background, and then place this on a piece of thick card (we prefer a thick card, since it will not sag easily, and thus alter the gradation), and cut out anaperturecorresponding to it. The outsides of most carte-de-visite frames are raised from the glass about one-third of an inch; place the card on the front so that the aperture corresponds to the figure on the negative, and tack it on to the frame. The dotted lines (fig. 23) show the card fastenedon to the frame, and the opening left. This latter may be covered with tissue paper, and the frame placed in diffused light from the sky. In some cases it may be necessary to use a larger printing frame than the ordinary carte frame, in which case the operator should be able to make a vignetting apparatus raised at a properheightfrom the glass. Suppose it is required to raise the opening half an inch above the glass, and that the card is 41/4by 31/2.
Fig.24.
Fig.24.
Take the card and rule rectangles as shown (fig. 24), the inner one being 41/4by 31/2inches, the next one1/2an inch outside that, and the third1/2an inch outside that again. Cut out the outer rectangle entirely, so that we have a piece of card of the size ABCD. Take a needle point, and prick through the card at the points EFGH and join these points at the back of the card by lines. Now take a sharp penknife, and, having laid a flat edge along, cut the card half through its thickness along KL, LM, MN, and NK. Turn the card over, and cut along the lines corresponding to EH, HG, GE, and FE, also half way through the thickness of the card. Turn the card over once more, andcut out the shaded pieces at the corners. Now bend the card along the cuts, and a raised block will result of this shape. The corners are held together by pieces of gummed or albumenized paper, and the block is ready for an aperture to be cut in it according to the portrait to be printed. Wooden grooves may be glued along the top of the vignetting frame, into which cards containing other apertures can be slipped.[24]
Fig.25.
Fig.25.
The most practical method of vignetting, a modification of the above, and the one we always prefer in our own practice, is as follows:—
Fig.26.
Fig.26.
Take a piece of soft wood, half an inch thick for a cabinet size—a thinner piece should be selected for a smaller picture—of a larger dimension than the negative; in the centre of this cut a hole of the shape of, but much smaller than, the desired vignette. One side of the hole should be very much bevelled away, as represented in this section (fig. 26). Place this block on the glass of the printing-frame, bevelled side under, the hole being exactly over the part of the negative from which the vignette is to be printed. The hole must now be covered with tissue paper or ground glass, and the frame placed flat on a table to print. The size of the hole in relation to the size of the vignette will be easily ascertained by a little experience without the labour of elaborate calculations. On dull days the tissue paper or ground glass may be omitted.
This method is very simple and effective. A quantity of vignetting blocks of various sizes and shapes could be made by a carpenter, or by the printer, and should be always at hand.
A vignetting block should never be less than a quarter of an inch away from the glass, otherwise the gradations will be too abrupt.
Havingdescribedin the last chapter the various mechanical arrangements by which a simple vignette is produced, we will now proceed to give some account of how that and other forms of printing can be turned to the most artistic account in portraiture.
The idea that printing is a mere mechanical operation was exploded long ago. It is now recognized that the final result owes a good deal of its artistic effect to the way in which the negative is dealt with after it is varnished, and especially to its treatment by the printer. There are many varieties of vignettes, and the method is useful in various ways.
Plain Vignettes.—The usual vignetted portrait is that which represents a good-sized head and shoulders in the space allotted to the picture. For a carte-de-visite, a head measuring about 11/4inches from the top of the head to the chin is a good proportion. Larger sizes are often made, but they look coarse and vulgar, as if the photographer had tried how much quantity he could give for the money, regardless of quality; and even if the quality is good, the vulgar effect is still there. For a cabinet size a head of 13/4or 17/8inches is quite large enough. A verypretty style is that in which the gradation is carried out so gradually as only to end with the edge of the paper.
Three-quarter Length Vignettes.—A three-quarter length figure of a lady, either standing or sitting, makes a pretty picture; for gentlemen, a three-quarter vignette is not so good, although it is admissible. It is difficult to make the legs look anything but awkward when they are vignetted into empty space at the knee. For three-quarter vignettes a light, sketchy landscape background may be used with effect.
