Third, the vowelain such syllables as those found incommand, chant, chance, graft, staff, pass, clasp,etc., should not have the flat sound heard inas, gas,etc., nor should it have the broad Italian sound heard infather,but rather a sound between. Americans should avoid making theira's too flat in words ending inff, ft, ss, st, sk,andsppreceded bya,and in some words in which a is followed bynceandnt,and evennd,and Englishmen should avoid making them too broad.
Fourth, avoid givinguthe sound ofooon all occasions. Afterrand in a few other positions we cannot easily give it any other sound, but we need not saysoot′-a-ble, soo-per-noo-mer-a-ry; nor noos, stoo,etc.
Fifth, the longosound in words likeboth, boat, coat,etc., should be given its full value, with out being obscured. New England people often mispronounce these words by shortening theo. Likewise they do not give theaincare, bear, fair,etc., and theeinwhere, there,andtheir,the correct sound, a modification of the longa. These words are often pronounced with the short or flat sound ofaore(căr, thěr,etc.).
Sixth, the obscured sound ofainwander, what,etc., should be between broadaas inalland Italianaas infar. It is about equivalent tooinnot.
Seventh,a, e, i, o(except in accented syllables), anduare nearly alike in sound when followed byr,and no special effort should be made to distinguisha, o,ora,though the syllables containing them have in fact the slightest possible more volume than those containingeorifollowed byr. Careless speakers, or careful speakers who are not informed, are liable to try to make more of a distinction than really exists.
In addition to these hints, the student will of course make rigorous application of principles before stated.Gandcwill be soft beforee, i,andy,hard before other vowels and all consonants; vowels receiving the accent on the second syllable from the end (excepti) will be pronounced long (and we shall not hearau-dă′-ciousforaudā′-cious); and all vowels butain the third syllable or farther from the end will remain short if followed by a consonant, though we should be on the lookout for such exceptions asab-stē′-mious,etc. (As theuis kept long we will say _tr_ŭ′-cu-lency[troo], not _tr_ŭ_c′-u-lency,_ and _s_ū′-pernu-merary,not _s_ŭ_p′-ernumerary,_ etc.).
These hints should be supplemented by reference to a good dictionary or list of words commonly mispronounced.
The method of using the following story of Robinson Crusoe, specially arranged as a spelling drill, should include these steps:
1. Copy the story paragraph by paragraph, with great accuracy, noting every punctuation mark, paragraph indentations, numbers, and headings. Words that should appear in italics should be underlined once, in small capitals twice, in capitals three times. After the copy has been completed, compare it word by word with the original, and if errors are found, copy the entire story again from beginning to end, and continue to copy it till the copy is perfect in every way.
2. When the story has been accurately copied with the original before the eyes, let some one dictate it, and copy from the dictation, afterward comparing with the original, and continuing this process till perfection is attained.
3. After the ability to copy accurately from dictation has been secured, write out the story phonetically. Lay aside the phonetic version for a week and then write the story out from this version with the ordinary spelling, subsequently comparing with the original until the final version prepared from the phonetic version is accurate in every point.
The questions may be indefinitely extended. After this story has been fully mastered, a simple book like “Black Beauty” will furnish additional material for drill. Mental observations, such as those indicated in the notes and questions, should become habitual.
THE STORY OF ROBINSON CRUSOE.(For Dictation.)
(Once writers of novels were called liars by some people, because they made up out of their heads the stories they told. In our day we know that there is more truth in many a novel than in most histories. The story of Robinson Crusoe was indeed founded upon the experience of a real man, named Alexander Selkirk, who lived seven years upon a deserted island. Besides that, it tells more truly than has been told in any other writing what a sensible man would do if left to care for himself, as Crusoe was.)
1. A second storm came upon us (says Crusoe in telling his own story), which carried us straight away westward. Early in the morning, while the wind was still blowing very hard, one of the men cried out, “Land!” We had no sooner run out of the cabin than the ship struck upon a sandbar, and the sea broke over her in such a manner that we were driven to shelter from the foam and spray.
Questions and Notes. What is peculiar aboutwriters, liars, know, island, straight, foam, spray?(Answer. Inliarswe havear,noter. In the others, what silent letters?) Make sentences containingright, there, hour, no, strait, see,correctly used. Point out three words in whichyhas been changed toiwhen other letters were added to the word. Indicate two words in whicheahas different sounds. Find the words in which silentewas dropped when a syllable was added. What is peculiar aboutsensible? cabin? driven? truly? Crusoe?
To remember the spelling oftheir,whether it iseiorie,note that it refers to whattheypossess,theyrthings—theychanged toiwhenris added.
2. We were in a dreadful condition, and the storm having ceased a little, we thought of nothing but saving our lives. In this distress the mate of our vessel laid ho a boat we had on board, and with the help of the other men got her flung over the ship's side. Getting all into her, we let her go and committed ourselves, eleven in number, to God's mercy and the wild sea.
(While such a wind blew, you may be sure they little knew where the waves were driving them, or if they might not be beaten to pieces on the rocks. No doubt the waves mounted to such a height and the spray caused such a mist that they could see only the blue sky above them.)
3. After we had driven about a league and a half, a raging wave, mountain high, took us with such fury that it overset the boat, and, separating us, gave us hardly time to cry, “Oh, God!”
Questions and Notes. What words in the above paragraphs contain the digraphea? What sound does it represent in each word? What other digraphs are found in words in the above paragraphs? What silent letters? What principle or rule applies tocondition? having? distress? getting? committed? eleven?What is peculiar aboutthought? lives? laid? mercy? blew? pieces? mountain? league? half? could?Compareeiin height andialone inhigh. Think ofnothingasno thing.To remember theieinpiece,remember thatpieandpieceare spelled in the same way.Separatehas anain the second syllable—— likepart,sinceseparatemeans to “partin two.” You easily the word PART in SEPARATE, Observe thatfulindreadfulhas but onel.
4. That wave carried me a vast way on toward shore, and having spent itself went back, leaving me upon the land almost dry, but half dead with the water I had taken into my lungs and stomach. Seeing myself nearer the mainland than I had expected, with what breath I had left I got upon my feet and endeavored with all my strength to make toward land as fast as I could.
5. I was wholly buried by the next wave that came upon me, but again I was carried a great way toward shore. I was ready to burst with holding my breath, when to my relief I found my head and hands shoot above the surface of the water. I was covered again with water, and dashed against a rock. The blow, taking my breast and side, beat the breath quite out of my body. I held fast by the piece of rock, however, and then, although very weak, I fetched another run, so that I succeeded in getting to the mainland, where I sat me down, quite out of reach of the water.
Questions and Notes. In what words in the preceding paragraphs has silentabeen dropped on adding a syllable? In what words do you find the digraphea,and what sound does it have in each? How many different sounds ofeado you find? What is the difference betweenbreathandbreathe—allthe differences? How many l's inalmost?
