The story of Spanish ivory-work is shortly told, for probably no craft, excepting glass, has been so little practised in this country. The older Spanish writers rarely mention it, although from time to time this substance may have been employed for carving diptyches and boxes, and Roderick is stated to have entered the battle of the Guadalete in an ivory car, by which is meant, perhaps, a chariot of Byzantine make or pattern, covered with ivory plates. However, properly speaking, the history of this art as exercised in Spain begins in the eleventh century, attains its prime towards the fourteenth century, and ceases altogether at the time of the Renaissance.
Among the ivory objects now preserved in Spain, and which were wrought by artists other than Mohammedan, none is more interesting or important than the consular diptych of Oviedo cathedral. Although this valuable diptych wasnot made in Spain, but manifests Byzantine art in all its purity, it well deserves to be described. It consists of two ivory tablets measuring sixteen inches and a half in height by twelve inches and a half across both leaves. Each leaf has a simple border of a triple form, and just inside each corner is a circular floral ornament in relief, with a lion's head in the centre. Another ornament, also circular, is in the centre of each leaf, and contains, carved within a graceful S-shaped border, a half-length portrait of the Consul, who is represented in the act of throwing down into the amphitheatre hismappaor handkerchief[56]with his right hand, while in his left he holds the sceptre (scipio imaginifer), crowned with a small bust. His hair is curled in the Byzantine fashion, and his costume is a richly decorated toga.
An inscription runs along the top of either tablet, between the border and the circular devices carved with flowers. It says:—
Flavius Strategius Apion—Strategius Apion. Vir inlustris Comes Devotissimorum Domesticorum et Consul ordinarius.
see captionXXXVIIIVORY BOX(9th Century. Madrid Museum)
XXXVIIIVORY BOX(9th Century. Madrid Museum)
We gather, therefore, that this magnate was achamberlain at court, as well as ordinary consul.
Diptyches were used among the Romans for all kinds of purposes, such as to convey love-messages, as invitations to a banquet, or to notify the celebration of feasts and games. We find the diptych also used in Christian temples from the time of Constantine, serving to record church festivals or names of saints and martyrs, as covers for a copy of the gospel (diptycha evangeliorum), or as reliquaries (thecae reliquiarum). Sometimes these diptyches were wrought expressly for the church, or sometimes they were consular diptyches that had been preserved from former ages. This latter class, when cleansed from pagan usage and devoted to the ceremonies of the Christian faith, was known asdiptycha mixta.
Such early objects as were wrought in ivory by Spanish hands, consisting as a rule of circular or oblong, square or oval caskets, were principally carved by Moors or Mudejares. Among the Spanish-Moorish boxes which are still preserved are several of the greatest interest and beauty (Platesxxxviii.,xxxix.,xl.). One of them, made from pieces of an older casket believed to date from earlier than the Moorish conquest, is inthe National Museum. The decoration in its present form consists of Arabic inscriptions in relief, together with figures of the apostles. This casket, which proceeds from the Colegiata of Saint Isidore at León, measures seven inches in length by five in depth and six in height, and has been used as a reliquary.
Another, dating from the middle of the eleventh century and proceeding from the same temple as the one just noticed, is also in the National Museum. It was a present from the Emir Mohammed Almotamid-Aben-Abed to his second wife, Al-Badir (“the Moon”), and includes among the decoration dogs and doves, symbolic of affection and fidelity. The style of carving is what is known as Persian-Arabic. We do not know, however, whether the box was imported from the East, or whether it was made in Spain by somebody of Persian parentage or skilled in Persian art. The material is a delicatetaraceaof sandal, aloe, and cypress woods inlaid on larch. The box, which was used at León as a reliquary, has bronze clasps, and is inscribed along the top with sentences from which we learn that it was made by Aben-As-Serag.
see captionXXXVIIIIVORY CASKET(Moorish; 11th Century. Pamplona Cathedral)
XXXVIIIIVORY CASKET(Moorish; 11th Century. Pamplona Cathedral)
In the cathedral of Pamplona is a magnificentivory box (Platexxxviii.) which was originally at Sangüesa in Navarre. It measures, says Riaño, fifteen inches long by nine and a quarter inches wide. “It is completely covered with carvings in relief, within circular cusped medallions, with figures in the centres representing different subjects; men seated, hawking, or struggling with wild beasts, and numerous single figures of lions, stags, and other animals. The intermediate spaces contain an ornamentation of leaves and flowers which is accommodated to the geometrical style of Saracenic art. Round the upper part of this box appears an Arabic inscription in fine Cufic characters:—‘In the name of God. The blessing of God, the complete felicity, the happiness, the fulfilment of the hope of good works, and the adjourning the fatal period (of death), be with the Hagib Seifo daula (sword of the State), Abdelmalek ben Almansur. This (box) was made by the orders (of the said Hagib), under the inspection or direction of his chief eunuch, Nomayr ben Mohammad Alaumeri, his slave, in the year of 395 (a.d.1005).’
