Before presenting a tube to the flame, you should clean it well both within and without, in order to remove all dust and humidity. If you neglect to take this precaution, you run the risk of cracking or staining the glass. When the diameter of the tube is too small to permit of your passing a plug of cloth or paper to clean its interior, you can accomplish the object by the introduction of water, which must, many times alternately, be sucked in and blown out, until the tube is deemed clean. One end of it must then be closed at the lamp, and it must be gradually exposed to a charcoal fire, where, by raising successively all parts of the tube to a sufficiently high temperature, you endeavour to volatilize and expel all the water it contains. In all cases you considerably facilitate the disengagement of moisture by renewing the air in the tube by means of a bottle of Indian-rubber fastened to the end of a long narrow tube, which you keep in the interior of the tube to be dried during the time that it is being heated. You can here advantageously substitute alcohol for water, as being much more volatile, and as dissolving greasy matters; but these methods of cleansing should only be employed for valuable objects, because it is extremely difficult fully to expel moisture from a tube wherein you have introduced water,and because alcohol is too expensive to be employed where there is no particular necessity.
When the tubes no longer contain dust, or moisture, you measure them, and mark the divisions according to the sort of work which you propose to execute.
The two arms are supported on the front edge of the table, and the tube is held with the hands either above or below, according as it may be necessary to employ more or less force, more or less lightness. You ought, in general, to hold the tubehorizontally, and in such a manner that its direction may be perpendicular to that of the flame. Yet, when you wish to heat at once a large portion of the tube, or to soften it so that it shall sink together in a particular manner, as in the operation of sealing, you will find it convenient toinclinethe tube, the direction of which, however, must always be such as to turn the heated part continually towards you.
We are about to give a general rule, upon the observance of which we cannot too strongly insist, as the success of almost every operation entirely depends upon it. The rule is,never to present a tube to the flame withoutCONTINUALLY TURNINGit; and turning it, too, with such a degree of rapidity that every part of its circumference may be heated and softened to the same degree. As melted glass necessarily tends to descend, there is no method of preventinga heated tube from becoming deformed but that of continually turning it, so as to bring the softened part very frequently uppermost. When you heat a tube near the middle, the movement of the two hands must beuniformandsimultaneous, or the tube will be twisted and spoiled.
When the tubes have thick sides, they must not be plungedintothe flame until they have previously been strongly heated. You expose them at first to the current of hot air, at some inches from the extremity of the jet; you keep them there some time, taking care to turn them continually, and then you gradually bring them towards, and finally into, the flame. The thicker the sides of the tubes are, the greater precaution must be taken to elevate the temperature gradually: this is the only means of avoiding the fractures which occur when the glass is too rapidly heated. Though it is necessary to take so much care with large and thick tubes, there are, on the contrary, some tubes so small and so thin that the most sudden application of the fire is insufficient to break them. Practice soon teaches the rule which is to be followed with regard to tubes that come between these extremes.
Common glass ought to be fused at themaximumpoint of heat; but glass that contains oxides capable of being reduced at that temperature (such as flint-glass) require to be worked in that part of the flame which possesses the highest oxidating power. If you operate without taking this precaution, you runthe risk of decomposing the glass. Thus, for example, in the case of flint-glass, you may reduce the oxide of lead, which is one of its constituents, to the state of metallic lead. The consequence of such a reduction is the production of a black and opaque stain upon the work, which can only be removed by exposing the glass, during a very long time, to the extremity of the jet.
You must invariably take the greatest care to keep the flame from passing into the interior of the tube; for when it gets there it deposits a greasy vapour, which is the ordinary cause of the dirt which accumulates in instruments that have been constructed without sufficient precaution as to this matter.
In order that you may not blacken your work, you should take care to snuff the wick of the lamp whenever you perceive the flame to deposit soot.
You can judge of theconsistenceof the tubes under operation as much by thefeelas by thelookof the glass. The degree of heat necessary to be applied to particular tubes, depends entirely upon the objects for which they are destined. As soon as the glass begins to feel soft, at abrownish-red heat, for example, you are at the temperature most favourable to goodbending. But is it intended toblow a bulb? The glass must, in this case, be completely melted, and subjected to a fullreddish-white heat. We shall take care, when speaking hereafter of the different operations to be performed, to mention the temperature at whicheachcan be performed with most success.
When an instrument upon which you have been occupied is finished, you should remove it from the flamegradually, taking care toturnit continually, until the glass has acquired sufficient consistence to support its own weight without becoming deformed. Every instrument formed thus of glass requires to undergo a species ofannealing, to enable it to be preserved and employed. To give the instrument this annealing, it is only necessary to remove it from the flame very gradually, allowing it to repose some time in eachcoolerplace to which you successively remove it. The thicker or the more equal the sides of the glass, the more carefully it requires to be annealed. No instrument should be permitted to touch cold or wet bodies while it is warm.
All the modifications of shape and size which can be given to tubes in the construction of various instruments, are produced by a very small number of dissimilar operations. We have thought it best to unite the description of these operations in one article, both to avoid repetitions and to place those who are desirous to exercise this art in a state to proceed, without embarrassment, to the construction of any instrument of which they may be provided with a model or a drawing; for those who attend properly to the instructions given here, with respect to the fundamental operations of glass-blowing, will need no other instructions to enable them to succeed in the construction of all kinds of instruments capable of being made of tubes. These fundamental operations can be reduced to ten, which may be named as follows:—
1. Cutting.2. Bordering.3. Widening.4. Drawing out.5. Choking.6. Sealing.7. Blowing.8. Piercing.9. Bending.10. Soldering.
We proceed to give a detailed account of these different operations.
The different methods of cutting of glass tubes which have been contrived, are all founded on two principles; one of these is the division of the surface of glass by cutting instruments, the other the effecting of the same object by a sudden change of temperature; and sometimes these two principles are combined in one process.