In what other compounds doesalldrop onel? Why do we not have twor's incovered? (Answer. The syllable containingeris not accented. Only accented syllables double a final single consonant on adding a syllable.) What rule applies in the formation ofcarried? having? endeavored? buried? taking? although? getting?What is peculiar intoward? half? water? stomach? wholly? again? body? succeeded? of?
To remember whetherrelief, belief,etc., have the digraphieorei,notice thatejust precedesfin the alphabet and in the word, while theiis nearer thel; besides, the words contain the wordlie. Inreceive, receipt,theeis placed nearest thec, which it is nearest in the alphabet. Or, think oflice: ifollowslandefollowsa,as in the wordsbelieveandreceive.
Observe the twol's inwholly,—one inwhole; we do not havewholely,as we might expect. Also observe that inagainandagainst aihas the sound ofeshort, asahas that sound inanyandmany.
6. I believe it is impossible truly to express what the ecstasies of the soul are when it is so saved, as I may say, out of the grave. “For sudden joys, like sudden griefs, confound at first.”
7. I walked about on the shore, my whole being wrapped up in thinking of what I had been through, and thanking God for my deliverance. Not one soul had been saved but myself. Nor did I afterward see any sign of them, except three of their hats, one cap, and two shoes.
8. I soon began to look about me. I had no change of clothes, nor anything either to eat or drink; nor did I see anything before me but dying of hunger or being eaten by wild beasts.
(Crusoe afterward cast up a sort of ledger account of the good and evil in his lot. On the side of evil he placed, first, the fact that he had been thrown upon a bare and barren island, with no hope of escape. Against this he set the item that he alone had been saved. On the side of evil he noted that he had no clothes; but on the other hand, this was a warm climate, where he could hardly wear clothes if he had them. Twenty-five years later he thought he would be perfectly happy if he were not in terror of men coming to his island——who, he feared, might eat him.)
Questions and Notes. How do you remember theieinbelieve, grief,etc.? Give several illustrations from the above paragraphs of the principle that we have a double consonant (in an accented penultimate syllable) after a short vowel. Give illustrations of the single consonant after a long vowel. Make a list of the words containing silent letters, including all digraphs. What letter doestruehave whichtrulydoes not? Iswholepronounced likehole? whollylikeholy?What is the difference betweenclothesandcloths?What sound hasainany? How do you remember thatifollowseintheir?What rule applies in the formation ofdying? Point out two words or more in the above in which we have a silentafollowing two consonants to indicate a preceding long vowel. Give cases of a digraph followed by a silente. (Note. Add silentetopastand makepaste—longa.) Is theiinevilsounded? There were nobearsupon this island. Mention another kind ofbear. Observe the difference betweenhardware—— iron goods——andhard wear,meaning tough usage. What is peculiar aboutsoul? impossible? ecstasies? wrapped? deliverance? sign? except? shoes? hunger? thrown? terror? island?
9. I decided to climb into a tree and sit there until the next day, to think what death I should die. As night came on my heart was heavy, since at night beasts come abroad for their prey. Having cut a short stick for my defense, I took up my lodging on a bough, and fell fast asleep. I afterward found I had no reason to fear wild beasts, for never did I meet any harmful animal.
10. When I awoke it was broad day, the weather was clear and I saw the ship driven almost to the rock where I had been so bruised. The ship seeming to stand upright still, I wished myself aboard, that I might save some necessary things for my use.
(Crusoe shows his good judgment in thinking at once of saving something from the ship for his after use. While others would have been bemoaning their fate, he took from the vessel what he knew would prove useful, and in his very labors he at last found happiness. Not only while his home-building was new, but even years after, we find him still hard at work and still inventing new things.)
Questions and Notes. There are twol's intill; why not inuntil?
What other words ending in twol's drop onelin compounds? What two sounds do you find given tooain the preceding paragraphs? What is peculiar aboutclimb? death? dies? night? heart? heavy? since? beasts? prey? defense? lodging? bough? never? harmful? weather? driven? bruised? necessary? judgment? others? happiness? build?
Use the following words in appropriate sentences:clime, dye, pray, bow, write, would. What two pronunciations maybowhave, and what is the difference in meaning? What two sounds mayshave inuse,and what difference do they mark?
What two rules are violated injudgment?What other words are similar exceptions?
11. As I found the water very calm and the ship but a quarter of a mile out, I made up my mind to swim out and get on board her. I at once proceeded to the task. My first work was to search out the provisions, since I was very well disposed to eat. I went to the bread-room and filled my pockets with biscuit. I saw that I wanted nothing but a boat to supply myself with many things which would be necessary to me, and I glanced about me to see how I might meet this need.
12. I found two or three large spars and a spare mast or two, which I threw overboard, tying every one with a rope that it might not drift away. Climbing down the ship's side, I pulled them toward me and tied four of them fast together in the form of a raft, laying two or three pieces of plank upon them crosswise.
13. I now had a raft strong enough to bear any reasonable weight. My next care was to load it. I got three of the seamen's chests, which I managed to break open and empty. These I filled with bread, rice, five pieces of dried goat's flesh, and a little remainder of European grain. There had been some barley and wheat together; but the rats had eaten or spoiled it.
Questions and Notes. Incalmyou have a silentl; what other words can you mention with this silentl? Note the doubleeinproceedandsucceed; precedehas oneewith the silenteat the end. Note thatuis inserted intobiscuitsimply to make thechard beforei; with this allowance, this word is spelled regularly. What is the difference betweensparandspare?What other word have we had pronounced likethrew? Explaintyingandtied. Did any change take place whenedwas added totie? Note thatfouris spelled withoufor the longosound;fortywith a simpleo. How is14spelled? How do you rememberieinpiece? What sound haseiinweight? Mention another word in whicheihas the same sound. What other word is pronounced likebear? How do you spell the word like this which is the name of a kind of animal? In what three ways do you find the long sound ofarepresented in the above paragraphs? Make a list of the words with silent consonants?
14. My next care was for arms. There were two very good fowling-pieces in the great cabin, and two pistols. And now I thought myself pretty well freighted, and began to think how I should get to shore, having neither sail, oar, nor rudder; and the least capful of wind would have overset me.
15. I made many other journeys to the ship, and took away among other things two or three bags of nails, two or three iron crows, and a great roll of sheet lead. This last I had to tear apart and carry away in pieces, it was so heavy. I had the good luck to find a box of sugar and a barrel of fine flour. On my twelfth voyage I found two or three razors with perfect edges, one pair of large scissors, with some ten or a dozen good knives and forks. In a drawer I found some money. “Oh, drug!” I exclaimed. “What art thou good for?”
(To a man alone on a desert island, money certainly has no value. He can buy nothing, sell nothing; he has no debts to be paid; he earns his bread by the sweat of his brow, his business is all with himself and nature, and nature expects no profit, but allows no credit, for a man must pay in work as he goes along. Crusoe had many schemes; but it took a great deal of work to carry them out; and the sum of all was steady work for twenty-five years. In the end we conclude that whatever he got was dearly bought. We come to know what a thing is worth only by measuring its value in the work which it takes to get that thing or to make it, as Crusoe did his chairs, tables, earthenware, etc.)