“In the centre medallion, on the opposite side to the lock, is represented the standing figure of a man who is attacked by two lions. He holdson his arm a shield, upon which is engraved an inscription, with the following religious formula: ‘There is no god but God,’ or a similar one, for the characters are very illegible and confused. In the centre of this shield may be read the words, ‘Made by Hair,’ undoubtedly one of the artists who made the box. Another artist's name may be read with difficulty in a similar inscription which appears on one of the medallions on the left side; it is written on the thigh of a stag, which is attacked by a lion: ‘It was made by Obeidat.’ Three other inscriptions of a similar character appear in other parts of this box, which probably give the names of other artists, but I have been unable to decipher them.”
see captionXXXIXIVORY BOX(11th Century. Palencia Cathedral)
XXXIXIVORY BOX(11th Century. Palencia Cathedral)
Other interesting boxes dating from the same period are that of Santo Domingo de Silos at Burgos, and several which are in the National Museum at Madrid. The box which is preserved at Burgos is made of ivory, and measures thirteen inches and a quarter in length by seven inches and a half in width and height. The decorative work consists of hunting scenes, and also of an inscription in Cufic characters which says: “Permanent felicity for the owner (of this box). May God lengthen his days. It was made at Medina …;[57]in the year four hundred and seventeen (a.d.1025). It is the work of his servant Mohammed-ibn-Zeiyan. May God glorify him.”
There is also in the provincial museum of Burgos a handsome ivory diptych which was formerly at the convent of Santo Domingo de Silos. It bears at each extremity—that is, four times repeated—the following inscription:—“This was ordered to be made by the Iman, servant of God, Abd-er-Rhaman, prince of believers.”
Among the rectangular boxes in the National Museum is one of carved ivory, with an inscription recording it to have been a gift from Prince Ali to one of the favourites of his harem, and another of the same material which was once upon a time at Carrion de los Condes, in the province of Palencia. This box is painted with a decorative pattern in carmine and dark green. The lid, which is imperfect, contains the following inscription in Cufic characters, standing boldly out against a green ground:—“In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The protection of Allah and an impending victory for the servant of Allah …; and his wali MaadAbu-Temim—the Iman Al-Moez …; prince of believers (the blessing of Allah be upon him and his sons the good). (This) was commanded to be made for (celebrating) the fortunate victory. It was made by …; Jorasani.” The length of this box is eighteen inches, and its height nine inches.
A fine Moorish box (Platexxxix.), now in the cathedral of Palencia, is covered with elaborately engraved and perforated ivory plates upon a ground of gilt leather backed by wood, and further ornamented with enamel-work upon a copper surface. This box is fourteen inches long, and has a gable top. The decoration on the sides and lid consists of palm-leaves, birds, and men engaged in combating and chasing antelopes and lions in the characteristic manner of Assyrian art. A lengthy Cufic inscription tells us that the box was made at Cuenca (Medina Cuenca) by Abd-er-Rahman ben Ziyan, to the order of the Moorish princes of Toledo, and that it dates from the year 441 of the Hegira.[58]Vives has pointed out that Cuenca was evidentlya principal centre of this industry, and that caskets executed here about this time exist in Perpignan cathedral and in the provincial museum of Burgos.
Riaño mentions seven ivory boxes of particular interest, which were probably made in Spain by Spanish Arabs, or else by Eastern craftsmen who had emigrated to this country. “On all their carving,” he adds, “the names of Spanish historical persons appear, and it is hardly possible that they were ordered in remote countries, especially as some of these objects are small and comparatively unimportant.”
see captionXLHISPANO-MORESQUE IVORY CASKET(13th Century. Royal Academy of History, Madrid)
XLHISPANO-MORESQUE IVORY CASKET(13th Century. Royal Academy of History, Madrid)
Two of these boxes are in the South Kensington Museum. The one which is cylindrical in shape and has a domed cover is thus described by Maskell in hisIvories, Ancient and Mediæval, in the South Kensington Museum:—“This beautiful box is carved throughout, except the bottom of it, with interlacing narrow bands forming quatrefoils, in which, on the cover, are four eagles. These have spread wings and stand erect; well designed and most delicately executed. A small knob serves to lift the lid.
“Round the side, each quatrefoil is filled with a star having a leaf ornament. The same decorationis repeated in the spaces between the larger quatrefoils on the cover.”
“The whole is carved in pierced work, except a band which forms the upper upright portion of the box, round the side of the lid. This band has an Arabic inscription: ‘A favour of God to the servant of God, Al Hakem al Mostanser Billah, commander of the faithful.’ He was a Caliph who reigned at Cordova,a.d.961–976.”
