Ducula oceanica oceanica(Lesson and Garnot)

Globicera oceanica townsendiWetmore, in Townsend and Wetmore, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoöl., 63, 1919, p. 191. (Type locality, Ponapé).Carpophaga oceanicaFinsch (part), Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1877 (1878), p. 780 (Ponapé); Nehrkorn, Journ. f. Ornith., 1879, p. 407 (Ponapé); Finsch (part), Journ. f. Ornith., 1880, p. 292 (Ponapé);idem, 1881, pp. 113, 115 (Ponapé); Schmeltz and Krause (part), Ethnogr. Abth. Mus. Godeffroy, 1881, p. 281 (Ponapé); Wiglesworth (part), Abhandl. und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 52 (Ponapé); Matschie (part), Journ. f. Ornith., 1901, p. 113 (Guam, error = Ponapé).Globicera oceanicaSalvadori (part), Cat. Birds British Mus., 21, 1893, p. 176 (Ponapé).Globicera oceanica townsendiMomiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 6 (Ponapé); Kuroda, in Momiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 55 (Ponapé); Mathews, Syst. Avium Australasianarum, 1, 1927, p. 45 (Ponapé); Hand-list Japanese Birds, rev., 1932, p. 190 (Ponapé).Ducula oceanica townsendiPeters, Check-list Birds World, 3, 1937, p. 44 (Ponapé); Bequaert, Mushi, vol. 12, no. 2, 1939, pp. 81, 82 (Ponapé);idem, Occ. Papers Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 16, 1941, pp. 266, 290 (Ponapé); Hand-list Japanese Birds, 3d ed., 1942, p. 212 (Ponapé); Amadon, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 1237, 1943, p. 11 (Ponapé); Mayr, Birds Southwest Pacific, 1945, p. 289 (Ponapé).Geographic range.—Micronesia: Caroline Islands—Ponapé.Characters.—Adult: ResemblesD. o. teraokai, but darker. Resembles. closelyD. o. oceanicabut larger and darker on crown and nape; lower parts slightly paler but chin more cream-buff in color. As Adamon (1943:11) states, there is little difference betweenD. o. townsendiandD. o. oceanicaexcept in size.Measurements.—Measurements are listed intable 27.Specimens examined.—Total number 21 (11 males, 9 females, 1 unsexed), as follows: Caroline Islands, USNM—Ponapé, 2 (Feb. 11, 12); AMNH—Ponapé, 19 (Nov. 22, 29, Dec. 1, 2, 3).Nesting.—Coultas (field notes) writes that the pigeon at Ponapé nests the year around, probably two or three times a year. He describes the nest as being made of loose twigs and as placed on a fork of a limb in a tall tree. One egg is laid. Coultas saw "two or three" females nesting in December.Parasites.—Bequaert (1939:81, 82 and 1941:266, 290) found the flies (Hippoboscidae),Ornithoctona plicataandO. pusilla, on pigeons from Ponapé.Remarks.—Coultas (field notes) writes that in 1930 several Japanese made a livelihood as professional hunters of pigeons at Ponapé. He notes, "Two or three years ago, 4 or 5 Japanese, each, averaged from 75 to 100 birds per day, which they sold to the inhabitants for 35 sen (17-1/2 cents) per bird.... Now these same hunters are fortunate if they obtain 4 or 5 Ducula each per day and are able to do so only by starting before daylight and covering great distances. Other birds are now replacing Ducula on the market." Coultas further records in his notes that the hunters used calls to attract the pigeons. In 1930, Coultas regarded the pigeon at Ponapé as a rapidly disappearing species; he found it only in small areas in remote regions of the mountains. With the shipping of supplies cut off to the Japanese garrison forces at Ponapé, as well as at Kusaie, Truk, and Yap by the effective American blockade during the latter part of the war, it is probable that the pigeons were hunted more intensively by the Japanese hunting parties than ever before. Richards obtained two specimens at Ponapé in the period from August, 1947, to January, 1948.Ducula oceanica oceanica(Lesson and Garnot)Micronesian PigeonColumba oceanicaLesson and Garnot, Dict. Sci. Nat., éd., Levrault, 40, 1826, p. 316. (Type locality, Oualan = Kusaie.)Columba oceanicaLesson (part), Voy. "La Coquille," Zool.; Atlas, 1826, pl. 41; vol. 2, 1828, pp. 432, 708 (Oualan or Strong);idem, (part), Man. d'Ornith., 11, 1828, p. 166 (Oualan); Kittlitz (part), Kupfertaf. Naturgesch. Vögel, 3, 1833, p. 25, pl. 23, fig. 1 (Ualan);idem(part), Observ. Zool., in Lutké, Voy. "Le Séniavine," 3, 1836, p. 284 (Ualan); Lesson, Compl. de Buffon, 2d ed., 2, Oiseaux, 1839, p. 292 (Oualan); Prévost and Knip (part), Les Pigeons, 2, 1838-43, p. 47, pl. 24 (Oualan); Bonaparte, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, 39, 1854, p. 1072 (Oualan); Kittlitz, Denkw. Reise russ. Amer. Micron. und Kamchat., 1, 1858, pp. 39, 49, 62 (Ualan).Carpohaga oceanicaHartlaub (part), Archiv f. Naturgesch., 18, 1852, pp. 115, 185 (Ualan);idem, Journ. f. Ornith., 1854, p. 168 (Carolinen = Kusaie); Hartlaub and Finsch (part), Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1872, p. 101 (Ualan); Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, 6, no. 35, 1873, p. 87 (Oualan); Salvadori (part). Cronaca del R. Liceo-Ginnasio Cavour, 1878, pp. 3, 8 (Oualan); Finsch (part), Ibis, 1880, pp. 220, 331, 332 (Taluit);idem(part), Journ. f. Ornith., 1880, pp. 292, 304 (Kuschai);idem, Ibis, 1881, p. 108 (Kuschai);idem, Mitth. Ornith. Ver. Wien, 1884, p. 50 (Kuschai, Jaluit); Hartert, Katalog Vogelsamml, Senckenb., 1891, p. 190 (Ualan); Wiglesworth (part), Abhandl. und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 52 (Ualan, Taluit); Matschie (part), Journ. f. Ornith., 1901, p. 113 (Ualan).Globicera oceanicaBonaparte (part), Consp. Avium, 2, 1855, p. 31 (Oualan);idem, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, 43, 1856, p. 835 (Oualan); Reichenbach (part), Tauben, 1861, p. 120 (Oualan); Salvadori (part), Cat. Birds British Mus., 21, 1893, p. 176 (Kushai).Carpophaga pacificaFinsch and Hartlaub (part), Fauna Centralpolynesiens, 1867, p. 145 (Ualan).Carpophaga (Globicera) oceanicaGray (part), Cat. Birds Trop. Is. Pacific Ocean, 1859, p. 41 (Oualan).Globicera oceanica oceanicaWetmore, in Townsend and Wetmore, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoöl., 63, 1919, p. 191 (Kusaie); Momiyama (part), Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 6 (Kusaie, Taluit); Kuroda (part), in Momiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 55 (Kusaie, Taluit); Mathews, Syst. Avium Australasianarum, 1, 1927, p. 45 (Kusaie); Takatsukasa and Yamashina, Dobutsu. Zasshi, 44, 1932, p. 221 (Jaluit, Iringlob, Kusaie); Hand-list Japanese Birds, rev., 1932, p. 190 (Kusaie, Jaluit, Elmore).Muscadivora oceanica oceanicaNeumann (part), Verhandl. Ornith. Ges. Bayern, 25, 1922, p. 234 (Kushai).Ducula Oceanica oceanicaPeters, Check-list Birds World, 3, 1937, p. 44 (Kusaie, Jaluit, Elmore); Bequaert, Mushi, 12, 1939, p. 81 (Kusaie);idem, Occ. Papers Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 16, 1941, p. 266 (Kusaie); Hand-list Japanese Birds, 3d ed., 1942, p. 212 (Kusaie, Jaluit, Elmore); Amadon, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 1237, 1943, p. 11 (Kusaie, Jaluit, Elmore); Mayr, Birds Southwest Pacific, 1945, p. 289 (Kusaie, Jaluit, Elmore).Geographic range.—Micronesia: Caroline Islands—Kusaie; Marshall Islands—Jaluit, Elmore.Characters.—Adult male: A large knob-billed pigeon with breast gray, washed with buff; head and neck dark gray; feathers at base of bill and on chin buff-white; abdomen and under tail-coverts near "burnt sienna," sides grayer; mantle, back, rump, upper tail-coverts, wings and tail bronze-green edged with a dark bluish sheen; under side of wing and under side of tail brown; bill and knob black; feet blackish-red; iris reddish-brown. Adult female resembles adult male but smaller and possibly a little darker bluish-green on back, wings, and tail.D. o. oceaniaresemblesD. o. townsendi, but is smaller with upper parts slightly darker and abdomen and under side of tail lighter.Measurements.—Measurements are presented intable 27.Specimens examined.—Total number, 47 (25 males, 22 females), as follows: Caroline Islands, USNM—Kusaie, 2 (Feb. 8, 9,); AMNH—Kusaie, 45 (Jan., Feb., March).Parasites.—Bequaert (1939:81 and 1941:266) obtained the fly (Hippoboscidae)Ornithoctona plicatafrom the pigeon at Kusaie.Remarks.