Questions and Notes. What is peculiar in these words:cabin, pistols, razors, money, value, measuring, bought, barley, capful, roll, successors, desert, certainly?What sound hasouinjourneys?Is this sound foroucommon? What rule applies to the plural ofjourney?How else may we pronouncelead?What part of speech is it there? What is the past participle oflead?Is that pronounced likelead,the metal? How else maytearbe pronounced? What does that other word mean? Find a word in the above paragraphs pronounced likeflower. What other word pronounced likebuy? profit? sum? dear? know? ware?What sound hassinsugar? Make a list of the different ways in which longeis represented. What is peculiar aboutgoes? Make a list of the different ways in which longais represented in the above paragraphs. What sound hasoiniron? Isdsilent inedges? What sound hasaiinpairs? What other word pronounced like this? How do you spell the fruit pronounced likepair? How do you spell the word for the act of taking the skin off any fruit? What sound hasuinbusiness?In what other word has it the same sound? Mention another word in whichchhas the same sound that it has inschemes. What other word in the above hasaiwith the same sound that it has inchairs?
16. I now proceeded to choose a healthy, convenient, and pleasant spot for my home. I had chiefly to consider three things: First, air; second, shelter from the heat; third, safety from wild creatures, whether men or beasts; fourth, a view of the sea, that if God sent any ship in sight I might not lose any chance of deliverance. In the course of my search I found a little plain on the side of a rising hill, with a hollow like the entrance to a cave. Here I resolved to pitch my tent.
(He afterward found a broad, grassy prairie on the other side of the island, where he wished he had made his home. On the slope above grew grapes, lemons, citrons, melons, and other kinds of fruit.)
17. Aft er ten or twelve days it came into my thoughts that I should lose my reckoning for want of pen and ink; but to prevent this I cut with my knife upon a large post in capital letters the following words: “I came on shore here on the 30th of September, 1659.” On the sides of this post I cut every day a notch; and thus I kept my calendar, or weekly, monthly, and yearly reckoning of time.
(He afterward found pen, ink, and paper in the ship; but the record on the post was more lasting than anything he could have written on paper. However, when he got his pen and ink he wrote out a daily journal, giving the history of his life almost to the hour and minute. Thus he tells us that the shocks of earthquake were eight minutes apart, and that he spent eighteen days widening his cave.)
18. I made a strong fence of stakes about my tent that no animal could tear down, and dug a cave in the side of the hill, where I stored my powder and other valuables. Every day I went out with my gun on this scene of silent life. I could only listen to the birds, and hear the wind among the trees. I came out, however, to shoot goats for food. I found that as I came down from the hills into the valleys, the wild goats did not see me; but if they caught sight of me, as they did if I went toward them from below, they would turn tail and run so fast I could capture nothing.
Questions and Notes. Are all words in-ceedspelled with a doublee? What two other common words besidesproceedhave we already studied? What sound haseainhealthy?inpleasant?inplease?How do you remember thaticomes beforeeinchief?What sound hasaiinair?Do you spell 14 and 40 withouas you dofourth?What other word pronounced likesea?Note the three words,lose, loose,andloss;what is the difference in meaning? Why doeschanceend with a silente? change?What other classes of words take a silentewhere we should not expect it? What other word pronounced likecourse?What does it mean? How do you spell the word for the tool with which a carpenter smooths boards? Mention five other words with a silenttbeforech, as inpitch. To remember the order of letters inprairie,notice that there is aninext to theron either side. What other letters represent the vowel sound heard ingrew?What two peculiarities in the spelling ofthoughts?Mention another word in whichouhas the same sound as inthought. How is this sound regularly represented? What other word pronounced likecapital?(Answer.Capitol. The chief government building is called thecapitol;the city in which the seat of government is located is called thecapital,just as the large letters are calledcapitals.) What sound hasuiinfruit?What other two sounds have we had forui? Would you expect a double consonant inmelonsandlemons,or are these words spelled regularly? What is peculiar about the spelling ofcalendar?What other word like it, and what does it mean? What other word spelled likeminute,but pronounced differently? What sound hasuin this word? What other word pronounced likescene?Istsilent inlisten?in often? Why isynot changed toiorieinvalleys?What other plural is made in the same way? Write sentences in which the following words shall be correctly used:are, forth,see (two meanings),cent, cite, coarse, rate, ate, tare, seen, here, site, tale. In what two ways maywindbe pronounced, and what is the difference in meaning?
19. I soon found that I lacked needles, pins, and thread, and especially linen. Yet I made clothes and sewed up the seams with tough stripe of goatskin. I afterward got handkerchiefs and shirts from another wreck. However, for want of tools my work went on heavily; yet I managed to make a chair, a table, and several large shelves. For a long time I was in want of a wagon or carriage of some kind. At last I hewed out a wheel of wood and made a wheelbarrow.
20. I worked as steadily as I could for the rain, for this was the rainy season. I may say I was always busy. I raised a turf wall close outside my double fence, and felt sure if any people came on shore they would not see anything like a dwelling. I also made my rounds in the woods every day. As I have already said, I found plenty of wild goats. I also found a kind of wild pigeon, which builds, not as wood pigeons do, in trees, but in holes of the rocks. The young ones were very good meat.
Questions and Notes. What sound haseainthread?What is peculiar in the spelling ofliven?What is peculiar in the spelling ofhandkerchiefs?wrecks? What rule applied to the formation of the wordheavily?What sound hasaiinchair?Is theior theasilent incarriage?(Look this up in the dictionary.) What sound hasuin busy? What other word with the same sound foru? Is there any word besidespeoplein whicheohas the sound ofelong? In what other compounds besidesalsodoesalldrop onel? What sound hasaiinsaid?Does it have this sound in any other word? What sound haseoinpigeon? uiinbuilds?What other word pronounced likehole?How do you remembereiintheir?
Use the following words in appropriate sentences:so, seem, hew, rein, meet. What differences do you find in the principles of formation ofsecond, wreck, lock, reckon?In what different ways is the sound of longarepresented in paragraphs 19 and 20? What is peculiar intough? especially? handkerchiefs? season? raised? double? fence? already? pigeon? ones? very? were?
21. I found that the seasons of the year might generally be divided, not into summer and winter, as in Europe, but into the rainy seasons and the dry seasons, which were generally thus: From the middle of February to the middle of April (including March), rainy; the sun being then on or near the equinox. From the middle of April to the middle of August (including May, June, and July), dry; the sun being then north of the equator. From the middle of August till the middle of October (including September), rainy; the sun being then come back to the equator. From the middle of October till the middle of February (including November, December, and January), dry; the sun being then to the south of the equator.
22. I have already made mention of some grain that had been spoiled by the rats. Seeing nothing but husks and dust in the bag which had contained this, I shook it out one day under the rock on one side of my cave. It was just before the rainy season began. About a month later I was surprised to see ten or twelve ears of English barley that had sprung up and several stalks of rice. You may be sure I saved the seed, hoping that in time I might have enough grain to supply me with bread. It was not until the fourth season that I could allow myself the least particle to eat, and none of it was ever wasted. From this handful, I had in time all the rice and barley I needed for food,—above forty bushels of each in a year, as I might guess, for I had no measure.