The other box is oblong and rectangular. “The cover and sides are carved with scroll foliated ornament; the hinges and clasp are of chased silver inlaid with niello. Round the sides, immediately below the lid, is the following Arabic inscription in Cufic characters:—‘In the name of God. This (box) was ordered to be made by Seidat Allah, the wife of Abd-er-Rahman, prince of the believers. God be merciful and satisfied with him.’” This inscription, adds Riaño, “must allude to Abd-er-Rahman the Third, the first Caliph of Cordova who bore the title of Emir, el Mumenin. The formula ‘God be merciful,’ etc., denotes that he was dead when it was written. He dieda.d.961.”
see captionXLIIVORY CRUCIFIX(11th Century. Madrid Museum)
XLIIVORY CRUCIFIX(11th Century. Madrid Museum)
Another Spanish-Moorish casket, also at South Kensington, and dating from the eleventh century,is described by Maskell as “richly carved in deep relief with foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing one another, and forming larger and smaller circles. The top and each side is a single plaque of ivory; the sloping lid at the front and back has two panels. On the two are two animals, like doves; a large bird stands at the back of each, attacking it with his beak. The sloping sides have, in the large circles, men on horseback, and animals fighting. The intermediate spaces are completely filled with foliage, and smaller beasts. Similar subjects are repeated in the circles on the panels forming the lower sides of the casket, and among them are two groups of men and women sitting; one blowing a horn, another playing on a guitar, another holding a cup in one hand and a flower in the other.” Riaño adds: “There is no inscription on this casket, but in one of the medallions on the lid there is a bust, which is carried on the back of a horse, and which is probably a representation of the prince for whom the casket was made.”
see captionXLI (a)IVORY CRUCIFIX(11th Century. Back view. Madrid Museum)
XLI (a)IVORY CRUCIFIX(11th Century. Back view. Madrid Museum)
TheLetter of Testamentsetting forth the various objects bequeathed by Ferdinand the First and his consort Sancha to the church of Saint John the Baptist (or of Saint Isidore) atLeón, mentions an ivory cross (which will be noticed presently), an ivory box fitted with gold, and two ivory boxes fitted with silver, one of them containing three other silver boxes, similarly decorated.
One of these boxes is described by Ambrosio de Morales, and from his words we conclude it to be the one which was adorned with gold, “of which metal,” he wrote in 1572, “it has even more than of ivory,” adding that it measured more than half a yard in length, and enshrined the body of Saint Vincent of Avila. He also tells us that it bore the following inscription, carved upon a golden frieze:—
ARCULA SANCTORUM MICAT HAEC SUB HONORE DUORUMBAPTISTAE SANCTI JOHANNIS SIVE PELAGIICEU REX FERNANDUS, REGINAQUE SANTIA, FIERI JUSSIT.ERA MILLENA SEPTENA SEU NONAGENA.[59]
Thisarcahas been much mutilated, and stripped of all the precious metal. Morales' description is therefore of especial value, as are the ivory tablets (eleventh century), carved with Christianthemes, which yet remain upon the body of the box.
see captionXLIIBYZANTINE CRUCIFIX
XLIIBYZANTINE CRUCIFIX
Dating from the thirteenth century is a Moorish casket (Platexl.), preserved in the Academy of History at Madrid, and proceeding from the Carthusian monastery of Val de Cristo at Segorbe. It measures a foot in length by eight inches in height and four and a half inches in depth. The lid is deeply bevelled, and contains on each of the bevelled sides shields with the bars which constitute the arms of Aragon, painted upon a gold ground, together with imperial eagles painted in black upon a carmine ground. A decorative device of leaves and stems is also painted on the ivory.
Rodrigo Amador de los Ríos believes that this casket was captured in war by Jayme the First of Aragon, remaining with successive princes of his line until the reign of Don Martin, by whom it was presented to the monastery. The shields would thus be added to the primitive Moorish casket by some Christian-Spanish painter.
The ivory crucifix (Platesxli. andxli. (a)), of Ferdinand the First and Doña Sancha, made in the first half of the eleventh century, and offeredby these sovereigns to the church of Saint John the Baptist (or of Saint Isidore) at León, measures twenty-one inches in length by thirteen inches and a half in height. The figure of Christ recalls the rigidness and rudeness of Byzantine craftsmanship, such as is found in ancient crucifixes still preserved in Spain (Platexlii.). The pupils of the enormous, expressionless eyes are made of jet. We see the wound upon each foot, with wavy marks to imitate the flowing blood, but no trace of a nail. Nails, however, transfix the hands. The arms are separate from the trunk, but thesuppedaneumon which the feet are resting is of a single piece with the body of the figure.