The first method consists in notching the tube, at the point where it is to be divided, with the edge of a file, or of a thin plate of hard steel, or with a diamond; after which, you press upon the two ends of the tube, as if to enlarge the notch, or, what is better, you give the tube a slight smart blow. This method is sufficient for the breaking of small tubes. Many glass-blowers habitually employ an agate, or a common flint, which they hold in one hand, while with the other they rub the tube over the sharp edge of the stone, taking the precaution of securing the tube by the help of the thumb. For tubes of a greater diameter, you can employ a fine iron wire stretched in a bow, or, still better, the glass-cutters’ wheel; with either of these, assisted by a mixture of emeryand water, you can cut a circular trace round a large tube, and then divide it with ease.
When the portion which is to be removed from a tube is so small that you cannot easily lay hold of it, you cut a notch with a file, and expose the notch to the point of the blowpipe flame: the cut then flies round the tube.
This brings us to the second method of cutting tubes—a method which has been modified in a great variety of ways. It is founded on the property possessed by vitrified matters, of breaking when exposed to a sudden change of temperature. Acting upon this principle, some artists apply to the tube, at the point where they desire to cut it, a band of fused glass. If the tube does not immediately separate into two pieces, they give it a slight smart blow on the extremity, or they drop a little water on the heated ring. Other glass-blowers make use of a piece of iron heated to redness, an angle or a corner of which they apply to the tube at the point where it is to be cut, and then, if the fracture is not at once effected by the action of the hot iron, they plunge the tube suddenly into cold water.
The two methods here described can be combined. After having made a notch with a file, or the edge of a flint, you introduce into it a little water, and bring close upon it the point of a very little tube previously heated to the melting point. This double application of heat and moisture obliges the notch to fly right round the tube.
When the object to be cut has a large diameter,and very thin sides—when it is such a vessel as a drinking-glass, a cup, or a gas tube—you may divide it with much neatness by proceeding as follows. After having well cleaned the vessel, both within and without, pour oil into it till it rises to the point, or very nearly to the point, where you desire to cut it. Place the vessel, so prepared, in an airy situation; then take a rod of iron, of about an inch in diameter, make the extremity brightly red-hot, and plunge it into the vessel until the extremity of the iron is half an inch below the surface of the oil: there is immediately formed a great quantity of very hot oil, which assembles in a thin stratum at the surface of the cold oil, and forms a circular crack where it touches the sides of the glass. If you take care to place the object in a horizontal position, and to plunge the hot iron without communicating much agitation to the oil, the parts so separated will be as neat and as uniform as you could desire them to be. By means of this method we have always perfectly succeeded in cutting very regular zones from ordinary glass.
The method which is described in some works, of cutting a tube by twisting round it a thread saturated with oil of turpentine, and then inflaming the thread, we have found to be unfit for objects which have thick sides.
Some persons employ cotton wicks dipped in sulphur. By the burning of these, the glass is strongly heated in a given line, or very narrow space, which is instantly cooled by a wet feather or a wet stick. So soon as a crack is produced,it can be led in any required direction by a red-hot iron, or an inflamed piece of charcoal.
Finally, you may cut small portions from glass tubes in a state of fusion, by means of common scissars.
To whatever use you may destine the tubes which you cut, they ought, almost always, to be bordered. If you merely desire that the edges shall not be sharp, you can smoothen them with the file, or, what is better, you can expose them to the flame of the lamp until they are rounded. If you fear the sinking in of the edges when they are in a softened state, you can hinder this by working in the interior of the tube a round rod of iron, such aspl. 1, fig. 5. The rod of iron should be one-sixth of an inch thick; one end of it should be filed to a conical point, and the other end be inserted into a thin, round, wooden handle. You will find it convenient to have a similar rod with a slight bend in the middle.
When you desire to make the edges of the tube project, bring the end to a soft state, then insert in it a metallic rod, and move it about in such a manner as to widen a little the opening. While the end of the tube is still soft, place it suddenly upon a horizontal surface, or press it by means of a very flat metallic plate. The object of this operation is to make the end of the tube flat and uniform. The metallic rod which you employ may be the same as we have describedin the preceding paragraph. Instead of agitating the rod in the tube, you may hold it in a fixed oblique position, and turn the tube round with the other hand, taking care to press it continually and regularly against the rod. Seepl. 1, fig. 6. Very small tubes can be bordered by approaching their extremities to a flame not acted upon by the blowpipe; particularly the flame of a spirit-lamp.
When the edges of a tube are to be rendered capable of suffering considerable pressure, you can very considerably augment their strength by soldering a rib or string of glass all round the end of the tube—seepl. 1, fig. 12. Holding the tube in the left hand, and the string of glass in the right, you expose them both at once to the flame. When their extremities are sufficiently softened, you attach the end of the rib of glass to the tube at a very short distance from its extremity; you then continue gradually to turn the tube, so as to cause the rib of glass to adhere to it, in proportion as it becomes softened. When the rib has made the entire circumference of the tube, you separate the surplus by suddenly darting a strong jet of fire upon the point where it should be divided; and you continue to expose the tube to the flame, always turning it round, until the ring of glass is fully incorporated with the glass it was applied to. You then remove the instrument from the flame, taking care to anneal it in so doing. During this operation you must take care to prevent the sinking together of the sides of the tube, by now and then turningthe iron rod in its interior. It is ared heat, or abrownish red heat, that is best adapted to this operation.
When you desire to enlarge the diameter of the end of a tube, it is necessary, after having brought it to a soft state, to remove it from the flame, and to press the sides of the glass outwards by means of a large rod of iron with a conical point. The tube must be again heated, and again pressed with the conical iron rod, until the proper enlargement is effected. This operation is much the same as that of bordering a tube with projecting edges.
You candraw outorcontracta tube either in the middle or at the end. Let us in the first place consider that a tube is to be drawn out in the middle. If the tube is long, you support it with the right handbelow, and the left handabove, by which means you secure the force that is necessary, as well as the position which is commodious, for turning it continually and uniformly in the flame. It must be kept in the jet till it has acquired acherry red heat. You then remove it from the flame, and always continuing gently to turn it, you gradually separate the hands from each other, and draw the tube in a straight line. In this manner you produce a long thin tube in the centre of the original tube, which ought to exhibit two uniform cones where it joins the thin tube, andto have the points of these cones in the prolongation of the axis of the tube. Seepl. 1, fig. 3.