There are many varieties of what may be called "fancy printing," in which the vignette takes a conspicuous part. The first style that we will consider is that of
Vignettes on a Tinted Ground.—Print a vignette in the usual way. Take it out of the frame, and place it on a board covered with velvet or flannel, to prevent the paper shifting. Cover the print with glass, and place over the printed part a piece of black paper roughly torn to the shape, and rather smaller than the vignette. Place the whole in the light until the white margin is slightly tinted, or "blushed," asit issometimes called. The edges of the black mask should be slightly turned up or kept moving to prevent the junction of the tinting and the vignette being visible.
The above method represents a vignetted head on smooth grey paper, and is useful to show up the high lights on the face; but there is a modification of this effect, in which the appearance of a sketch on rough drawing-paper is produced.
Vignettes on Rough Drawing-paper.—If, instead of placing a piece of plain glass over the masked print, a thin negative of some diaper or pattern had been used, the design could have been printed on the paper instead of the even tint. A very good negative for this purpose is made as follows:—Obtain asheet of the roughest drawing-paper, take a camel-hair brush dipped in thin sepia, and brush it evenly over the paper; the colour will fall into the depressions of the paper, and make the roughness still more visible. This should now be placed where a side light falls upon it, and photographed. A very thin negative is all that is required. This negative should be used in place of the plain glass, and, if not printed too dark, the effect of the delicate vignette inside the rough tint is very pleasing. It is better when using negatives for this purpose to place them in pressure-frames, instead of merely placing them or the print on the velvet board, to print, or perfect contact may not be obtained.
Medallions.—Medallions of oval and other forms are now a good deal used for small portraits. These are simply produced by gumming a mask, made of black or yellow paper, with an oval or other-shaped aperture, on to the negative, the mask preserving the part it covers white. These masks can be bought from the dealers cheaper and better than they can be made. Eccentric shapes are, usually, in bad taste; the oval and dome are quite sufficient for all purposes. If, instead of leaving the outside of the print—that protected by the mask—white, it could be tinted, the lights in the picture would have greater value, and the effect beimproved.To do this, the printed part should be covered with a black-paper disc corresponding with the mask used in printing, the print covered with glass, and exposed to the light until printed the required depth. In performing this operation it will be found convenient to gum the disc to the covering-glass. If texture could be added to this tinted margin, then another element of beauty would be added. This may be done in a similar manner to that described for vignettes, by using a negative made from rough drawing-paper; but, in this case, there is opportunity for a greater choice of objects from which to make the tinting negative, such as grained leather, marble of various kinds, paper-hangings—when suitablepatterns can be obtained—and from the borders of old prints. In this, as in many other things connected with photography, there is a good deal of room for bad taste, which the photographer must try to avoid. He must remember that all these surrounding designs should assist the portrait, and not distract the attention from it.
Vignettes in Ornamental Borders.—The writer has lately produced some effects that have given much pleasure by using designs specially drawn for the purpose. The designs principally consist of an oval in the centre for the portrait, and a tablet underneath, on which the original of the portrait may sign his name. These forms are surrounded by flowers and other objects conventionally treated. The spaces for the portrait and name should be stopped out with black varnish, so as to print white. The easiest way to use these ornamental border negatives is as follows:—First print the border negative; you will then have a print with a white oval space in the centre. Place this print on the portrait negative, taking care that it occupies the proper position in the oval. This is easily ascertained by holding the print and negative up to the light. It should then be placed in the frame and printed, care being taken that the vignetted gradation does not spread beyond its limits over the border.
There is a good deal of variety to be got out of the combination of the mask and vignette. Here is one of them.
Combination of Medallion and Vignette.—Vignette a head into the centre of the paper; when this is done, place over it a black paper oval disc, taking care that the head comes in the centre under the mask. Place a piece of glass over the whole, and print. When the disc is removed, the print will represent a vignette surrounded by a dark oval. Many variations may be made of this form of picture, and there is much scope for skill and taste.
Any of the tinting negatives above described may be used, or they can be made from designs drawn on paper as we have already stated, or from natural objects. But if our reader has followed us clearly thus far, he is now in a position to form combinations for himself. This we recommend him to do, for there is an additional beauty in anything in art that indicates a distinctive style or shows thought and originality. There is too much tendency in portraitists to run in grooves, which the universal prevalence of the two styles, card and cabinet, help to promote. But we must caution the young photographer against the mistake of making changes for the sake of change. The "loud," and the bizarre, may attract foolish people, but it is only the beautiful that will secure the attention of the cultivated and refined.