23. I may mention that I took from the ship two cats; and the ship's dog which I found there was so overjoyed to see me that he swam ashore with me. These were much comfort to me. But one of the cats disappeared and I thought she was dead. I heard no more of her till she came home with three kittens. In the end I was so overrun with cats that I had to shoot some, when most of the remainder disappeared in the woods and did not trouble me any more.
Questions and Notes. Why isgsoft ingenerally?How do you pronounceFebruary?What sound ha{ve the}s{'}s insurprised?Mention three or four other words ending in the sound ofizewhich are spelled with ans. What sound hasouinenough?What other words haveghwith the sound off? We have here the spelling of waste——meaning carelessly to destroy or allow to be destroyed; what is the spelling of the word which means the middle of the body? Isfulalways written with onelin derivatives, as inhandfulabove? Mention some other words in whichcehas the sound ofcas inrice. How do you spell14? like forty? Why isuplaced beforeeinguess?Is it part of a digraph withe? What sound haseainmeasure?What sound has it in this word? What other word pronounced likeheard?Which is spelled regularly? How manyl's hastillin compounds? Mention an example.
Use the following words in sentences:herd, write, butt, reign, won, bred, waist, kneaded, sum. What is peculiar aboutyear? divided? equator? December? grain? nothing? contain? barley? until? each? there? thought? some? disappeared? trouble?
24. One day in June I found myself very ill. I had a cold fit and then a hot one, with faint sweats after it. My body ached all over, and I had violent pains in my head. The next day I felt much better, but had dreadful fears of sickness, since I remembered that I was alone, and had no medicines, and not even any food or drink in the house. The following day I had a terrible headache with my chills and fever; but the day after that I was better again, and went out with my gun and shot a she-goat; yet I found myself very weak. After some days, in which I learned to pray to God for the first time after eight years of wicked seafaring life, I made a sort of medicinebysteeping tobacco leaf in rum. I took a large dose of this several times a day. In the course of a week or two I got well; but for some time after I was very pale, and my muscles were weak and flabby.
25. After I had discovered the various kinds of fruit which grew on the other side of the island, especially the grapes which I dried for raisins, my meals were as follows: I ate a bunch of raisins for my breakfast; for dinner a piece of goat's flesh or of turtle broiled; and two or three turtle's eggs for supper. As yet I had nothing in which I could boil or stew anything. When my grain was grown I had nothing with which to mow or reap it, nothing with which to thresh it or separate it from the chaff, no mill to grind it, no sieve to clean it, no yeast or salt to make it into bread, and no oven in which to bake it. I did not even have a water-pail. Yet all these things I did without. In time I contrived earthen vessels which were very useful, though rather rough and coarse; and I built a hearth which I made to answer for an oven.
Questions and Notes. What is peculiar aboutbody?What sound haschinached?Note that there are t{w}oi's inmedicine. What is peculiar abouthouse?What other word pronounced likeweak?Use it in a sentence. What is the plural ofleaf?What are all the differences betweendoesanddose?Why isweekin the phrase “In the course of a week or two” spelled with doubleeinstead ofea?What is irregular about the wordmuscles?Iscsoft beforel? Is it silent inmuscles?What three different sounds mayuihave? Besidesfruit,what other words withui? What sound haseainbreakfast?What two pronunciations has the wordmow?What difference in meaning? What sound haseinthresh?How do you remember theainseparate?What sound hasieinsieve?Do you know any other word in whichiehas this sound? What other sound does it often have? Doeseahave the same sound inearthenandhearth?Iswsounded inanswer?What sound hasoinoven?Use the following words in sentences:week, pole, fruit, pane, weak, course, bred, pail, ruff.
26. You would have smiled to see me sit down to dinner with my family. There was my parrot, which I had taught to speak. My dog was grown very old and crazy; but he sat at my right hand. Then there were my two cats, one on one side of the table and one on the other. Besides these, I had a tame kid or two always about the house, and several sea-fowls whose wings I had clipped. These were my subjects. In their society I felt myself a king. I was lord of all the land about, as far as my eye could reach. I had a broad and wealthy domain. Here I reigned sole master for twenty-five years. Only once did I try to leave my island in a boat; and then I came near being carried out into the ocean forever by an ocean current I had not noticed before.
27. When I had been on the island twenty-three years I was greatly frightened to see a footprint in the sand. For two years after I saw no human being; but then a large company of savages appeared in canoes. When they had landed they built a fire and danced about it. Presently they seemed about to make a feast on two captives they had brought with them. By chance, however, one of them escaped. Two of the band followed him; but he was a swifter runner than they. Now, I thought, is my chance to get a servant. So I ran down the hill, and with the butt of my musket knocked down one of the two pursuers. When I saw the other about to draw his bow. I was obliged to shoot him. The man I had saved seemed at first as frightened at me as were his pursuers. But I beckoned him to come to me and gave him all the signs of encouragement I could think of.
28. He was a handsome fellow, with straight, strong limbs. He had a very good countenance, not a fierce and surly appearance. His hair was long and black, not curled like wool; his forehead was very high and large; and the color of his skin was not quite black, but tawny. His face was round and plump; his nose small, not flat like that of negroes; and he had fine teeth, well set, and as white as ivory.
29. Never man had a more faithful, loving, sincere servant than Friday was to me (for so I called him from the day on which I had saved his life). I was greatly delighted with him and made it my business to teach him everything that was proper to make him useful, handy, and helpful. He was the aptest scholar that ever was, and so merry, and so pleased when he could but understand me, that it was very pleasant to me to talk to him. Now my life began to be so easy, that I said to myself, that could I but feel safe from more savages, I cared not if I were never to remove from the place where I lived.
(Friday was more like a son than a servant to Crusoe. Here was one being who could under-stand human speech, who could learn the difference between right and wrong, who could be neighbor, friend, and companion. Crusoe had often read from his Bible; but now he might teach this heathen also to read from it the truth of life. Friday proved a good boy, and never got into mischief.)
Questions and Notes. What is the singular ofcanoes?What is the meaning ofbutt?How do you spell the word pronounced like this which means a hogshead? In what two ways isbowpronounced? What is the difference in meaning? What other word pronounced likebowwhen it means the front end of a boat?Encouragementhas aneafter theg; do you know two words ending inmentpreceəded by the softgsound which omit the silente? Make a list of all the words you know which, likefierce,haveiewith the sound ofalong. How do you pronounceforehead?Mention two peculiarities in the spelling ofcolor. Compare it withcollar. What is the singular ofnegroes?What other words takeesin the plural? What is the plural oftobacco?Comparespeak,with itseafor the sound ofelong, andspeech,with its doublee. What two peculiarities inneighbor?What sound hasieinfriend?In the last paragraph above, how do you pronounce the first wordread?How the second? What other word pronounced likereadwithealike shorta? Compare tolead, led,and the metallead. How do you pronouncemischief?Use the following words in sentences:foul, reign, sole, strait, currant. What is peculiar in these words:parrot? taught? always? reach? only? leave? island? carried? ocean? notice? built? dance? brought? get? runner? butt? knock?