To draw out a tube at its extremity, you heat the extremity till it is in fusion, and then remove it from the flame; you immediately seize this extremity with the pliers, and at the same time separate the two hands. The more rapidly this operation is performed, the glass being supposed to be well softened, the more capillary will the drawn-out point of the tube be rendered. Instead of pinching the fused end with the pliers, it is simpler to bring to it the end of a little auxiliary tube, which should be previously heated, to fuse the two together, and then to draw out the end of the original tube by means of the auxiliary tube—seepl. 1, fig. 4 and 11. In all cases, the smaller the portion of tube softened, the more abrupt is the part drawn out.
When you desire to draw out a point from the side of a tube, you must heat that portion alone, by holding it fixedly at the extremity of the jet of flame. When it is sufficiently softened, solder to it the end of an auxiliary tube, and then draw it out.Pl. 1, fig. 18, exhibits an example of a tube drawn out laterally. Ared heat, or acherry red heat, is best adapted to this operation.
We do not mean bychoking, the closing or stopping of the tube, but simply a diminution of the interior passage, or bore. It is a sort of contraction. For examples, seepl. 2, fig. 15,20, 29. You perform the operation by presenting to the flame a zone of the tube at the point where the contraction is to be effected. When the glass is softened, you draw out the tube, or push it together, according as you desire to produce a hollow in the surface of the tube, or to have the surface even, or to cause a ridge to rise above it. Acherry red heatis the proper temperature to employ.
If the sides of the tube to be sealed are thin, and its diameter is small, it is sufficient to expose the end that you wish to close to the flame of the lamp. When the glass is softened it sinks of itself, in consequence of the rotatory motion given to it, towards the axis of the tube, and becomes rounded. The application of no instrument is necessary.
If the tube is of considerable diameter, or if the sides are thick, you must soften the end, and then, with a metallic rod or a flat pair of pliers, mould the sides to a hemisphere, by bringing the circumference towards the centre, and continuing to turn the tube in the flame, until the extremity is well sealed, and perfectly round. Examples of the figure are to be seen inpl. 2, fig. 3 and 5. Instead of this method, it is good, when the extremity is sufficiently softened, to employ an auxiliary tube, with the help of which you can abruptly draw out the point of the original tube, which becomes by that means cut and closed by the flame. In order that this part may be wellrounded, you may, as soon as the tube is sealed, close the other extremity with a little wax, and continue to expose the sealed part to the flame, until it has assumed the form of adrop of tallow. Seepl. 2, fig. 15. You can also seal in this fashion, by blowing, with precaution, in the open end of the tube, while the sealed end is in a softened state.
If you desire the sealed part to be flat, likepl. 3, fig. 30, you must press it, while it is soft, against a flat substance. If you wish it to be concave, like the bottom of a bottle, orpl. 3, fig. 2, you must suck air from the tube with the mouth; or, instead of that, force the softened end inwards with a metallic rod. You may also draw out the end till it be conical, aspl. 2, fig. 4, or terminate it with a little button, aspl. 2, fig. 6. In some cases the sealed end is bent laterally; in others it is twirled into a ring, having previously been drawn out and stopped in the bore. In short, the form given to the sealed end of a tube can be modified in an infinity of ways, according to the object for which the tube may be destined.
You should take care not to accumulate too much glass at the place of sealing. If you allow it to be too thick there, you run the risk of seeing it crack during the cooling. Some farther observations on sealing will be found at the articleWater Hammer, in a subsequent section. The operation of sealing succeeds best at acherry-red heat.
The construction of a great number of philosophicalinstruments requires that he who would make them should exercise himself in the art of blowingbulbspossessing a figure exactly spherical. This is one of the most difficult operations.
To blow a bulb at the extremity of a tube, you commence by sealing it; after which, you collect at the sealed extremity more or less glass, according to the size and the solidity which you desire to give to the bulb. When the end of the tube is made thick, completely sealed, and well rounded, you elevate the temperature to areddish whiteheat, taking care to turn the tube continually and rapidly between your fingers. When the end is perfectly soft you remove it from the flame, and, holding the tube horizontally, you blow quickly with the mouth into the open end, without discontinuing for a single moment the movement of rotation. If the bulb does not by this operation acquire the necessary size, you soften it again in the flame, while under the action of which you turn it very rapidly, lest it should sink together at the sides, and become deformed. When it is sufficiently softened you introduce, in the same manner as before, a fresh quantity of air. It is of importance to observe that, if the tube be of a large diameter, it is necessary to contract the end by which you are to blow, in order that it may be turned round with facility while in the mouth.
When the bulb which you desire to make is to be somewhat large, it is necessary, after having sealed the tube, to soften it for the space of about half an inch from its extremity, andthen, with the aid of a flat piece of metal, to press moderately and repeatedly on the softened portion, until the sides of the tube which are thus pressed upon, sink together, and acquire a certain degree of thickness. During this operation, however, you must take care to blow, now and then, into the tube, in order to retain a hollow space in the midst of the little mass of glass, and to hinder the bore of the tube from being closed up. When you have thus, at the expense of the length of the tube, accumulated at its extremity a quantity of glass sufficient to produce a bulb, you have nothing more to do than to heat the matter till it is raised to a temperature marked by areddish-whitecolour, and then to expand it by blowing.
Instead of accumulating the glass thus, it is more expedient to blow on the tube a series of little bulbs close to one another (seepl. 1, fig. 8), and then, by heating the intervals, and blowing, to unite these little bulbs into a large one of convenient dimensions.
We have already observed, and we repeat here, that it is indispensably necessary to hold the glassoutof the flame during the act of blowing. This is the only means of maintaining uniformity of temperature in the whole softened parts of the tube, without which it is impossible to produce bulbs with sides of equal thickness in all their extent.