Thescope of photography is wider than those who have only taken a simple portrait or landscape suppose. It is almost impossible to design a group that could not have been reproduced from life by the means our art places at our disposal. We do not mean to assert that such subjects as Michael Angelo's Last Judgment, or Raphael's Transfiguration, for instance, have ever been done in photography; but it is not so much the fault of the art, as of the artists, that very elaborate pictures have not been successfully attempted. It has not been the failing of the materials, unplastic as they are when compared with paint and pencils; it has been the absence of the requisite amount of skill in the photographer in the use of them, that will account for the dearth of great works in photography. The means by which these pictures could have been accomplished is Combination Printing, a method which enables the photographer to represent objects in different planes in proper focus, to keep the true atmospheric and linear relation of varying distances, and by which a picture can be divided into separate portions for execution, the parts to be afterwards printed together on one paper, thus enabling the operator to devote all his attention to a single figure or sub-group at a time, so that if any part be imperfect, from any cause, it can be substituted by another without the loss of the wholepicture, as would be the case if taken at one operation. By thus devoting the attention to individual parts, independently of the others, much greater perfection can be obtained in details, such as the arrangement of draperies, the refinement of pose, and expression.
The most simple form of combination printing, and the one most easy of accomplishment and most in use by photographers, is that by which a natural sky is added to a landscape. It is well-known to all photographers that it is almost impossible to obtain a good and suitable sky to a landscape under ordinary circumstances. Natural skies are occasionally seen in stereoscopic slides and very small views; but I am now writing of pictures, and not of toys. It rarely happens that a sky quite suitable to the landscape occurs in the right place at the time it is taken, and, if it did, the exposure necessary for the view would be sufficient to quite obliterate the sky; and if this difficulty were obviated by any of the sun-shades, cloud-stops, or other inefficient dodges occasionally proposed, the movement of the clouds during the few seconds necessary for the landscape would quite alter the forms and light and shade, making what should be the sky—often sharp and crisp in effect—a mere smudge, without character or form. All these difficulties are got over by combination printing, the only objections being that a little more care and trouble are required, and some thought and knowledge demanded. The latter should be considered an advantage, for photographs, of a kind, are already too easy to produce. Of course, when a landscape is taken with a blank sky, and that blank is filled up with clouds from another negative, the result will depend, to a very great degree, upon the art knowledge of the photographer in selecting a suitable sky, as well as upon his skill in overcoming the mechanical difficulties of the printing. It is not necessary here to enter into a description of the art aspect of the matter, as that has often been discussed; so we will confine ourselves to the mechanical details.
The landscape negative must have a dense sky, or, if it be weak, or have any defects, it must be stopped out with black varnish. In this case, it is better to apply the varnish to the back of the glass; by this means a softer edge is produced in printing than if painted on the varnished surface. With some subjects, such as those that have a tolerably level horizon, it is sufficient to cover over part of the sky while printing, leaving that part near the horizon gradated from the horizon into white.
It may here be remarked that in applying black varnish to the back of a negative, occasions will often be found where a softened or vignetted edge is required for joining, where a vignette glass or cotton wool cannot be applied; in such cases the edge of the varnish may be softened off by dabbing slightly, before it is set, with the finger, or, if a broader and more delicately gradated edge be required, a dabber made with wash-leather may be employed with great effect.
When an impression is taken, the place where the sky ought to be will, of course, be plain white paper; a negative of clouds is then placed in the printing-frame, and the landscape is laid down on it, so arranged that the sky will print on to the white paper in its proper place; the frame is then exposed to the light, and the landscape part of the picture is covered up with a mask edged with cotton wool. The sky is vignetted into the landscape, and it will be found that the slight lapping over of the vignetted edge of the sky negative will not be noticed in the finished print. There is another way of vignetting the sky into the landscape, which is, perhaps, better and more convenient. Instead of the mask edged with cotton wool, which requires moving occasionally, a curved piece of zinc or cardboard is used. Here is a section of the arrangement. The straight line represents the sky negative, and the part where it joins the landscape is partly covered with the curved shade. Skies so treated must not, of course, be printed in sunlight.