Derivation of words.
It is always difficult to do two things at the same time, and for that reason no reference has been made in the preceding exercises to the rules for prefixes and suffixes, and in general to the derivation of words. This should be taken up as a separate study, until the meaning of every prefix and suffix is clear in the mind in connection with each word. This study, however, may very well be postponed till the study of grammar has been taken up.
Authorized by Different Dictionaries.
There are not many words which are differently spelled by the various standard dictionaries. The following is a list of the more common ones.
The form preferred by each dictionary is indicated by letters in parantheses as follows: C., Century; S., Standard; I., Webster's International; W., Worcester; E., English usage as represented by the Imperial. When the new Oxford differs from the Imperial, it is indicated by O. Stormonth's English dictionary in many instances prefers Webster's spellings to those of the Imperial.
accoutre (C., W., E.) accouter (S., I.) aluminium (C., I., W., E.) aluminum (S.) analyze (C., S., I., W.) analyse (E.) anesthetic (C., S.) anæsthetic (I., W., E.) appal (C., S., E.) appall (I., W.) asbestos (C., S., W., E.) asbetus (I.) ascendancy (C., W.) ascendancy (S., I., E.) ax (C., S., I.) axe (W., E.) ay [forever] (C., S., O.) aye ¨ (I., W., E.) aye [yes] (C., S., I., O.) ay ¨ (W., E.) bandana (C., E.) bandanna (S.,{ }I.,{ }W.,{ }O.) biased (C., S., I., O.) biassed (W., E.) boulder (C., S., W., E.) bowlder (I.) Brahman (C., S., I., E.) Brahmin (W., O.) braize (C., S.) braise (I., W., E.) calif (C., S., E.) caliph (I., W., O.) callisthenics (C., S., E.) calisthenics (I., W.) cancelation (C., S.) cancellation (I., W., E.) clue (C., S., E.) clew (I., W.) coolie (C., S., E.) cooly (I., W.) courtezan (C., I., E.) courtesan (I., W., O.) cozy (C., S., I.) cosey (W., E.) cosy (O.) crozier (C., I., E.) crosier (I., W., O.) defense (C., S., I.) defence (W., E.)
despatch (C., S., W., E.) dispatch (I., O.) diarrhea (C., S., I.) diarrhœoa (W., E.) dicky (C., W., O.) dickey (S., I., E.) disk (C., S., I., W., O.) disc (E.) distil (C., S., W., E.) distill (I.) dullness (C., I., O.) dulness (S., W., E.) employee (C., S., E.) employé {[male]}(I., W., O.) encumbrance (C., S., W., I.) incumbrance (I.) enforce——see reinforce engulf (C., S., W., E.) ingulf (I.) enrolment (C., S., W., E.) enrollment (I.) enthrall (C., S., E.) inthrall (I., W.) equivoke (C., S., W.) equivoque (I., E.) escalloped (C., S., O.) escaloped (I., W., E.) esthetic (C., S.) æsthetic (I., W., E.) feces (C., S.) fæces (I., W., E.) fetish (C., S., O.) fetich (I., W., E.) fetus (C., S., I., E.) fœtus (W., O.) flunky (C., S., I., W.) flunkey (E.) fulfil (C., S., W., E.) fulfill (I.) fullness (C., I., O.) fulness (S., W., E.) gage [measure] (C., S.) gauge ¨ (I., W., E{.)} gaiety (C., S., E.) gayety (I., W.) gazel (C., S.) gazelle (I., W., E.) guild (I., W., E.) gild (C., S.) gipsy (C., S., O.) gypsy (I., W., E.) gram (C., S., I.) gramme (W., E.) gruesome (C., S., O.) grewsome (I., W., E.) harken (C., S.) hearken (I., W., E.) hindrance (C., S., I., O.) hinderance (W., E.) Hindu (C., S., E.) Hindoo (I., W.) Hindustani (C., S., E.) Hindoostanee (I.) homeopathic (C., S., I.) homœopathic (W., E.) impale (C., I., E.) empale (S., W.) incase (C., S., I., E.) encase (W., O.) inclose (C., I., E.) enclose (S., W., O.) instil (C., S., W., E.) instill (I.) jewelry (C., S., I., E.) jewellery (W., O.) kumiss (C., S., E.) koumiss (I., W., O.) maugre (C., S., W., E.) mauger (I.) meager (C., S., I.) meagre (W., E.)
medieval (C., S.) mediæval (I., W., E.) mold (C., S., I.) mould (W., E.) molt (C., S., I.) moult (W., E) offense (C., S., I.) offence (W., E.) pandoor (C., W., E.) pandour (S., I.) papoose (C., S., W., E.) pappoose (W.) paralyze (C., S., W., I.) paralyse (E.) pasha (C., S., I., E.) pacha (W.) peddler (C., I.) pedler (S., W.) pedlar (E.) phenix (C., S., I.) phœnix (W., E.) plow (C., S., I.) plough (W., E.) pretense (C., S., I.) pretence (W., E.) program (C., S.) programme (I., W., E.) racoon (C.) raccoon (S., I., W., E.) rajah (I., W., E.) raja (C., S.) reconnaissance (C., S., E.) reconnoissance (I., W.) referable (C., S., I.) referrible (W., E.) reinforce (C., E.) reënforce (S., I., W.) reverie (C., S., I., E.) revery (W.) rhyme (I., W., E.) rime (C., S.)
rondeau (W., E.) rondo (C., S., I.) shinny (C., S.) shinty (I., W., E.) skean (C., S., I., E.) skain (W.) skilful (C., S., W., E.) skillful (I.) smolder (C., S., I.) smoulder (W., E.) spoony (C., S., E.) spooney (I., W.) sumac (C., S., I., E.) sumach (W.) swingletree (C., S., W.) singletree (I.) synonym (C., S., I., E.) synonyme (W.) syrup (C., E.) sirup (S., I., W.) Tartar (I., W., E.) Tatar (C., S.) threnody (C., S., W., E.) threnode (I.) tigerish (C., S., I.) tigrish (W., E.) timbal (C., S.) tymbal (I., W., E) titbit (C., S.) tidbit (I., W., E.) vise [tool] (C., S., I.) vice ¨ (W., E.) vizier (S., I., W., E.) vizir (C.) visor (I., W., E.) vizor (C., S.) whippletree (S., I., W., E.) whiffletree (C.) whimsy (C., S.) whimsey (I., W., E.)
whisky (C., S., I., E.)whiskey (W.{, Irish})wilful (C., S., W., E.)willful (I.)woeful (C., I., E.)woful (S., W.)worshiped (C., S., I.)worshipped (W., E.)
All dictionaries but the Century makeenvelopthe verb,envelopethe noun. The Century spells the nounenvelopas well as the verb.