The surface of the cross, especially about the borders, contains elaborate decoration, including animals and foliage. Above the Saviour's head is the inscription:—
IHS NAZARENVS REXIVDEORVM
Above this is another figure of Christ seated, crowned with a cruciform nimbus and holding a Greek processional cross. Beneath the feet of the larger figure is Adam in an uncouth posture,turning his head to gaze upward, and at the lower extremity of the cross are carved the words:—
FERDINANDVS REXSANCIA REGINA
The lateral arms are carved with numerous devices forming an effective whole, including animals upon a tessellated band which seems to imitate a groundwork of mosaic. Other subjects represented are the Resurrection of the Flesh, the ascent of the blessed to Heaven, and the fall of the wicked to Hell.
see captionXLIII“THE VIRGIN OF BATTLES”(13th Century. Seville Cathedral)
XLIII“THE VIRGIN OF BATTLES”(13th Century. Seville Cathedral)
Upon the obverse side are pairs of quadrupeds, birds, and serpents, among a maze of foliage, together with the eagle, lion, lamb, and ox, as symbols of the evangelists. The lion and the ox have wings, and at the foot of the cross is an angel.
The carving of the Saviour's form is clearly inferior to that of the decoration which surrounds it. Amador de los Ríos seeks to account for this by declaring that “the difficulty from the point of view of art increases in proportion as the size of the figure is required to be larger”—a statement with which I wholly disagree. I believe, in fact, that in this cross the figure of Christ andthe surrounding ornamentation are not by the same hand, and that the carver of the decorative detail was simply the better craftsman of the two.
Many of the statuettes of the Virgin which are preserved in Spain were probably made in France. One that is typically and unquestionably Spanish is the celebrated “Virgin of Battles” (Platexliii.), now guarded, together with other relics of Saint Ferdinand (see Vol. I., Platexixi.), in the Chapel Royal of Seville cathedral. These statuettes, the use of which originated with the Greek emperors, and which were called by the Byzantinessocia belli, consist of a seated figure of the Virgin with a small door opening underneath her throne, and served as reliquaries, and also as a kind of talisman. Boutelou says that the Spanish warriors of the Middle Ages were accustomed to carry these images to war with them, fitted upon a pin protruding from the left side of the saddle-bow. The “Virgin of Battles,” made in Spain in the early part of the thirteenth century, was thus carried by King Ferdinand the Saint, resting between his shield orrodelaand his left arm, and so protected, and protecting, in the brunt of war.
see captionXLIVSPANISH MEDIÆVALBACULUS
XLIVSPANISH MEDIÆVALBACULUS
The image is of ivory, and measures seventeen inches in height. The style is primitive Gothic,not as yet emancipated from Romanic and Byzantine art; and the expression of the Madonna and her Babe is marked by an engaging sweetness. Through lapse of centuries, myriads of diminutive cracks have opened on the surface of the ivory, and this has turned, in colour, to a brightish yellow. The right arm of the Virgin was broken off at some time prior to the sixteenth century, and has been replaced by another one. Mother and Child wear crowns of silver-gilt which probably were added later, and the hair, lips, and eyes have been badly painted or repainted with discordant colouring. A four-sided hole bored deep into the ivory served for holding the image to thepernowhich projected from the monarch's saddle-bow.
A few elaboratebaculior pastoral staves (Platexliv.) exist in Spain, including one of the fourteenth century, in ivory, which belonged to the late Marquis of Monistrol, and is carved with the Crucifixion and also with the Virgin contemplating the Holy Infant as He is offered cups by angels. Another interesting Spanish baculus, though not of ivory, but copper decorated with turquoises and bright blue enamel, belonged to Bishop Pelayo de Cebeyra of Mondoñedo (a.d.1199–1218), andhas been preserved, together with that prelate's gilded shoes. In the celebrated processions of Santiago, at which Alfonso the Sixth was personally present, magnificent ivorybaculiwere borne, not only by the archbishop (eburnea virga pontificali decoratus), but even by the choristers.