It is sometimes necessary to take a panoramic view. This is usually done, when the pantascopic camera is not employed, by mounting two prints together, so that the objects in the landscape shall coincide; but this is an awkward method of doing what could be much better accomplished by combination printing. The joining of the two prints is always disagreeably visible, and quite spoils the effect. To print the two halves of a landscape, taken on two plates, together, the following precautions must be observed: both negatives must be taken before the camera-stand is moved, the camera, which must be quite horizontal, pointing to one half of the scene for the first negative, and then turned to the remaining half of the view for the second negative. The two negatives should be obtained under exactly the same conditions of light, or they will not match; they should also be so taken that a margin of an inch and a-half or two inches is allowed to overlap each other; that is to say, about two inches of each negative must contain the same or centre portion of the scene. It is advisable, also, that they should be of the same density; but this is not of very great consequence, because any slight discrepancy in this respect can be allowed for in printing. In printing vignettes with cotton wool, or a straight-edged vignette glass, the edge of the left-hand negative on the side that is to join the other, taking care to cover up the part of the paper that will be required for the companion negative; when sufficiently printed, take the print out of the frame, and substitute the right-hand negative; lay down the print so that it exactly falls on the corresponding parts of the first part printed (this will be found less difficult, after a little practice, than it appears), and expose to the light, vignetting the edge of this negative, also, so that the vignetted part exactly falls on the softened edge of the impression already done. If great care be taken to print both plates exactly alike in depth, it will be impossible to discover the join in the finished print. If thought necessary, a sky may be added, as before described, or it may begradated in the light, allowing the horizon to be lighter than the upper part of the sky.
Perhaps the greatest use to which combination printing is now put is in the production of portraits with natural landscape backgrounds. Many beautiful pictures, chiefly cabinets and card, have been done in this way by several photographers. The easiest kind of figure for a first attempt would be a three-quarter length of a lady, because you would then get rid of the foreground, and have to confine your attention to the upper part of the figure and the distance. Pictures of this kind have a very pleasing effect. In the figure negative, everything should be stopped out, with the exception of the figure, with black varnish; this should be done on the back of the glass when practicable, which produces a softer join; but for delicate parts—such as down the face—where the joins must be very close, and do not admit of anything approaching to vignetting, the varnish must be applied on the front. A much better effect than painting out the background of the figure negative is obtained by taking the figure with a white or very light screen behind it; this plan allows sufficient light to pass through the background to give an agreeable atmospheric tint to the distant landscape; and stopping out should only be resorted to when the background is too dark, or when stains or blemishes occur, that would injure the effect. An impression must now be taken which is not to be toned or fixed. Cut out the figure, and lay it, face downwards, on the landscape negative in the position you wish it to occupy in the finished print. It may be fixed in its position by gumming the corners near the lower edge of the plate. It is now ready for printing. It is usually found most convenient to print the figure negative first. When this has been done, the print must be laid down on the landscape negative so that the figure exactly covers the place prepared for it by the cut-out mask. When printed, the picture should be carefully examined, to see if the joins may be improved or made less visible. It will be foundthat, in many places, the effect can be improved and the junctions made more perfect, especially when a light comes against a dark—such as a distant landscape against the dark part of a dress—by tearing away the edge of the mask covering the dark, and supplying its place by touches of black varnish at the back of the negative; this, in printing, will cause the line to be less defined, and the edges to soften into each other. If the background of the figure negative has been painted out, the sky will be represented by white paper; and as white paper skies are neither natural nor pleasing, it will be advisable to sun it down.
If a full-length figure be desired, it will be necessary to photograph the ground with the figure, as it is almost impossible to make the shadow of a figure match the ground on which it stands in any other way. This may be done either out of doors or in the studio. The figure taken out of doors would, perhaps, to the critical eye, have the most natural effect, but this cannot always be done, neither can it be, in many respects, done so well. The light is more unmanageable out of doors, and the difficulty arising from the effect of wind on the dress is very serious. A slip of natural foreground is easily made up in the studio; the error to be avoided is the making too much of it. The simpler a foreground is in this case, the better will be the effect.