—The Micronesian Pigeon at Kusaie has been known since 1824, when from June 5 to June 15 of that year personnel from the corvette "La Coquille" visited the island and observed the bird. Kittlitz visited Kusaie and observed the pigeon in December, 1827, and January, 1828. Finsch (1880c and 1880d) found the bird in theMarshalls at Jaluit. Takatsukasa and Yamashina (1932:221) record the bird from Elmore in the Marshalls. Coultas (field notes) writes that the pigeon was numerous at Kusaie in 1931. He remarks that they appear stupid and are easily killed by the natives, who use a call to attract them. With regard to their habits he writes, "About four o'clock in the afternoon these birds begin congregating in the high trees of the lowlands close to the salt water where they roost for the night. At daybreak they begin migrating to the high mountain sides and peaks where they spend the time feeding."Ducula oceanica ratakensis(Takatsukasa and Yamashina)Micronesian PigeonGlobecera oceanica ratakensisTakatsukasa and Yamashina, Dobutsu. Zasshi, 44, 1932, p. 221. (Type locality, Aruno.)Columba australisChamisso, in Kotzebue's, Voy. "Rurick," 3, 1821, p. 157 (Radak).Carpophaga oceanicaFinsch, Ibis, 1880, p. 331 (Arno); Wiglesworth (part), Abhandl. und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 52 (Arno);idem, Ibis, 1893, p. 211 (Marshalls).Globicera oceanica oceanicaMomiyama (part), Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 5 (Arno); Kuroda (part), in Momiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 55 (Arno).Globicera oceanica ratakensisHand-list Japanese Birds, rev., 1932, p. 190 (Arhno, Wotze); Mathews, Ibis, 1933, p. 87 (Aruno, Wozzie).Ducala oceanica ratakensisPeters, Check-list Birds World, 3, 1937, p. 44 (Arno, Wotje); Hand-list Japanese Birds, 3d ed., 1942, p. 212 (Arhno, Wotze); Amadon, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 1237, 1943, p. 12 (Arno, Wotje); Mayr. Birds Southwest Pacific, 1945, p. 289 (Arno, Wotje).Geographic range.—Micronesia: Marshall Islands (Radak Chain)—Wotje, Arhno.Characters.—Takatsukasa and Yamashina (1932:221) describe this subspecies as follows, "This form differs from all other forms ofGlobicera oceanicaby its smaller size, more bronze-sheen on the back, more vinaceous grey on the breast and duller brown on the abdomen." On examining two specimens from Arno in the collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy, Amadon (1943:12) writes that he finds no distinguishing color characters betweenD. o. oceanicaandD. o. ratakensis. He also questions whether there is any difference in size between the two populations.Measurements.—Measurements are listed intable 27.Remarks.—Chamisso (1821), the naturalist on board the ship "Rurick," was the first person to write of the pigeon in the Radak Chain of the Marshall Islands. The ship visited this area in 1817. Finsch (1880b) published an account of the bird when he visited the area about 1880. Takatsukasa and Yamashina (1932:221) described this bird as new on the basis of an examination of nine skins taken at Arhno and Wotje.Evolutionary history of Ducula oceanica in Micronesia.—The distribution and evolutionary history ofDucula oceanicahave been treated by Mayr (1940) and Amadon (1943). These authors placeD. oceanicawithin a superspecies containingD. pacifica(Melanesia to Samoa and Cook Islands),D. aurorea(Society Islands),D. galeata(Marquesas Islands), and possibly other species in Papua and Malaysia. According to Mayr (1942b:fig. 7),D. pacificais the species which is ancestral to other species of pigeons in Oceania. ApparentlyD. oceanicawas derived from this ancestral stock and reached Micronesia via the Ellice and Gilbert islands. Records ofDuculawere obtained in the Gilbert Islands in the days of exploration; Amadon (1943:11) tentatively refers these toD. o. oceanica.The irregular distribution ofD. oceanicain the islands of Micronesia and the fact that the bird exists on both "high" volcanic islands as well as on "low" coral atolls suggest that the present population may be a remnant of a once more widely distributed one. The fact thatD. oceanicamay be divided into several subspecies shows that a greater amount of geographic variation has occurred as compared with its probable ancestral stock,D. pacifica, which is virtually undifferentiated