Between the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries, Spanish craftsmen produced a fair quantity of ivory boxes, reliquaries, diptyches, triptyches, combs, and other less important objects. A fifteenth-century ivory spoon, ten inches long, whose handle is carved with six crocodiles, is in the National Museum, and may be Spanish work. In the same collection are one or two ivory diptyches and leaves of diptyches, and a wooden box (fourteenth century), with figures of carved ivory representing passages from the life of Saint George upon the body of the box, and from the Old Testament upon the lid. A carved Renaissance temple of the same material, with the Virgin and Child in its interior, is probably Italian.
see captionXLV“A TOURNAMENT”(Carved lid of box in ivory; 14th Century)
XLV“A TOURNAMENT”(Carved lid of box in ivory; 14th Century)
In the fortieth volume ofEspaña Sagradait is stated that four ivory diptyches (quatuor dictacos eburneos) were offered ina.d.897 to Lugo cathedral by Alfonso the Third and his queen Jimena. Other ivory diptyches were presentedina.d.1063 by Ferdinand the Second to the church of Saint Isidore at León. José Villa-amil, in his study of an ivory statuette of the Virgin, belonging to the nuns of Allariz (Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones; nos. 76 and 77), mentions a carved ivory box (capsa eburnea) made in the year 1122 for Santiago cathedral by order of Archbishop Gelmirez; another which existed in the sixteenth century in the church of Santa María at Finisterre; and a third, used as a reliquary, which in 1572 was opened by the monks of Samos in presence of Ambrosio de Morales.
During the Middle Ages portable altars (altares portátiles) were widely used in Spain, and some were made of ivory. It was the custom to open them at the time of prayer, and as a rule they rested uponreclinatoriosor hung upon the wall. Theimagen abrienteor “opening image” was also popular in Spain throughout the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. As the name implies, these images opened in the manner of a triptych, and were very often used as reliquaries. Specimens are preserved in many parts of Europe, but only one or two exist in Spain and Portugal. That which belongs to the nuns of Allariz datesfrom the end of the thirteenth century, and was a present from Queen Violante. It is described fantastically by Morales, and accurately by Villa-amil, but the quaintest account is by the chronicler Jacobo de Castro. It measures, Castro tells us, “about half-a-yard in length and is one of the fairest ever seen, since it opens downward from the neck, discovering, on plates of half-relief, the principal mysteries of Christ and of Our Lady. The devotion towards it of the people in this neighbourhood exceeds description, and God has wrought a quantity of miracles through the intercession thereof.”
A fourteenth-century triptych carved in bone with scenes from Scripture is in the National Museum. It proceeds from Aragon, and is said to have belonged to Jayme the Conqueror. The Escorial possesses a handsome ivory diptych (Platexlvi.) which is either Spanish or Italian—probably the former. It measures exactly a foot in height by nine inches across both leaves, and is deeply carved with passages from the life of Christ. The style is late Romanic merging into Gothic, and points to the second half of the thirteenth century.
see captionXLVIIVORY DIPTYCH(13th Century. El Escorial)
XLVIIVORY DIPTYCH(13th Century. El Escorial)
Footnotes:[56]I.e.as a signal to begin the sport. The same usage (except that the handkerchief is waved, and not thrown down) is followed at this moment in the Spanish bull-ring.[57]At this break in the inscription Riaño professed to discover the beginning of the wordCuenca.[58]Detailed accounts of this casket will be found in theBoletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursionesfor June 1893, and in theBoletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, vol. xx.[59]a.d.1059.
Footnotes:
[56]I.e.as a signal to begin the sport. The same usage (except that the handkerchief is waved, and not thrown down) is followed at this moment in the Spanish bull-ring.
[56]I.e.as a signal to begin the sport. The same usage (except that the handkerchief is waved, and not thrown down) is followed at this moment in the Spanish bull-ring.
[57]At this break in the inscription Riaño professed to discover the beginning of the wordCuenca.
[57]At this break in the inscription Riaño professed to discover the beginning of the wordCuenca.
[58]Detailed accounts of this casket will be found in theBoletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursionesfor June 1893, and in theBoletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, vol. xx.
[58]Detailed accounts of this casket will be found in theBoletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursionesfor June 1893, and in theBoletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, vol. xx.
[59]a.d.1059.
[59]a.d.1059.
Quantities of ancient common pottery have been, and are continually being found in many parts of Spain. Prehistoric cups, shaped with the fingers and dried and hardened by the sun, are preserved in the Museum of History at Barcelona. They were discovered at Argar. Similar objects have been extracted from the caves of Segóbriga, Lóbrega in Old Castile, and El Tesoro in the province of Málaga. Those which were found at Segóbriga are divided by Capelle into six groups, one of which includes a vessel resembling the ordinary Spanish pitcher of to-day.