The composition of a group should next engage the student's attention. In making a photograph of a large group, as many figures as possible should be obtained in each negative, and the position of the joins so contrived that they shall come in places where they shall be least noticed, if seen at all. It will be found convenient to make a sketch in pencil or charcoal of the composition before the photograph is commenced. The technical working out of a large group is the same as for a single figure; it is, therefore, not necessary to repeat the details; but we give a reduced copy, as afrontispieceto this volume, of a large combination picture, entitled "When the Day's Work is Done,"by Mr. H. P. Robinson, a description of the progress and planning of which may be of use to the student.
A small rough sketch was first made of the idea, irrespective of any considerations of the possibility of its being carried out. Other small sketches were then made, modifying the subject to suit the figures available as models, and the accessories accessible without very much going out of the way to find them. From these rough sketches a more elaborate sketch of the composition, pretty much as it stands, and of the same size, 32 by 22 inches, was made, the arrangement being divided so that the different portions may come on 23 by 18 plates, and that the junctions may come in unimportant plates, easy to join, but not easy to be detected afterwards. The separate negatives were then taken. The picture is divided as follows:—
The first negatives taken were the two of which the background is composed. The division runs down the centre, where the light wall is relieved by the dark beyond it. These two negatives were not printed separately—it is advisable to have as few printings as possible—but were carefully cut down with a diamond, and mounted on a piece of glass rather larger than the whole picture, the edges being placed in contact, making, in fact,onelarge negative of the interior of the cottage, into which it would be comparatively easy to put almost anything. The next negative was the old man. This included the table, chair, and matting on which his feet rest. This matting is roughly vignetted into the adjoining ground of the cottage negative. The great difficulty at first with this figure was the impossibility of joining the light head to the dark background; no amount of careful registration seemed equal to effect this difficult operation; but if it could not be done, it could be evaded. Several clever people have been able to point out the join round the head, down the forehead, and along the nose, but we have never been able to see it ourselves, because we know it is not there. This is how the difficulty was got over. The figure was taken witha background that would print as nearly as possible as dark as the dark of the cottage. The join is nowhere near the head, but runs up the square back of the old woman's chair, then up the wall, and across the picture, over the head in an irregular line, and descends on the old man's back, whence it was easy to carry it down the dark edge of his dress and the chairs till it comes to the group of baskets, pails, &c., that fill up the corner. On the other side, the join runs along the edge of the table, and finds its way out where the floor coverings come together. The old lady was then photographed, and is simply joined round the edge; so also was the group in the corner, and the glimpse of the village seen through the window.
At first sight, it will appear difficult to place the partly-printed pictures in the proper place on the corresponding negative. There are many ways of doing this, either of which may be chosen to suit the subject. Sometimes a needle may be run through some part of the print, the point being allowed to rest on the corresponding part of the second negative. The print will then fall in its place at that point. Some other point has then to be found at a distance from the first; this may be done by turning up the paper to any known mark on the negative, and allowing the print to fall upon it; if the two separate points fall on the right places, all the others must be correct. Another way of joining the prints from the separate negatives is by placing a candle or lamp under the glass of the printing-frame—practically, to use a glass table—and throwing a light through the negative and paper; the join can then be seen through. But the best method is to make register marks on the negatives. This is done in the following manner. We will suppose that we wish to print a figure with a landscape background from two negatives, the foreground having been taken with the figure. At the two bottom corners of the figure negative make two marks with black varnish, thusSymbols resembling the bottom left and right of a framewill print white in the picture. A proof is now taken, and the outline of thefigure cut out accurately. Where the foreground and background join, the paper may be torn across, and the edges afterwards vignetted with black varnish on the back of the negatives. This mark is now fitted in its place on the landscape negative. Another print is now taken of the figure negative, and the white corner marks cut away very accurately with a pair of scissors. The print is now carefully applied to the landscape negative, so that the mark entirely covers those parts of the print already finished. The landscape is then printed in. Before, however, it is removed from the printing-frame, if, on partial examination, the joins appear to be perfect, two lead pencil or black varnish marks are made on the mark round the cut-out corners at the bottom of the print. After the first successful proof there is no need for any measurement or fitting to get the two parts of the picture to join perfectly; all that is necessary is merely to cut out the little white marks, and fit the corners to the corresponding marks on the mask; and there is no need to look if the joins coincide at other places, because, if two points are right, it follows that all must be so. This method can be applied in a variety of ways to suit different circumstances.