When you desire to form a bulb at the extremity of a capillary tube, that is to say, of a tube which has a bore of very small diameter, such as the tubes which are commonly employedto form thermometers, it would be improper to blow it with the mouth; were you to do so, the vapour which would be introduced, having a great affinity for the glass, would soon obstruct the little canal, and present to the passage of the air a resistance, which, with the tubes of smallest interior diameter, would often be insurmountable. But, even when the tubes you employ have not so very small an internal diameter, you should still take care to avoid blowing with the mouth; because the introduction of moisture always injures fine instruments, and it is impossible to dry the interior of a capillary tube when once it has become wet. It is better to make use of a bottle of Indian rubber, which can be fixed on the open end of the tube by means of a cork with a hole bored through it. You press the bottle in the hand, taking care to hold the tube vertically, with the hot partupwards; if you were not to take this precaution, the bulb would be turned on one side, or would exhibit the form of a pear, because it is impossible, in this case, to give to the mass in fusion that rotatory motion which is necessary, when the tube is held horizontally, to the production of a globe perfectly spherical in its form, and with sides of equal thickness.
Whenever you blow into a tube you should keep the eye fixed on the dilating bulb, in order to be able to arrest the passage of air at the proper moment. If you were not to attend to this, you would run the risk of giving to the bulb too great an extension, by whichthe sides would be rendered so thin that it would be liable to be broken by the touch of the lightest bodies. This is the reason that, when you desire to obtain a large bulb, it is necessary to thicken the extremity of the tube, or to combine many small bulbs in one, that it may possess more solidity.
In general, when you blow a bulb with the mouth, it is better to introduce the air a little at a time, forcing in the small portions very rapidly one after the other; rather than to attempt to produce the whole expansion of the bulb at once: you are then more certain of being able to arrest the blowing at the proper time.
When you desire to produce a moderate expansion, either at the extremity or in any other part of a tube, you are enabled easily to effect it by the following process, which is founded on the property possessed by all bodies, and especially by fluids, of expanding when heated; a property which characterises air in a very high degree. After having sealed one end of the tube and drawn out the other, allow it to become cold, in order that it may be quite filled with air; close the end which has been drawn out, and prevent the air within the tube from communicating with that at its exterior; then gradually heat the part which you desire to have expanded, by turning it gently in the flame of a lamp. In a short time the softened matter is acted on by the tension of the air which is enclosed and heated in the interior of the tube; the glass expands, and produces a bulb or swelling more or less extensive, accordingas you expose the glass to a greater or lesser degree of heat.
To blow a bulb in the middle of a tube, it is sufficient to seal it at one of its extremities, to heat the part that you wish to inflate, and, when it is at acherry-redheat, to blow in the tube, which must be held horizontally and turned with both hands, of which, for the sake of greater facility, the left may be held above and the right below.
If the bulb is to be large, the matter must previously be thickened or accumulated, or, instead of that, a series of small bulbs first produced, and these subsequently blown into a single larger bulb, as we have already mentioned. Seepl. 1, fig. 8.
For some instruments, the tubes of which must be capillary, it is necessary to blow the bulbs separately, and then to solder them to the requisite adjuncts. The reason of this is, that it would be too difficult to produce, from a very fine tube, a bulb of sufficient size and solidity to answer the intended purpose.
You make choice of a tube which is not capillary, but of a sufficient diameter, very cylindrical, with equal sides, and tolerably substantial: it may generally be from the twentieth to the twelfth of an inch thick in the glass. You soften two zones in this tube, more or less near to each other, according to the bulk you desire to give to the bulb, and you draw out the melted part in points. The talent consists inwell-centering—that is to say, in drawing out the melted tube in such amanner that the thin parts or points shall be situated exactly in the prolongation of the axis of the little portion of the original tube remaining between them. This operation is technically termed drawinga cylinder between two points. The tube so drawn out is exhibited bypl. 1, fig. 4. You cut these points at some distance from the central or thick part, and seal one end; you next completely soften the little thick tube and expand it into a bulb, by blowing with the precautions which have already been described. You must keep the glass in continual motion, if you desire to be successful in this experiment. Much rapidity of movement, and at the same time lightness of touch, are requisite in the operation here described. It is termedblowing a bulb between two points.Pl. 1, fig. 10, exhibits a bulb blown between two points.
To obtain aroundbulb, you should hold the tube horizontally; to obtain aflattenedbulb, you should hold it perpendicularly, with the fused extremity turned above; to obtain apear-shapedbulb, you should hold the fused extremity downwards.
When you are working upon a bulb between two points, or in the middle of a tube, you should hold the tube horizontally, in the ordinary manner; but you are to push the softened portion together, or to draw it out, according as you desire to produce a ridge or a prolongation.
When you are at liberty to choose the point from which you are to blow, you should prefer,1st, that where the moisture of the breath can be the least prejudicial to the instrument which is to be made; 2dly, that which brings the part which is to be expanded nearest to your eye; 3dly, that which presents the fewest difficulties in the execution. When bulbs are to be formed in complicated apparatus, it is good to reflect a little on the best means of effecting the object. It is easy to understand that contrivances which may appear very simple on paper, present difficulties in the practical execution which often call for considerable management.
You first seal the tube at one extremity, and then direct the point of the flame on the part which you desire to pierce. When the tube has acquired areddish-whiteheat, you suddenly remove it from the flame, and forcibly blow into it. The softened portion of the tube gives way before the pressure of the air, and bursts into a hole. You expose the tube again to the flame, and border the edges of the hole.
It is scarcely necessary to observe, that, if it be a sealed extremity which you desire to pierce, it is necessary to turn the tube between the fingers while in the fire; but if, on the contrary, you desire to pierce a hole in the side of a tube, you should keep the glass in a fixed position, and direct the jet upon a single point.
If the side of the tube is thin, you may dispense with blowing. The tube is sealed and allowed to cool; then, accurately closing theopen extremity with the finger, or a little wax, you expose to the jet the part which you desire to have pierced. When the glass is sufficiently softened, the air enclosed in the tube being expanded by the heat, and not finding at the softened part a sufficient resistance, bursts through the tube, and thus pierces a hole.
You may generally dispense with the sealing of the tube, by closing the ends with wax, or with the fingers.