Villa-amil y Castro has described in theMuseo Español de Antigüedadespieces of prehistoric sun-dried ware discovered in Galicia, roughly decorated with patterns imprinted by the finger. In other instances a double spiral has been describedwith a pointed instrument about the vessel's neck. Similar fragments have been found by Góngora in Andalusia. Celtic pottery was found in 1862 by Captain Brome on Windmill Hill at Gibraltar, in 1866 by M. Lartet in the caves of Torrecilla de Cameros, and by Casiano de Prado in a cave near Pedraza, as well as at Navares de Ayuso and elsewhere. In central Spain, vessels of the Celtiberian era have been found in tombs at Prádena, and pieces of red Saguntine ware, with dark red decoration, at Otero de Herreros, close to vestiges of a Roman mine. Lecea y García describes in his work onOld Segovian Industriesa Celtiberian plate of reddish clay covered with black varnish, which was dug up some years ago in a garden at that town. This plate, measuring no less than four feet in diameter, and containing two inscriptions in characters believed to be Celtiberian, as well as the figure of a warrior armed with a lance and three javelins, was submitted to Heiss, who wrote of it in theGazette Archéologiqueand pronounced it to be genuine. I have not seen the plate in question. I have, however, met with cleverly executed forgeries, also varnished black, of primitive Spanish pottery.
In 1899 quantities of Celtic ware, believed todate from the time of the Phœnicians, or even earlier, were unearthed by M. Bonsor from tumuli in the Guadalquivir valley. These objects are ornamented in relief with complicated patterns paler than the ground, obtained by using lighter-coloured clay. “As similar Celtic pottery has been found in Portugal, it will be understood that the Celtic influence, having crossed the Pyrenees, reached the south by the western seaboard. It will thus be seen that long before the arrival of the Romans a relatively high degree of civilisation had been reached at least in the south of Spain.”[60]
In the summer of 1905 two German archæologists, Messrs. Schulten and Könen, who had obtained permission from the Spanish Government to explore the site of old Numancia, filled four large cases with the Celtiberian pottery they extracted from the ruins. These cases were forwarded to the University of Göttingen. I understand, however, that they have been returned, or are to be returned immediately, to Spain.
Long before the Christian era, Greek colonies existed on the Spanish coast at Rhodas, Denia,Emporium (Ampurias), Saguntum (Murviedro), and elsewhere. Pottery of good design and workmanship was manufactured at these towns, and strongly influenced native art. Bowls and other objects showing such an influence were discovered by M. Bonsor in his recent excavations. Another powerful influence was that of Rome. Roman potteries existed in the suburb of Seville called Triana, and in the provinces of Cáceres and Badajoz. Mérida was also an important centre of this industry, and vessels which were used in sacred rites, such as theaquiminarium, theprefericulum, thesimpulum, and theurnula, were discovered here not long ago. The name “Saguntine ware” was given by the Romans to a kind of pottery which seems to have been made along the Spanish littoral extending southward from Saguntum. Fragments of this pottery, which closely resembles the Arezzo ware,[61]arefound in shoals upon the sites of Roman towns, particularly Tarragona. Thesebarros saguntinos, or (as Hübner prefers to call them)barros tarraconenses, have been divided into four classes, namely, white, grey, red (covered with a dark red varnish),[62]and yellow striped with red. This ware is commonly adorned with garlands, animals, hunting-scenes, divinities, games, or religious ceremonies, and also bears, in nearly every case, the potter's name or mark;e.g.ALBINVS F(“Albinus fecit”) orOF. ALBIN(“officina Albini”). More than two hundred marks have been discovered which were used by potters of Ampurias alone.
There seems to be no doubt that Saguntumand Emporium were principal centres of this industry, and possibly, since these towns were old Greek settlements, thebarros saguntinoswere of Grecian origin. Pella y Forgas, describing in hisHistory of the Ampurdanthe fine red ware of this locality, says that parts of the decoration were fashioned on the wheel, others directly by the potter's hand, and others from a mould, while the ornament of dotted lines was made by the wheeledroulette.
Among the commoner objects dating from this time are amphoræ and small earthen lamps (Pl.xlvii.). These lamps have been discovered in great numbers, and, owing to the dryness of the Spanish soil, in excellent preservation. They measure about the size of the hand, and have two holes, one in the spout or beak, to hold the wick, and the other at the top, for pouring in the oil. The top, which as a rule is slightly concave, is often ornamented with devices in relief, such as a chariot and its driver, or the emblem of a deity.
see captionXLVIIAMPHORAIC VASES AND OTHER POTTERY(Museum of Tarragona)
XLVIIAMPHORAIC VASES AND OTHER POTTERY(Museum of Tarragona)
The typical amphora was a long, narrow vessel (usually of earthenware; less frequently of brass or glass), with an elongated handle at either side of the neck, and tapering nearly to a point. Itserved for storing honey, oil, or wine, and in order to keep it upright the pointed lower end was stuck into the soil, or rested on a perforated wooden stand. In the spring of 1893 some fishermen drew up in their nets, just off the coast of Alicante, three large intact amphoræ thickly cased with shells, and sold them for eight dollars each. Other fine amphoræ, now in the collection of the Marquis of Cerralbo, were washed upon the beach at Torrevieja, and many more are in museums. Vessels of this kind are known to have been made at Rhodas (Rosas) and Saguntum, and their use continued in Spain until the downfall of the second empire.