It is always well to have as few paintings as possible, and it frequently happens that two or more negatives can be printed together. For instance, the picture we have been discussing—"When the Day's Work is Done"—is produced from six negatives, but it only took three printings. The two negatives of which the cottage is composed was, as already explained, set up on a large sheet of glass, and printed at once; the old man was also set upon another glass of the same size, with the negative of the glimpse through the window; and the old woman was printed in like manner, with the corner group of baskets, &c. So that here were practically three negatives only. These were registered with corner marks so accurately that not a single copy has been lost through bad joins.
There are one or two things to consider briefly before concluding this subject.
It is true that combination printing—allowing, as it does, much greater liberty to the photographer, and much greater facilities for representing the truth of nature—also admits, from these very facts, of a wide latitude for abuse; but the photographer must accept the conditions at his own peril. If hefindsthat he is not sufficiently advanced in knowledge of art, and has not sufficient reverence for nature, to allow him to make use of these liberties, let him put on his fetters again, and confine himself to one plate. It is certain (and this we put in italics, to impress it more strongly on the memory) thata photograph produced by combination printing must be deeply studied in every particular, so that no departure from the truth of nature shall be discovered by the closest scrutiny. No two things must occur in one picture that cannot happen in nature at the same time. If a sky is added to a landscape, the light must fall on the clouds and on the earth from the same source and in the same direction. This is a matter that should not be done by judgment alone, but by judgment guided by observation of nature. Effects are often seen, especially in cloud-land, very puzzling to the calm reasoner when he sees them in a picture; but these are the effects that are often best worth preserving, and which should never be neglected, because it may possibly happen that somebody will not understand it, and, therefore, say it is false, and, arguing still further on the wrong track, will say that combination printing always produces falsehoods, and must be condemned. A short anecdote may, perhaps, be allowed here. Some time ago a photograph of a landscape and sky was sent to a gentleman whose general judgment in art was admitted to be excellent; but he knew that combination printing was sometimes employed. In acknowledging the receipt he said, "Thank you for the photograph; it is a most extraordinary effect; sensational, certainly, but very beautiful; but it shows, by what it is, what photographycannot do; your sky does not match your landscape; it must have been taken at a different time of day, at another period of the year. A photograph is nothing if not true." Now it so happened that the landscape and sky were taken at the same time, the only difference being that the sky had a shorter exposure than the landscape, which was absolutely necessary to get the clouds at all, and does not affect the result. Another instance arose in connection with a picture representing a group of figures with a landscape background. Four of the figures were taken on one plate, at one operation; yet a would-be critic wrote at some length to prove that these figures did not agree one with another; that the light fell on them from different quarters; that the perspective of each had different points of sight; and that each figure was taken from a different point of view! These two cases are mentioned to show that it is sometimes a knowledge of the means employed, rather than a knowledge of nature—a foregone conclusion that the thing must be wrong, rather than a conviction, from observation, that it is not right—that influences the judgment of those who are not strong enough to say, "This thing is right," or "This thing is wrong, no matter by what means it may have been produced."
Ifa print on albumenized paper be fixed without any intermediate process, the result is that the image is of a red, disagreeable tone, and unsightly. Moreover, it will be found that, if such a print be exposed to the atmosphere, it rapidly loses its freshness, and fades. In order to avoid this unsightliness, resort is had to toning, the toning, in reality, being the substitution of some less attackable metal for the metallic silver which forms a portion of the print. The usual metal used for substitution is gold applied in the state of the ter-chloride. It is not very easy to tell precisely how the substitution is effected; the question is, at present, sub judice, and, therefore, we propose to omit any theory that may have been broached. It is sufficient to say that it is believed the first step towards the reduction of the gold is the production of a hydrated oxide, and never metallic gold. Be that as it may, if a finely-divided silver be placed in a solution of chloride of gold, the silver becomes converted into the chloride, and the gold is quickly reduced to the metallic state; and since gold combines with more chloride than does silver, it is manifest that when the substitution takes place,[25]themetallic gold deposited must be very much less than the silver. The colouring power of gold is, however, very great, when in the fine state of division in which we have it, being an intense purple to blue colour, and a very little of this mixed visually with the ruddy or brown colour of the albuminate which has been discoloured by light gives, after fixing, a pleasing tone. A picture, when toned thus, is composed of silver subchloride, metallic gold, and an organic compound of silver. If a print be kept in the toning bath too long, we are all aware that the image becomes blue and feeble, and the same disaster happens when a toning bath is too strong,i.e., is too rich in gold solution. The reason of this is, that too much gold is substituted for the silver in the sub-chloride, and there is in consequence too great a colour of the finely-precipitated gold seen. To make a toning bath, the first thing is to look after the gold. There is a good deal of chloride of gold sold, which is, in reality, not chloride of gold, but a double chloride of gold and of some such other base as potassium, and if it be paid for as pure chloride of gold, it is manifest that the price will be excessive. It is best to purchase pure chloride of gold, though it may be slightly acid, since subsequent operations correct the acidity. In our own practice we get fifteen-grain tubes, and break them open, and add to each grain one drachm of water, and in this state it is convenient to measure out. Thus, for every grain of gold to be used, it is only necessary to measure out one drachm into a measure. In delicate chemical operations, this would rightly be considered a rough method; but for a practical photographer it is sufficiently precise.