There is still another method of performing this operation, which is very expeditious, and constantly succeeds with objects which have thin sides. You raise to areddish whiteheat a little cylinder of glass, of the diameter of the hole that you desire to make, and you instantly apply it to the tube or globe, to which it will strongly adhere. You allow the whole to cool, and then give the auxiliary cylinder a sharp slight knock; the little cylinder drops off, and carries with it the portion of the tube to which it had adhered. On presenting the hole to a slight degree of heat, you remove the sharpness of its edges.
When you purpose to pierce a tube laterally, for the purpose of joining to it another tube, it is always best to pierce it by blowing many times, and only a little at a time, and with that view, to soften the glass but moderately. By this means the tube preserves more thickness, and is in a better state to support the subsequent operation of soldering.
There are circumstances in which you can pierce tubes by forcibly sucking the air outof them; and this method sometimes presents advantages that can be turned to good account. Finally, the orifices which are produced by cutting off the lateral point of a tube drawn out at the side, may also be reckoned as an operation belonging to this article.
If the tube is narrow, and the sides are pretty thick, this operation presents no difficulty. You heat the tube, but not too much, lest it become deformed; areddish-brownheat is sufficient, for at that temperature it gives way to the slightest effort you make to bend it. You should, as much as possible, avoid making the bend too abrupt. For this purpose, you heat a zone of one or two inches in extent at once, by moving the tube backwards and forwards in the flame, and you take care to bend it very gradually.
But if the tube is large, or its sides are thin, and you bend it without proper precautions, the force you employ entirely destroys its cylindrical form, and the bent part exhibits nothing but a double flattening,—a canal, more or less compressed. To avoid this deformity it is necessary, first, to seal the tube at one extremity, and then, while giving it a certain curvature, to blow cautiously by the other extremity, which for convenience sake should previously be drawn out. When tubes have been deformed by bad bending, as above described, you may, by following this method, correct the fault; that is to say, upon sealing one extremityof the deformed tube, heating the flattened part, and blowing into the other extremity, you can with care reproduce the round form.
In general, that a curvature may be well-made, it is necessary that the side of the tube which is to form the concave part be sufficiently softened by heat to sink of itself equally in every part during the operation, while the other side be only softened to such a degree as to enable it to give way under the force applied to bend it. On this account, after having softened in acherry-red heatone side of the tube, you should turn the other side, which is to form the exterior of the curvature, towards you, and then, exposing it to the point of the jet, you should bend the tube immediately upon its beginning to sink under the heat.
When you desire to bend the extremity of a tube into a ring you must employ a metallic rod, with which, by pressing on the tube, you separate with a curve, C, (seepl. 1, fig. 14) all the portion A C which is necessary to produce the desired curl. You then successively soften all parts of this curve, and gradually twist it in the direction indicated by the arrow, pressing the iron rod constantly upon the extremity of the curve. When the end A comes into contact with bend C you solder them together at this point, and thus complete the ring.Pl. 2, fig. 27, andpl. 3, fig. 27, exhibit examples of rings formed by this process.
If the tubes which you propose to solderare of a small diameter, pretty equal in size, and have thick sides, it is sufficient, before joining them together, to widen them equally at their extremities, by agitating a metallic rod within them. (Pl. 1, fig. 17.)
But if they have thin sides, or are of a large diameter, the bringing of their sides into juxta-position is very difficult, and the method of soldering just indicated becomes insufficient. In this case you are obliged to seal, and subsequently to pierce, the two ends which you desire to join. The disposition which this operation gives to their sides very much facilitates the soldering.
Finally, when the tubes are of a very different diameter, you must draw out the extremity of the larger and cut it where the part drawn out corresponds in diameter to the tube which it is to be joined to.Pl. 1, fig. 9 and 15, exhibit examples of this mode of adapting tubes to one another.
For lateral solderings you must dispose the tubes in such a manner that the sides of the orifices which you desire to join together coincide with each other completely. Seepl. 1, fig. 7.
When the holes are well prepared, you heat at the same time the two parts that are to be soldered together, and join them at the moment when they enter into fusion. You must push them slightly together, and continue to heat successively all their points of contact; whereupon the two tubes soon unite perfectly. As it is almost always necessary, when you desirethe soldering to be neatly done, or the joint to be imperceptible, to terminate the operation by blowing, it is proper to prepare the extreme ends of the tubes before-hand. That end of the tube by which you intend to blow should be carefully drawn out, provided it be so large as to render drawing out necessary; and the other end of the tube, if large, should be closed with wax, as inpl. 1, fig. 9, or if small, should be sealed at the lamp (pl. 1, fig. 15). When the points of junction are perfectly softened, and completely incorporated with each other, you introduce a little air into the tube, which produces a swelling at the joint. As soon as this has taken place, you must gently pull the two ends of the joined tube in different directions, by which means the swelled portion at the joint is brought down to the size of the other parts of the tube, so that the whole surface becomes continuous. The soldering is then finished.
To solder a bulb or a cylinder between two points, to the extremity of a capillary tube, you cut and seal one of the points at a short distance from the bulb (pl. 1, fig. 16), and at the moment when this extremity is in fusion you pierce it by blowing strongly at the other extremity. By this means the opening of the reservoir is terminated by edges very much widened, which facilitates considerably its being brought into juxta-position with the little tube. In order that the ends of the two tubes may be well incorporated the one with theother, you should keep the soldered joint for some time in the flame, and ought to blow in the tube, push the ends together and draw them asunder, until the protuberance is no longer perceptible.
If, after having joined two tubes, it should be found that there still exists an opening too considerable to be closed by simply pushing the two tubes upon one another, you can close such an opening by means of a morsel of glass, applied by presenting the fused end of an auxiliary tube.
You should avoid soldering together two different species of glass—for example, a tube of ordinary glass with a tube of flint-glass; because these two species of glass experience a different degree of contraction upon cooling, and, if joined together while in a fused state, are so violently pulled from one another as they become cool, that the cohesion of the point of soldering is infallibly overcome, and the tube breaks. You ought also, for a similar reason, to take care not to accumulate a greater mass of glass in one place than in another.