The statements of Saint Isidore, confirmed by one or two discoveries in southern Spain, prove that the pottery in use among the Visigoths was principally Roman. Probably in this, as in so many of her arts, the Moorish conquest brought about a radical and rapid change. Remains of pottery dating from this period are extremely rare. The provincial museum of Granada containssome bowls and plates, all more or less imperfect, which are ascribed by experts to about the year 1000. These objects, which were dug up in 1878 on the slopes of the Sierra Elvira, a few miles from Granada, are coloured black and green upon a white or whitish ground. The most important is a dish which measures fourteen inches in diameter, and is decorated with a falcon on a horse's back (Platexlviii.).[63]All of this pottery shows the double influence of Byzantium and the East. Among the designs upon the other pieces are hares and stags surrounded by a bordering of primitive arabesques. Riaño remarks that “it is almost impossible to assert whether this pottery was made in or imported into Spain.” Nevertheless, Persians are stated to have settled in this region early in the days of Muslim rule, while these dilapidated specimens of ancient ware are greatly similar in colouring and substance to the common dishes andbarreñoswhich are still produced throughout the province of Granada.
Moorish potteries producing lustred or non-lustredware existed from an early date at Málaga, Valencia, Toledo, Calatayud, Murviedro, Murcia, and Barcelona. Another centre of this craft was probably Granada; for though she is not mentioned in this sense by any of the Moorish authors, the late Señor Contreras discovered here the vestiges of two ancient potteries, while one of the old entrances was known as Bab Alfajjarin, or “the potters' gate.”
see captionXLVIIIDISH(About A.D. 1000. Museum of Granada)
XLVIIIDISH(About A.D. 1000. Museum of Granada)
The Ordinances of Granada contain provisions which were evidently copied from the Spanish Moors, relating to thealmadraverosor tilemakers, thetinajerosor makers oftinajas, and theollerosor potters generally. The Ordinances which concern the tilemakers are dated between 1528 and 1540. The restrictions imposed upon these craftsmen were irksome, foolish, and unnecessary. All bricks and tiles were to be stamped in three places with the city mark, and were only permitted to be made between the first of April and the thirty-first of October in each year, “since what is made at other seasons is not good or perfect, owing to the rain, and cold, and frost.”
Another Ordinance, illustrating the lawlessness prevailing at Granada in the times succeeding the reconquest, complains that “many persons, includinglabourers and hodmen, go forth into the roads and streets, and seize the tiles and bricks by violence from those who are conveying them, and bear them to their houses, or to the work which they are paid to do.”
A picturesque, though cheap and unluxurious, vessel of a thoroughly eastern character, and which was very largely manufactured by the Spanish Moors, is the terra-cottatinajaor gigantic jar for storing wine, or olive oil, or grain (Platexlix.). The use of these receptacles extended through the whole Peninsula, and has continued undiminished to this day. The principal centres oftinaja-making were Toledo, Seville, and Granada. The Ordinances of the latter town embody Moorish rules relating to this branch of pottery. These laws, revived in 1526, provide that alltinajasmust contain two kinds of earth, one red, the other white, thoroughly compounded in a trough of water. Before the potter removes the clay from the trough, he must call the city supervisor orveedorto look into the quality and mixing of the mass. The vessel as it leaves the oven must be white; otherwise, even although it have no flaw, the inspector is to break it. The potter is forbidden to coat histinajaswith a glazecomposed of eggs, blood, chalk, and other strange ingredients; nor may he fire the glaze with torches, “because the smell of the smoke clings to thetinaja, and the wine or stum deposited therein grows redolent of it, and it stays within the jar perpetually.”
see captionXLIXHISPANO-MORESQUETINAJA
XLIXHISPANO-MORESQUETINAJA
Owing doubtless to their plain, domestic purpose and their trifling market cost, earlytinajasare not often met with. A fine example in excellent preservation is at South Kensington, and is described by Riaño as “a wine jar, amphora-shaped, and ornamented with an incised pattern of vine leaves, and stamped diaper of a Gothic character.” Several goodtinajashave been discovered of late years at Seville. Gestoso mentions six, five of which are glazed. The first of these was found in 1893, and has a bright green glaze upon a ground of reddish earth. Both handles and nearly all the neck are wanting. The decoration consists of various bands orfajasround the body of the jar, a series of archways, another of leaves, and a central band of stars, three deep, strongly imprinted from a mould. In every ninth arch are stamped symbolic hands, such as we see upon the Gate of Justice of the Alhambra.
The secondtinajais similar to the one justmentioned, except that it has the neck. It was discovered in 1895, and is now in Seville museum.
The thirdtinajais also in this museum, and was discovered in 1901. It is in a very poor condition, and Gestoso believes that it was originally covered with a honey-coloured glaze.