over most of its extensive range. The pigeon of Micronesia has a more rounded wing than that ofD. pacifica, which might, as Amadon has suggested, cause the bird to be more sedentary and lend itself more readily to differentiation through geographic isolation.D. pacificais known to fly from island to island. As shown by the measurements intable 27, the length of wing ofD. oceanicadiffers, in the various insular populations, being longer in the west and shorter in the east. This cline has been discussed by Amadon (1943:11).It is interesting thatDuculaor some other large pigeon has not become established in the Mariana Islands.Duculais present at Yap and Truk, which are not very distant from Guam. Another tropical pigeon,Columba vitiensis, has extended its range northward and reached the Bonin Islands; probably it arrived there via the Philippines or the Riu Kiu Islands. Thus, there are representatives of large pigeons on islands to the southeast, south, west and northwest of the Marianas, but none has become established in the Marianas themselves.Streptopelia bitorquata dusumieri(Temminck)Philippine Turtle DoveColumba dusumieriTemminck, Pl. col., livr. 32, 1832, p. 188. (Type locality, Vicinity of Manila, Luzon, Philippine Islands.)Colombe DussumierQuoy and Gaimard, Voy. "Uranie," Zool., 1824, pp. 35, 680 (Mariannes);idem, Ann. Sci. Nat. Paris, 6, 1825, p. 148 (Mariannes).Columba dusumieriWagler, Syst. Avium Columba, 1827, p. 266, sp. 99 (Marianis).Columba DussumieriKittlitz, Obser. Zool., in Lutké, Voy. "Le Séniavine," 3, 1836, p. 305 (Guahan).Streptopelia gaimardiBonaparte, Consp. Avium, 2, 1854, p. 66 (Type locality, Mariannes);idem, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, 40, 1855, p. 18 (Mariannes); Reichenbach, Tauben, 1862, p. 76 (Mariannen).Turtur (Streptopelia) GiamardiGray, Cat. Birds Trop. Is. Pacific Ocean, 1859, p. 43 (Guam).Turtur gaimardiGray, Hand-list Birds, 2, 1870, p. 239 (Marian).Turtur dussumieriSchlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, 6, no. 35, 1873, p. 120 (Mariannes); Wiglesworth, Abhandl. Und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 54 (Marianne); Salvadori, Cat. Birds British Mus., 21, 1893, p. 423 (Mariannes); Oustalet, Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, (3), 7, 1895, p. 222 (Guam); Hartert, Novit. Zool., 5, 1898, p. 60 (Guam, Saipan); Wheeler, Report Island of Guam, 1900, p. 13 (Guam); Seale, Occ. Papers Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 1, 1901, p. 43 (Marianas); Safford, Osprey, 1902, p. 68 (Marianas);idem, Amer. Anthro., 4, 1902, p. 711 (Guam);idem, The Plant World, 7, 1904, p. 264 (Guam); Dubois, Syn. Avium, 2, 1904, p. 760 (Marianne); Safford, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., 9, 1905, p. 78 (Guam); Schnee, Zeitschr. f. Naturwisch., 82, 1912, p. 466 (Marianen); Prowazek, Die deutschen Marianen, 1913, p. 101 (Marianen); Reichenow, Die Vögel, 1, 1913, p. 341 (Marianen); Cox, Island of Guam, 1917, p. 20 (Guam).Streptopelia dussumieriKuroda, in Momiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 54 (Guam, Saipan); Mathews, Syst. Avium Australasianarum, 1, 1927, p. 62 (Marianas); Hand-list Japanese Birds, rev., 1932, p. 189 (Saipan, Tinian, Rota).Tuttur dessumieriBryan, Guam Rec., vol. 13, no. 2, 1936, p. 24 (Guam).Streptopelia bitorquata dusumieriPeters, Check-list Birds World, 3, 1937, p. 96 (Marianne); Hand-list Japanese Birds, 3d ed., 1942, p. 211 (Saipan, Tinian, Rota); Mayr, Birds Southwest Pacific, 1945, p. 289 (Marianas); Watson, The Raven, 17, 1946, p. 41 (Guam); Downs, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 49, 1946, p. 96 (Tinian); Strophlet, Auk, 1946, p. 538 (Guam); Stott, Auk, 1947, p. 526 (Saipan); Baker, Smithson. Misc. Coll., vol. 107, no. 15, 1948, p. 60 (Guam, Rota).Streptopelia bitorquataBaker, Trans. 11th N. American Wildlife Conf., 1946, p. 208 (Guam);idem, Condor. 49, 1947, p. 125 (Guam).Geographic range.—Philippine Islands, Sula Archipelago, northern Borneo. In Micronesia: Mariana Islands (introduced)—Guam, Rota, Tinian, Saipan.Characters.