If the first operation has not been sufficient to complete the soldering, the tube must be again presented to the flame, and again pushed together at the joint, or drawn asunder, or blown into, according as it may appear to be necessary. In all cases the soldering is not truly solid, but inasmuch as the two masses of glass are well incorporated together, and present a surface continuous in all points.
The mineralogical flame (pl. 1, fig. 1, A´ B) is that which is to be employed in preference to the larger flame, when you desire to effect a good joining: it is sufficient to proportion the size of the flame to the object you wish to execute.
When a person is well acquainted with the fundamental operations which we have just described, the preparation of the instruments of which we are about to speak can present scarcely any difficulty. Indeed, some of them are so extremely simple, and are so easy of execution, that it is sufficient to cast a glance upon the figures which represent them, to seize at once the method which must be followed in their construction. Of such instruments we shall not stop to give a detailed description, but shall content ourselves with presenting the design.
On the other hand, it is of importance to observe that a certain number of instruments aregraduatedor furnished with pieces, ormountings, of which it is not the object of our art to teach the construction, and which demand a more or less extensive knowledge of the sciences.We shall treat of these mountings but summarily, referring the student, for more detailed instructions, to the works on natural philosophy and chemistry, in which these instruments are especially treated of. Our reason for this is, that we do not wish to abandon the plan we had adopted of describing simply the art of glass-blowing. To describe the use and application of philosophical instruments, or to explain the principles on which they act, would be passing quite out of our province.
Adapters.—These are tubes of glass of various forms, employed in chemistry to connect together the different pieces constituting an apparatus—as, for example, to join a retort to a receiver during the operation of distillation. You should take care to border the extremities of an adapter; or you may widen them into the form of the mouth of a bottle, when they are to be closed air-tight by corks. Besides this, there is nothing particular to be observed in the preparation of adapters.
Apparatus for Boiling in Vacuo.—Represented bypl. 3, fig. 19. Employ a tube about a quarter of an inch in diameter. Blow two bulbs; give the tube the necessary curvature; fill one of the bulbs with nitric ether; boil the ether to expel the atmospheric air from the apparatus, then seal the opening in the other bulb.
Apparatus for Freezing in Vacuo.The Cryophorus.—Take a tube one-third of an inch or rather more in diameter, and pretty thick inthe sides. Blow a bulb at each end; the first at the sealed part of the tube, the other at the open point; then give to the tube the curvature represented bypl. 3, fig. 32. Introduce as much water as will half fill one of the bulbs; make the water boil, and draw off the point and seal the apparatus during the ebullition.
Apparatus for conducting Water in bent Tubes.—Solder a funnel (seeFunnels) to the end of a tube; pierce two holes in this tube in the same line, and solder to each a little addition proper to receive a cork. Finish the instrument by bending it in the manner indicated bypl. 4, fig. 18.
Apparatus for Experiments on Running Liquids.—A tube bent once at a right angle, mounted with a funnel, pierced laterally, and soldered at the same point to a smaller tube. Seepl. 3, fig. 17.
Apparatus for Exhibiting the Phenomena of Capillary Tubes.—This apparatus consists of a capillary tube soldered to another tube of a more considerable diameter. Sometimes it is bent like the letter U.Pl. 3, fig. 15.
Apparatus for the Preparation of Phosphuret of Lime.—An apparatus that can be employed for the preparation of phosphuret of lime, as well as in a variety of other chemical experiments, consists of a tube sealed at one extremity, slightly bent and choked at twoinches and a half from the sealed part, and drawn out (after the introduction of the substances to be operated upon) at the other extremity. This little distillatory apparatus is represented bypl. 3, fig. 29.
Archimedes’s Screw.—There is no particular process for the making of this instrument. It is, however, necessary for one who would succeed in making it, to exercise himself in the art of well bending a tube. After a few attempts, you may finish by producing a pretty-regular spiral. The tube chosen for this instrument should be six or seven feet long, and about one-third of an inch in diameter. You commence by making a bend, nearly at a right angle, about four inches from one of its extremities. This bent portion serves afterwards as a handle, and very much facilitates the operation; it represents the prolongation of the rational axis which may be conceived to pass through the centre of the spiral. Seepl. 4, fig. 10.
Barker’s Mill.—Apparatus for exhibiting the rotatory motion produced by the running of liquids.—Contract a tube at its two extremities, pierce it laterally about the middle of its length, and solder to the hole an additional tube, terminated by a funnel. Soften the principal tube at the side opposite to the part that was pierced, and form there a conical cavity by pressing the softened glass inward with theaid of a metallic rod. This cavity must be so carefully made that the whole apparatus can be supported on a pivot. Bend the contracted ends of the tube horizontally, and in different directions, cut off their extremities at a proper length, and slightly border the edges of the orifices. Seepl. 3, fig. 33.
You may produce this apparatus under a different form, as may be seen atpl. 3, fig. 5.
Barometers.—Barometers serve to measure the pressure of the atmosphere. The following are the varieties most in use.
Cistern Barometer.—Take a tube about thirty-two inches long, and at least one-third of an inch in diameter, internally; seal one of its extremities, free it with most particular care from moisture, fill it with mercury, and make the mercury boil in the tube, by heat, in order to drive out every particle of air which might be present. When the tube is full of mercury, and the boiling has taken place, turn it upside down, and plunge the open end into a cistern also filled with mercury which has been boiled. Seepl. 2, fig. 4.
Dial(orWheel)Barometer.—The tube intended for this barometer should be very regular in the bore. It should be thirty-nine inches long. Close it at one end, and bend it like the letter U at about thirty-two inches from the sealed extremity. Seepl. 2, fig. 5, andGraduation of the Dial Barometer.
Syphon Barometer.—Make use of such a tube as might be employed for aCistern Barometer; solder to its open end a cylindrical or spherical reservoir, and bend the tube close to the point of junction in such a manner as to bring the cylinder parallel with the tube. If the reservoir is to be closed with a cover of leather, cut off the remaining point of the cylinder, slightly widen the orifice, and then border it. If no leather is to be applied, but the point of the cylinder left open, it is necessary, after the introduction of the mercury, to draw off the point abruptly, and to leave an opening so small that mercury cannot pass by it.Pl. 2, fig. 6.