The fourthtinajawas found in a drain, in the same year as the preceding one, and is inscribed with words, includingBlessingandFelicity, in Cufic characters. Gestoso is unable to decide whether this vessel was made at Seville or elsewhere.
The fifthtinajais in the collection of Don José Morón, and possesses greater interest than the others, both because it is in excellent condition, and also because the decoration is entirely in the Spanish-Christian style, without a trace of Saracenic ornament. Small Gothic-looking shields surround the body of this vessel, which is stamped with pomegranates, and with the arms and emblems of the Ponce de León and other families. Between each pair of shields is an oval-shaped medallion containing human figures.
The sixthtinajais unglazed. It was found in June of 1893, and is adorned with repetitions ofthe wordsProsperityandBlessing, as well as with a series of deer and other animals in the act of running; some of them with birds upon their backs. These designs are very uncommon, and Gestoso has seen no othertinaja, proceeding from this region, similarly decorated.
Tinajasare still made in large quantities at Toboso, Lucena, Colmenar de Oreja, and other Spanish towns and villages.
Other large objects of a thoroughly oriental character were earthenware glazedbrocalesor brims of wells, which, like thetinajas, were largely manufactured at Seville and Toledo. Specimens of thesebrocalesexist in the museums of Toledo and Cordova. Riaño describes one which is at South Kensington. “It was bought at Toledo for three guineas at a shoemaker's shop. It is made of glazed white and green earthenware, with ornamental Cufic characters in high relief all round, which appear to be of the fourteenth century. The inscription, which is repeated, is imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the words ‘the power, the excellence, and the peace.’”
Gestoso describes twobrocalesand the fragments of a third. All these objects were found at Seville. The two which are intact, or nearlyso, are cylindrical, and of a white ware. One of them has a simple leaf decoration, and seems to have been covered with a green glaze. The other, which was discovered in 1894, is surrounded by a triple band of inscription in African characters which are illegible.
Gestoso also describes some interesting baptismal fonts, a class of object which he pronounces to have been the most important of all that were produced in the potteries of Triana, by reason both of their large dimensions and of their elaborate ornamentation. He states that three methods were employed to decorate these fonts. The first consisted in attaching to their surface small moulded plates which bore the likeness of a saint, flowers, monograms, or other devices. By the second method the decoration was moulded directly on the font; while the third method consisted in a combination of the other two.
Splendid examples of these Spanish fonts exist in various churches of Andalusia and in private collections. One of the finest is in the parish church of Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, at Laguna, Tenerife. It is suggested by Gestoso that thispilaof Laguna was made at Seville and sent to the Canaries in the year 1479, when orderswere issued by Ferdinand and Isabella for the completion of the monasteries in those islands.
Pilaswere also manufactured at Toledo, although Gestoso says that the workmanship of those produced at Seville was in every way superior. Nevertheless, he has only found the maker's name upon a single font, which is inscribed with that of Juan Sanchez Vachero, and is now preserved in the church of San Pedro at Carmona. Another remarkablepilais that of the hospital of San Lázaro at Seville.
In course of time the Spanish Church forbade the use ofpilasmade of glazed earthenware, and ordered their substitution by fonts of stone or marble. One of these dispositions, included among theConstituciones Sinodalesof the bishopric of Málaga, and dated 1671, is quoted by Gestoso. It enacts that thepilabe of stone and not of earthenware, and that if any of this latter class remain, they are to be “consumed” (i.e.destroyed) within two months.
Returning to the Ordinances of Granada, those which concern the potters orollerosgenerally are dated 1530, and inform us of the price of glazed and unglazed articles in common use, such asollasor pots (with and without glaze),cazuelasorearthen vessels for cooking meat, plates of many colours and dimensions,jarros(jugs),alcuzas(vials),cantaros castellanos(Castilian water-pitchers),cantaros moriscos(Moorish water-pitchers[64]),morteros(mortars),lebrillos(earthen tubs),candiles(lamps with a green, white or yellow glaze),orzas(gally pots),botijas(narrow-necked jars), andsalseras(saucers).
The shape and colouring of many of these common articles have been continued till to-day, especially in Andalusia. I reproduce a photograph of some (Platel.), in which the influence of the East is unmistakable. The smaller of the two unglazed jars is used for carrying and cooling water, and is made at Loja. The other, which is often used for storing honey, is from Guadalajara. The spherical vessel is a kind of bottle foraguardiente.It is glazed a brightish green, and is made in various parts of Andalusia, as are the gourd-shapedcalabazas, which have a yellow glaze. The smallest vessel, or that which has a funnel-shaped and bulging mouth, is coated with a coarse metallic glaze coloured in white and blue, and proceeds from Granada.