According to the Century, Worcester, and the English dictionaries,practise(withs) is the verb,practice(withc) is the noun. The Standard spells bothpractise,and Webster both practice.
Doubling l.
Worcester and the English dictionaries double a finallin all cases when a syllable is added, Webster, the Century, and the Standard only when the rule requires it. Thus: wool——woollen, Jewel——jewelled, travel——traveller.
Re for er.
The following are the words which Worcester and the English dictionaries spellre, while Webster, the Century, and the Standard preferer:Calibre, centre, litre, lustre, manœuvre (I. maneuver), meagre, metre, mitre, nitre, ochre, ombre, piastre, sabre, sceptre, sepulchre, sombre, spectre, theatre, zaffre,{.}
English words with our.
The following are the words in which the English retain theuin endings spelledorby American dictionaries. All other words, such asauthor, emperor,etc., though formerly spelled withu,no longer retain it even in England:
Arbour, ardour, armour, behaviour, candour, clamour, colour, contour, demeanour, dolour, enamour, endeavour, favour, fervour, flavour, glamour, harbour, honour, humour, labour, neighbour, odour, parlour, rancour, rigour, rumour, saviour, splendour, succour, tabour, tambour, tremour, valour, vapour, vigour,.
_____________________________________________________________________
THE ART σƒ WRITING & SPEAKING ךђℓ ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Special S Y S T E M Edition
COMPOSITION & Rhetoric
The Old Greek PressChicago New{ }York Boston
Revised Edition.
Copyright,1903,BY SHERWIN CODY.
Note. The thanks of the author are due to Dr. Edwin H. Lewis, of the Lewis Institute, Chicago, and to Prof. John F. Genung, Ph. D., of Amherst College, for suggestions made after reading the proof of this series.
INTRODUCTION.——THE METHOD OF THE MASTERS… 7СНАРТΕR I. DICTION.CHAPTER II. FIGURES OF SPEECH.CHAPTER III. STYLE.CHAPTER IV. HUMOR.———Addison, Stevenson, Lamb.CHAPTER V. RIDICULE.———Poe.CHAPTER VI. THE RHETORICAL, IMPASSIONED AND LOFTY STYLES.———Macaulay and De Quincey.CHAPTER VII. RESERVE.———Thackeray.CHAPTER VIII. CRITICISM.———Matthew Arnold and Ruskin.CHAPTER IX. THE STYLE OF FICTION:NARRATIVE, DESCRIPTION, AND DIALOGUE.————Dickens.CHAPTER X. THE EPIGRAMMATIC STYLE.————Stephen Crane.CHAPTER XI. THE POWER OF SIMPLICITY.————The Bible, Franklin, Lincoln.CHAPTER XII. HARMONY OF STYLE.————Irving and Hawthorne.CHAPTER XIII. IMAGINATION AND REALITY.————THE AUDIENCE.CHAPTER XIV. THE USE OF MODELS IN WRITING FICTION.CHAPTER XV. CONTRAST.APPENDIX
For Learning to Write and Speak Masterly English.
The first textbook on rhetoric which still remains to us was written by Aristotle. He defines rhetoric as the art of writing effectively, viewing it primarily as the art of persuasion in public speaking, but making it include all the devices for convincing or moving the mind of the hearer or reader.
Aristotle's treatise is profound and scholarly, and every textbook of rhetoric since written is little more than a restatement of some part of his comprehensive work. It is a scientific analysis of the subject, prepared for critics and men of a highly cultured and investigating turn of mind, and was not originally intended to instruct ordinary persons in the management of words and sentences for practical purposes.
While no one doubts that an ordinary command of words may be learned, there is an almost universal impression in the public mind, and has been even from the time of Aristotle himself, that writing well or ill is almost purely a matter of talent, genius, or, let us say, instinct. It has been truly observed that the formal study of rhetoric never has made a single successful writer, and a great many writers have succeeded preëminently without ever having opened a rhetorical textbook. It has not been difficult, therefore, to come to the conclusion that writing well or ill comes by nature alone, and that all we can do is to pray for luck,—or, at the most, to practise incessantly. Write, write, write; and keep on writing; and destroy what you write and write again; cover a ton of paper with ink; some day perhaps you will succeed—says the literary adviser to the young author. And to the business man who has letters to write and wishes to write them well, no one ever says anything. The business man himself has begun to have a vague impression that he would like to improve his command of language; but who is there who even pretends to have any power to help him? There is the school grind of “grammar and composition,” and if it is kept up for enough years, and the student happens to find any point of interest in it, some good may result from it. That is the best that anyone has to offer.
Some thoughtful people are convinced that writing, even business letters, is as much a matter for professional training as music or painting or carpentry or plumbing. That view certainly seems reasonable. And against that is the conviction of the general public that use of language is an art essentially different from any of the other arts, that all people possess it more or less, and that the degree to which they possess it depends on their general education and environment; while the few who possess it in a preëminent degree, do so by reason of peculiar endowments and talent, not to say genius. This latter view, too, is full of truth. We have only to reflect a moment to see that rhetoric as it is commonly taught can by no possibility give actual skill. Rhetoric is a system of scientific analysis. Aristotle was a scientist, not an artist. Analysis tears to pieces, divides into parts, and so destroys. The practical art of writing is wholly synthesis,—building up, putting together, creating, —and so, of course, a matter of instinct. All the dissection, or vivisection, in the world, would never teach a man how to bring a human being into the world, or any other living thing; yet the untaught instinct of all animals solves the problem of creation every minute of the world's history. In fact, it is a favorite comparison to speak of poems, stories, and other works of literary art as being the children of the writer's brain; as if works of literary art came about in precisely the same simple, yet mysterious, way that children are conceived and brought into the world.
Yet the comparison must not be pushed too far, and we must not lose sight of the facts in the case. You and I were not especially endowed with literary talent. Perhaps we are business men and are glad we are not so endowed. But we want to write and speak better than we do, —if possible, better than those with whom we have to compete. Now, is there not a practical way in which we can help ourselves? There is no thought that we shall become geniuses, or anything of the kind. For us, why should there be any difference between plumbing and writing? If all men were born plumbers, still some would be much better than others, and no doubt the poor ones could improve their work in a great measure, simply by getting hints and trying. However, we all know that the trying will not doverymuch good without the hints. Now, where are the master-plumber's hints—or rather, the master-writer's hints, for the apprentice writer?
No doubt some half million unsuccessful authors will jump to their feet on the instant and offer their services. But the business man is not convinced of their ability to help him. Nor does he expect very much real help from the hundred thousand school teachers who teach “grammar and composition” in the schools. The fact is, the rank and file of teachers in the common schools have learned just enough to know that they want help themselves. Probably there is not a more eager class in existence than they.
The stock advice of successful authors is, Practise. But unluckily I have practised, and it does not seem, to do any good. “I write one hundred long letters (or rather dictate them to my stenographer) every day,” says the business man. “My newspaper reports would fill a hundred splendid folios,” says the newspaper man, “and yet—and yet—I can't seem to hit it when I write a novel.” No, practice without guidance will not do very much, especially if we happen to be of the huge class of the uninspired. Our lack of genius, however, does not seem to be a reason why we should continue utterly ignorant of the art of making ourselves felt as well as heard when we use words. Here again use of language differs somewhat from painting or music, for unless we had some talent there would be no reason for attempting those arts.