Now if chloride of gold alone were used, it would be found that the prints, after immersion in a dilute solution, were poor and "measley," and practice has told us that we must add something to the solution to enable it to act gradually and evenly. First of all, the gold solution must be perfectly neutral, and we know no better plan than adding to it a little powdered chalk, which at once neutralizes any free acid. It is not a matter of indifferencewhat further retarder is added, for the reason that the more you retard the action, the more ruby-coloured becomes the gold, and less blue. A well-known experiment is to dissolve a little phosphorus in ether, and add it to a gallon of water, and then to drop in and stir about half a grain of chloride of gold. Phosphorus reduces the gold into the metallic state, but when so dilute the reduction takesplacevery slowly. The gold will, however, precipitate gradually, but it will be in such a fine state of division that it is a bright ruby colour. A very common addition to make to a toning bath is acetate of soda, and if the gold be in defect, the same appearance will take place in the solution. If chloride of lime, however, be added instead, and a commencement of precipitation of gold be brought about, the gold will be of a blue colour, having a slight tendency to purple. In this case, the grains of gold deposited are larger than when it is in the ruby state. The tone of the print then depends in a large measure on the degree of rapidity with which the gold is deposited. The quicker the deposit, the larger and bluer the gold, whilst an extremely slow deposition will give the red form. It often happens that no matter how long a print is immersed in a toning bath, it never takes a blue tone. The reason will be obvious from the above remarks.
We now give some toning baths which are much used.
This bath must be used immediately after mixing, since the gold is precipitated by the carbonate. The tones given by this bath are purple and black. The prints should be toned to dark brown for the purple tone, and a slightly blue tone for the black tone.
The saturated solution of chloride of lime is made by taking the commondisinfectingpowder, and shaking a teaspoonful up in a pint bottle. When the solids have settled, the clear liquid can be decanted off, and corked up till required. This is the solution used above. It is as well to keep this solution in the dark room.
The water with this bath should be hot (boiling better still), and the bath may be used when it is thoroughly cool. It is better, however, to keep it a day before using, since, when fresh, the action is apt to be too violent, and the prints are readily over-toned. The tone with this bath is a deep sepia to black. To get the first tone a very short immersion is necessary; the prints should be almost red. For a black tone the prints should be left in the solution till they are induced to be of a purple hue.
This bath is a most excellent one in many respects, and should not be used under a week to get the best result. As this is a long time to keep a bath, itis aswell to have two always on stock. It keeps indefinitely if proper care be taken of it. This produces a purple or brown tone, according to the length of time the print is immersed in it.
Now, as to toning the print. After the day's printing is done, the prints should be placed in a pan of good fresh water, in order to dissolve out all or a certain amount of silver nitrate that is invariably left in them. A puncheon, such as is used indairies, is very convenient. It should be filled with water, and the prints placed in one by one, taking care that no one sticks to its neighbour, as this would be a fruitful source of unequal toning. Most water contains a little carbonate of lime and chloride of sodium, &c.; the water will therefore become milky. When the prints have been in the first water for ten minutes, they should be removed to another vessel of water, one by one. The first wash water should be placed in a wooden tub, with a tap let into it about six inches above the base, together with a little common salt. The salt forms chloride of silver, which gradually precipitates, and the clear water is then drawn off on the next day, and the sediment is left undisturbed.