Stop-Cock Barometer.—This differs from the preceding barometer only by having a stop-cock mounted in iron between the reservoir and the tube.
Compound Barometers.—Blow a bulb at each end of a barometer tube of about thirty-three inches in length. Solder a small and almost capillary tube to the point which terminates one of the bulbs, and bend the great tube very near this bulb. This must be done in such a manner that the centre of one bulb shall be thirty inches from the centre of the other bulb. Introduce a quantity of mercury sufficient to fill the great tube and half the two bulbs; fill the remaining space in the last bulb with alcohol.
You may give a different disposition to thisinstrument. Divide a barometer tube into two, three, or four pieces, and reunite the pieces by intermediate capillary tubes, so as to form a series of large and small tubes, soldered alternately the one at the end of the other. Then communicate to this compound tube the form exhibited bypl. 3, fig. 25, and join, at each superior bend, a little tube, for the convenience of easily filling the instrument with mercury: seal these tubes as soon as the mercury is introduced. The graduation of compound barometers is made by bringing them into comparison with a good standard barometer. After taking two or three fixed points, it is easy to continue the scale.
Gay Lussac’s Barometer.—Take a tube which is very regular in the bore, four-tenths of an inch in diameter, and thirty-five inches and a half in length. Seal one of its extremities and draw out the other; then cut the tube at about two-thirds of its whole length from the sealed end, and reunite the two pieces by means of a capillary tube soldered between them, the whole being kept in a line. Seepl. 2, fig. 1. Pierce laterally the part of the tube which is drawn out, at some inches from the base of the point, and force the margin of the hole into the interior of the tube, by means of a conical point of metal, in such a manner as to form a little sunk funnel, of which the orifice must be very small. After having introduced the proper quantity of mercury into the instrument, boil it, and assist the disengagementof the bubbles of air by agitating a fine iron wire within the tube. Then remove the part of the tube which was drawn out, by sealing the end of the wide part. Give to the whole instrument the curvature indicated bypl. 2, fig. 3.
Bunten’s Barometer.—This instrument differs from the preceding but in one point, namely, that the capillary tube is formed of two soldered pieces, of which the one, passing into the other, is terminated by a capillary point. This arrangement is exhibited bypl. 2, fig. 2.
Barometer pierced laterally for Demonstrations.—Take a tube thirty-nine inches long, with thick sides, and two-tenths of an inch internal diameter. Seal it at one end, and choke it at the distance of eight inches therefrom. Pierce a hole in the tube about twelve or sixteen inches from the choked part, and solder to the hole an additional piece, which can be closed by a cork or covered by a piece of bladder. The instrument is represented bypl. 2, fig. 15.
Bell-Glasses for Experiments.—These are pieces of tube sealed at one end, and widened or bordered at the other. They are extremely useful, and much employed in chemical experiments. They also supply the place of bottles for preserving small quantities of substances. Sometimes they are requiredto be straight, aspl. 3, fig. 12. Sometimes they need to be curved, aspl. 3, fig. 29. This is particularly the case when they are to be employed as retorts, for which purpose the sealed part should be made thin.Pl. 3, fig. 6, exhibits a retort with a tubulure.
Blowpipe.—We shall give in this article an account of the various pieces of glass which form part of the blowpipe described in the early part of this work. Seepl. 1, fig. 19.
The beak C, which is employed with the candlestick, is merely a bent tube, at the extremity of which a bulb is blown. The bulb is terminated by a point, the thickness of the sides of which is augmented by turning it for a long time in the flame.
As for the beak used with the lamp, it is simply a bent tube C´, of which the orifice has been diminished by turning it round in the flame. The point of this beak is not drawn out like that of the beak described in the preceding paragraph, but is allowed to be thick, that it may not melt in the flame of the lamp.
The tube D F has four-tenths of an inch internal diameter, and is pretty thick in the sides. You must commence by bordering and slightly widening one of its extremities, and then proceed to choke it at about two inches from its other extremity, taking care to give to the choked part a figure as perfectly conical as possible, in order that the valve may act well. We have described the valve at length at p. 6.
The tubedis as much narrower than thetube D F as is necessary to permit it to pass up and down within the latter. Its use is to lengthen or shorten the tube for the convenience of the blower. The lower end is wound round with waxed thread, to make it fit air-tight. The mouth-piece is executed by widening the end of the tube, and then, while the widened part is still soft, by pressing the two sides obliquely, one against the other. By this means you give to the mouth-piece a flattened form, which adapts it better to the lips. The tube is finished by slightly bending this extremity.
In order that the bladder, or air reservoir, may be conveniently and securely attached to the tube E, you must take care to widen the end of this tube, and to turn up the edges strongly, by pressing the soft end against a flat metallic surface.
Capsules.—These are very small mercury funnels, of which the opening or neck has been closed. To transform these funnels into capsules, you must cut the neck as close as possible, and then soften, close, and flatten the opening. In performing this operation, hold the capsule by the edge with your pincers, and employ a piece of metal to press the glass together and make it close the hole and form the flat bottom of the capsule. Seepl. 2, fig. 23.
Another Method.—After having blown a bulb at the end of a point, soften a narrowzone of the bulb, and then blow suddenly and strongly into it; by which means you separate the bulb into two capsules, which only need to be bordered. If you find any difficulty in presenting to the flame the capsule which forms the part of the bulb opposed to the point, you can attach to it a little rod of glass, which you can afterwards easily separate by a slight smart blow.
Occasionally you will have to makecapsules with double sides, which will be described at the articleNicholson’s Hydrometer.
Cartesian Devils.—Blow a bulb at the extremity of a very small tube, and heat a portion of the bulb, for the purpose of prolonging it into a beak. This can be effected with the aid of an auxiliary tube, which, on being joined to the heated part of the bulb, carries away with it the portion of glass which adheres. This portion of the bulb becomes thus prolonged into a little point, which must be cut at its extremity, so as to leave a small opening. The principal tube must be cut at the distance of half an inch from the bulb, and the ends of it must be drawn out and twisted into a ring. Instead of forming laterally a little beak to the bulb, you may pierce the tail, after twisting it into the form of a ring, or you may manage in such a manner as not to obliterate the canal of the twisted part. In general, little enamel figures are suspended to the ring of these globes, as is represented bypl. 2, fig. 22. Asimple bulb, blown at the extremity of a small portion of tube, can supply the place of the Ludion or Cartesian devil. Seepl. 2, fig. 8.