Let us attack our problem from a common-sense point of view. How have greater writers learned to write? How do plumbers learn plumbing?
The process by which plumbers learn is simple. They watch the master-plumber, and then try to do likewise, and they keep at this for two or three years. At the end they are themselves master-plumbers, or at least masters of plumbing.
The method by which great writers, especially great writers who didn't start with a peculiar genius, have learned to write is much the same. Take Stevenson, for instance: he says he “played the sedulous ape.” He studied the masterpieces of literature, and tried to imitate them. He kept at this for several years. At the end he was a master himself. We have reason to believe that the same was true of Thackeray, of Dumas, of Cooper, of Balzac, of Lowell. All these men owe their skill very largely to practice in imitation of other great writers, and often of writers not as great as they themselves. Moreover, no one will accuse any of these writers of not being original in the highest degree. To imitate a dozen or fifty great writers never makes imitators; the imitator, so called, is the person who imitates one. To imitate even two destroys all the bad effects of imitation.
Franklin, himself a great writer, well describes the method in his autobiography:
How Franklin Learned to Write.
“A question was once, somehow or other, started between Collins and me, of the propriety of educating the female sex in learning, and their abilities for study. He was of the opinion that it was improper, and that they were naturally unequal to it. I took the contrary side, perhaps a little for dispute's sake. He was naturally more eloquent, having a ready plenty of words, and sometimes, as I thought, I was vanquished more by his fluency than by the strength of his reasons. As we parted without settling the point, and were not to see one another again for some time, I sat down to put my arguments in writing, which I copied fair and sent to him. He answered, and I replied. Three or four letters on a side had passed, when my father happened to find my papers and read them. Without entering into the subject in dispute, he took occasion to talk to me about the manner of my writing; observed that, though I had the advantage of my antagonist in correct spelling and pointing (which I owed to the printing-house), I fell far short in elegance of expression, in method, and in perspicuity, of which he convinced me by several instances. I saw the justice of his remarks, and thence grew more attentive to the manner in writing, and determined to endeavor an improvement.
“About this time I met with an odd volume of theSpectator. It was the third. I had never before seen any of them. I bought it, read it over and over, and was much delighted with it. I thought the writing excellent, and wished it possible to imitate it. With this view I took some of the papers, and making short hints of the sentiments in each sentence, laid them by a few days, and then, without looking at the book, tried to complete the papers again, by expressing each hinted sentiment at length, and as fully as it had been expressed before, in any suitable words that should come to hand. Then I compared mySpectatorwith the original, discovered some of my faults, and corrected them. But I found I wanted a stock of words, or a readiness in recollecting and using them, which I thought I should have acquired before that time if I had gone on making verses, since the continued search for words of the same import, but of different length to suit the measure, or of different sound for the rhyme, would have laid me under a constant necessity of searching for variety, and also have tended to fix that variety in mind, and make me master of it. Therefore I took some of the tales and turned them into verse; and, after a time, when I had pretty well forgotten the prose, turned them back again.
“I also sometimes jumbled my collection of hints into confusion, and after some weeks endeavored to reduce them into the best order before I began to form the full sentences and complete the subject. This was to teach me method in the arrangement of the thoughts. By comparing my work with the original, I discovered my faults and amended them; but I sometimes had the pleasure of fancying, that, in certain particulars of small import, I had been fortunate enough to improve the method or the language, and this encouraged me to think that I might possibly in time come to be a tolerable English writer; of which I was extremely ambitious. My time for these exercises and for reading was at night, after work, or before it began in the morning, or on Sundays, when I contrived to be in the printing-house alone, evading as much as I could the common attendance on public worship which my father used to exact of me when I was under his care, and which indeed I still continued to consider a duty, though I could not, as it seemed to me, afford time to practise it.”
A Practical Method.
Aristotle's method, though perfect in theory, has failed in practice. Franklin's method is too elementary and undeveloped to be of general use. Taking Aristotle's method (represented by our standard textbooks on rhetoric) as our guide, let us develop Franklin's method into a system as varied and complete as Aristotle's. We shall then have a method at the same time practical and scholarly.
We have studied the art of writing words correctly (spelling) and writing sentences correctly (grammar).* Now we wish to learn to write sentences, paragraphs, and entire compositionseffectively.
*See the earlier volume$ in this series.
First, we must form the habit of observing the meanings and values of words, the structure of sentences, of paragraphs, and of entire compositions as we read standard literature—just as we have been trying to form the habit of observing the spelling of words, and the logical relationships of words in sentences. In order that we may know what to look for in our observation we must analyse alittle,but we will not imagine that we shall learn to do a thing by endless talk about doing it.
Second, we will practise in the imitation of selections from master writers, in every case fixing our attention on the rhetorical element each particular writer best illustrates. This imitation will be continued until we have mastered the subject toward which we are especially directing our attention, and all the subjects which go to the making of an accomplished writer.
Third, we will finally make independent compositions for ourselves with a view to studying and expressing the stock of ideas which we have to express. This will involve a study of the people on whom we wish to impress our ideas, and require that we constantly test the results of our work to see what the actual effect on the mind of our audience is.
Let us now begin our work.
“Diction” is derived from the Latindictio,a word, and in rhetoric it denotes choice of words. In the study of grammar we have learned that all words have logical relationships in sentences, and in some cases certain forms to agree with particular relationships. We have also taken note of “idioms,” in which words are used with peculiar values.
On the subject of Idiom Arlo Bates in his book “On Writing English” has some very forcible remarks. Says he, “An idiom is the personal—if the word may be allowed—the personal idiosyncrasy of a language. It is a method of speech wherein the genius of the race making the language shows itself as differing from that of all other peoples. What style is to the man, that is idiom to the race. It is the crystalization in verbal forms of peculiarities of race temperament— perhaps even of race eccentricities …… English which is not idiomatic becomes at once formal and lifeless, as if the tongue were already dead and its remains embalmed in those honorable sepulchres, the philological dictionaries. On the other hand, English which goes too far, and fails of a delicate distinction between what is really and essentially idiomatic and what is colloquial, becomes at once vulgar and utterly wanting in that subtle quality of dignity for which there is no better term thandistinction.”*
*As examples of idioms Mr. Bates gives the following: A ten-foot (instead of ten-feet) pole; the use of the “flat adverb” or adjective form in such expressions as “speak loud.” “walk fast,” “the sun shines hot,” “drink deep;” and the use of prepositions adverbially at the end of a sentence, as in “Where are you going to?” “The subject which I spoke to you about,” etc.
We therefore see that idiom is not only a thing to justify, but something to strive for with all our might. The use of it gives character to our selection of words, and better than anything else illustrates what we should be looking for in forming our habit of observing the meanings and uses of words as we read.