Communicating Vases.—Employ a tube of a large diameter; terminate one of its extremities with a funnel, fashion the other like the neck of a bottle; and bend the tube into the shape shewn bypl. 4, fig. 11. Then twist some other tubes into various forms, according to the end you propose to attain, and adjust these tubes to the neck of the large tube by means of corks, which have holes bored through them. In this manner an exchange of tubes is provided for various experiments.
Dropping Tubes.—The namedropping tubeis given to an instrument of glass which is very much employed in chemistry, for the purpose of transferring small quantities of liquor from one vessel into another, without disturbing either of the vessels. Dropping tubes are made of a great variety of forms and sizes, according to the purposes to which they are intended to be applied.
Blow a bulb between two points, and then, before the glass has regained its consistence, lengthen the bulb into an oval form. Cut and border the two points.
If the bulb, or reservoir, is to be so large that it cannot be formed at the expense of the thickness of the tube, and yet be sufficiently strong, it must be blown separately from a larger tube, and then soldered to two smallertubes, one of which should have a certain curvature given to it. Seepl. 2, fig. 20.
Sometimes a dropping tube is employed to measure small quantities of liquid. In this case the point should be drawn off abruptly, and the scale should be marked on the shank or tube with spots of black enamel.
Pl. 2, fig. 21, represents a peculiar variety of dropping tube employed in some experiments. It is made in the same manner as the common dropping tubes, excepting that, when the tail is formed, it is sealed at the extremity, bent there into a ring, and then pierced at A.
Pl. 3, fig. 26, represents another variety of dropping tube, a description of which is unnecessary.
Fountains.—It will readily be understood by those acquainted with the construction of hydraulic apparatus, that, by means of a judicious arrangement of glass tubes, a great variety of fountains may be produced. The following are given as examples.
Fountain of Circulation.—Take a tube, twenty-four or thirty inches long, nearly half an inch in diameter, and with pretty thick sides; blow a bulb at one of its extremities, and bend the other into a U, after having drawn it out as indicated bypl. 3, fig. 4. Pierce the tube at B, and join there a short piece adapted to receive a cork. Then prepare a bulb of the same size as the first bulb, and solder it to the extremity of a very long and almost capillarytube, which you must bend in zig-zag, in such a manner as to make it represent a Maltese cross, a star, a rose, or any other figure that may be suggested. The side of the bulb opposite to that which is attached to this twisted tube, ought to be formed like the neck of a bottle, in order that it may receive the drawn-out part of the larger tube, which should enter the bulb until the point of the large tube nearly touches the neck of the little tube at its junction with the bulb. This disposition is shewn in the figure. Seal now the other end of the little tube to the bulb of the large tube; then, with a little cement or sealing-wax, close the space between the bulb of the little tube and the point of the large tube. The instrument being thus prepared, as much alcohol, previously coloured red, must be inserted by the neckbas is sufficient to fill one of the bulbs. The neck is then closed with a cork, and a little cement or sealing-wax. Or, instead of forming this neck to the instrument, the additional piece may be drawn out to a point, which permits it to be sealed hermetically.
Fountain of Compression.—Introduce into a tube of large diameter a piece of capillary tube with thick sides. This must pass a little beyond the extremity of the large tube, which is to be softened and soldered to the other, so that it shall be fixed concentrically. The common point is then to be drawn out. When the tube is quite cold, and the small tube properly fixed in the centre of the large one, cut thelatter at a proper distance, border it, and choke it near the end, which must be fashioned in such a manner as to be capable of being completely closed by a cork. Seepl. 2, fig. 29.
Intermitting Fountain.—This apparatus is represented bypl. 3, fig. 16. Solder a cylindrical reservoir to the extremity of a capillary tube, pierced ata, and sealed at its extremity. Draw out abruptly the point of the reservoir, and give it a very small orifice; then give to the capillary tube the form indicated by the figure. Prepare next a funnel resembling a mercury-funnel, but much larger; choke the neck of this funnel, and bend the tube into the form of a syphon.
Hero’s Fountain.—Solder a bulb to the extremity of a tube, and transform the bulb into a funnel. Close the funnel with a cork, and solder to the other end of the tube a bulb similar to the first. Next, solder a third bulb between two tubes, of which one must be twice as long the other; solder the longer of these tubes to the bulb of the first tube, and draw out the point of the shorter tube. You have now a long tube, with a funnel at one end, a contracted point at the other, and two bulbs in its length. Give to the whole apparatus the form indicated bypl. 3, fig. 21.
Funnels.—It will be seen, upon looking over the engravings, that funnels require to be made for a great variety of instruments; youought therefore to acquire as soon as possible the art of making them well. The following are those most frequently required.
Retort Funnel.—Blow a bulb at the extremity of a tube; present the superior hemisphere of the bulb to the flame, and when it is sufficiently softened, blow strongly into the other end of the tube. The air will force its way through the bulb, making a hole which will be larger or smaller according to the extent of surface which may have been softened. The opening of the funnel being made thus, there is nothing more to do than to adjust the edges, which, in the present state, are both fragile and irregular. This it is very easy to do. The edges are softened, the most prominent parts are cut off with the scissars, and the parts which are thin are bent back on themselves, that they may become thicker. Upon turning the funnel round in the flame, the smaller irregularities give way, and the edges become rounded. Seepl. 2, fig. 24.
When the funnel is desired to be very large in proportion to the size of the tube, a bulb is made from a larger tube, and afterwards soldered to the small tube, and transformed into a funnel in the manner above described.
Funnel for introducing Mercury into narrow tubes.—The mercury-funnel is represented bypl. 2, fig. 25. Blow a bulb between two points; cut off one of the points, andopen the bulb at that place, in the manner described in the preceding article.