Another thing we ought to note in our study of words is thesuggestionwhich many words carry with them in addition to their obvious meaning. For instance, consider what a world of ideas the mere name of Lincoln or Washington or Franklin or Napoleon or Christ calls up. On their face they are but names of men, or possibly sometimes of places; but we cannot utter the name of Lincoln without thinking of the whole terrible struggle of our Civil War; the name of Washington, without thinking of nobility, patriotism, and self-sacrifice in a pure and great man; Napoleon, without thinking of ambition and blood; of Christ, without lifting our eyes to the sky in an attitude of worship and thanksgiving to God. So common words carry with them a world of suggested thought. The worddrunkcalls up a picture horrid and disgusting;violetsuggests blueness, sweetness, and innocence;oaksuggests sturdy courage and strength;lovesuggests all that is dear in the histories of our own lives. Just what will be suggested depends largely on the person who hears the word, and in thinking of suggestion we must reflect also on the minds of the persons to whom we speak.
The best practical exercise for the enlargement of one's vocabulary is translating, or writing verses. Franklin commends verse-writing, but it is hardly mechanical enough to be of value in all cases. At the same time, many people are not in a position to translate from a foreign language; and even if they were, the danger of acquiring foreign idioms and strange uses of words is so great as to offset the positive gain. But we can easily exercise ourselves in translating one kind of English into another, as poetry into prose, or an antique style into modern. To do this the constant use of the English dictionary will be necessary, and incidentally we shall learn a great deal about words.
As an example of this method of study, we subjoin a series of notes on the passage quoted from Franklin in the last chapter. In our study we constantly ask ourselves, “Does this use of the word sound perfectly natural?” At every point we appeal to ourinstinct,and in time come to trust it to a very great extent. We even train it. To train our instinct for words is the first great object of our study.
Notes on Franklin.(See “How Franklin Learned to Write” in preceding chapter.)
1. “The female sex” includes animals as well as human beings, and in modern times we say simply “women,” though when Franklin wrote “the female sex” was considered an elegant phrase.
2. Note that “their” refers to the collective noun “sex.”
3. If we confine the possessive case to persons we would not say “for dispute's sake,” and indeed “for the sake of dispute” is just as good, if not better, in other respects.
4. “Ready plenty” is antique usage for “ready abundance.” Which is the stronger?
5. “Reasons” in the phrase “strength of his reasons” is a simple and forcible substitute for “arguments.”
6. “Copied fair” shows an idiomatic use of an adjective form which perhaps can be justified, but the combination has given way in these days to “made a fair copy of.”
7. Observe that Franklin uses “pointing” forpunctuation,and “printing-house” forprinting-office.
8. The old idiom “endeavor at improvement” has been changed toendeavor to improve,orendeavor to make improvement.
9. Note how the use of the wordsentimenthas changed. We would be more likely to sayideasin a connection like this.
10. For “laid them by,” saylaid them away.
11. For “laid me under …… necessity” we might saycompelled me,ormade it necessary that I should.
12. “Amended” is not so common now ascorrected.
13. For “evading” (attendance at public worship) we should now sayavoiding. We “evade” more subtle things than attendance at church.
There are many other slight differences in the use of words which the student will observe. It would be an excellent exercise to write out, not only this passage, but a number of others from the Autobiography, in the most perfect of simple modern English.
We may also take a modern writer like Kipling and translate his style into simple, yet attractive and good prose; and the same process may be applied to any of the selections in this book, simply trying to find equivalent and if possible equally good words to express the same ideas, or slight variations of the same ideas. Robinson Crusoe, Bacon's Essays, and Pilgrim's Progress are excellent books to translate into modern prose. The chief thing is to do the work slowly and thoughtfully.
It is not an easy thing to pass from the logical precision of grammar to the vague suggestiveness of words that call up whole troops of ideas not contained in the simple idea for which a word stands. Specific idioms are themselves at variance with grammar and logic, and the grammarians are forever fighting them; but when we go into the vague realm of poetic style, the logical mind is lost at once. And yet it is more important to use words pregnant with meaning than to be strictly grammatical. We must reduce grammar to an instinct that will guard us against being contradictory or crude in our construction of sentences, and then we shall make that instinct harmonize with all the other instincts which a successful writer must have. When grammar is treated (as we have tried to treat it) as “logical instinct,” then there can be no conflict with other instincts.
The suggestiveness of words finds its specific embodiment in the so called “figures of speech.” We must examine them a little, because when we come to such an expression as “The kettle boils” after a few lessons in tracing logical connections, we are likely to say without hesitation that we have found an error, an absurdity. On its face it is an absurdity to say “The kettle boils” when we mean “The water in the kettle boils.” But reflection will show us that we have merely condensed our words a little. Many idioms are curious condensations, and many figures of speech may be explained as natural and easy condensations. We have already seen such a condensation in “more complete” for “more nearly complete.”
The following definitions and illustrations are for reference. We do not need to know the names of any of these figures in order to use them, and it is altogether probable that learning to name and analyse them will to some extent make us too self-conscious to use them at all. At the same time, they will help us to explain things that otherwise might puzzle us in our study.
1. Simile. The simplest figure of speech is thesimile. It is nothing more or less than a direct comparison by the use of such words aslikeandas.
Examples: Unstable as water, thou shalt not excel. How often would I have gathered my children together, as a hen doth gather her broodunder her wings! The Kingdom of God is like a grain of mustard seed, is like leaven hidden in three measures of meal. Their lives glide on like rivers that water the woodland. Mercy droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven upon the place beneath.
2. Metaphor. Ametaphoris an implied or assumed comparison. The wordslikeandasare no longer used, but the construction of the sentence is such that the comparison is taken for granted and the thing to which comparison is made is treated as if it were the thing itself.
Examples: The valiant taste of death but once. Stop my house's ears. His strong mind reeled under the blow. The compressed passions of a century exploded in the French Revolution. It was written at a white heat. He can scarcely keep the wolf from the door. Strike while the iron is hot. Murray's eloquence never blazed into sudden flashes, but its clear, placid, and mellow splendor was never overclouded.
The metaphor is the commonest figure of speech. Our language is a sort of burying-ground of faded metaphors. Look up in the dictionary the etymology of such words asobvious, ruminating, insuperable, dainty, ponder,etc., and you will see that they got their present meanings through metaphors which have now so faded that we no longer recognize them.
Sometimes we get into trouble by introducing two comparisons in the same sentence or paragraph, one of which contradicts the other. Thus should we say “Pilot us through the wilderness of life” we would introduce two figures of speech, that of a ship being piloted and that of a caravan in a wilderness being guided, which would contradict each other. This is called a “mixed metaphor.”
3. Allusion. Sometimes a metaphor consists in a reference or allusion to a well known passage in literature or a fact of history.Examples: Daily, with souls that cringe and plot, we Sinais climb and know it not. (Reference to Moses on Mt. Sinai). He received the lion's share of the profits. (Reference to the fable of the lion's share). Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed by a kiss. (Reference to the betrayal of Christ by Judas).