—Adult: A medium-sized dove with head and nape near "light Quaker drab" with a vinous tinge; chin and upper throat whitish becoming near "vinaceous buff" on lower throat and to near "vinaceous-faun" on breast and upper abdomen; lower abdomen, vent, and under tail-coverts white; tibia grayish; neck feathers dark with grayish centers and metallic greenish-slate edges; color near "Japan rose"; back, rump, upper tail-coverts, scapulars, upper wing-coverts, and inner secondaries dark "drab"; sides, upper wing coverts, outer secondaries, and under wing-coverts lead colored; primaries blackish edged with light gray; central tail feathers like back but paler, outer feathers of tail darker with brownish tinge on edges; outermost tail feathers blackish tipped with gray and with outer webs whitish; bill dark; feet reddish; iris orange.Measurements.—Measurements of 15 adult males from Guam, Rota and Tinian: wing, 154-162 (158); tail, 127-135 (130); culmen, 16.2-18.1 (17.2); tarsus, 24-27 (25.5); of 10 adult females from Guam and Rota: wing, 150-162 (156); tail, 120-130 (127); culmen, 16.2-19.1 (17.5); tarsus, 24-26 (25). No differences in measurements were found between populations from Guam, Rota and Tinian.Weights.—The author (1948:61) reports the weights of five adult males as 130-167 (152) and of six adult females as 135-159 (146). These birds were taken at Guam.Specimens examined.—Total number, 27 (16 males, 11 females), as follows: Mariana Islands, USNM—Guam, 21 (Feb. 7, May 25, 26, June 9, July 6, 7, 10, 18, 23, Aug. 2, 11, Sept. 8, Oct. 8)—Rota, 4 (Oct. 18, 22, 23, Nov. 2)—Tinian, 2 (Oct. 24, 25).Nesting.—The NAMRU2 party found evidences of nesting by this dove at Guam in February, March, April, and June. Nests were observed on May 29 and June 28. On the latter date a nest containing one nestling and one unhatched egg was found near Mount Santa Rosa. The nest was situated approximately five feet from the ground in a low bush. Two eggs taken by Necker at Rota on October 31, 1945, are white and measure 29.6 by 23.0 and 30.1 by 23.0. Strophlet (1946:538) observed a bird carrying nest materials at Guam on November 13. Hartert (1898:60) reports on nests found at Guam in April and May. Each nest contained one egg. It is probable that this bird nests at all times of the year. The nuptial flight of these birds reminds one very much of that of the mourning dove of North America.Remarks.—The Philippine Turtle Dove was introduced from the Philippines to Guam and other islands of the southern Marianas by the Spanish probably in the 18th Century; it was in 1771-1774 that the Philippine deer (Rusa) was introduced to Guam. Perhaps these birds were initially introduced as caged birds or possibly were liberated to offer hunting for the colonial governors. They have been a very successful introduction and are well established. At Guam (see Baker 1947b:124), this species comprised 15.5 percent of all birds seen along roadways. Although open areas appear to be preferred by this dove and although it may be on the increase owing to the clearing operations of the war effort, it appears to be equally adapted to forested areas and coconut groves. It feeds on the ground to a large extent, fitting into an ecologic niche which few other species of birds of the islands occupy. It was even observed feeding on sandy beaches and tidal flats at low tide.In 1931, Coultas found the dove to be numerous at Guam, but thought that it was in danger of extinction at Tinian and Saipan owing to extensive hunting. Downs (1946:96) reported that in 1945 the dove was abundant at Tinian. Gleise (1945:22) estimated the population of these doves at 300 on Tinian in 1945. From the remarks of Stott (1947:526), we may assume that the population at Saipan is in no immediate danger of extinction.A comparison of specimens from the Marianas with those from the Philippines reveals no significant difference between the two. Bonaparte described the dove in the Marianas as new, naming itStreptopelia gaimardi. The nameTurtur prevostianushas been used by some authors to denote the dove in the Marianas, but this was through error as explained by Salvadori (1893:410). This name refers to a dove found on Marianne, an island of the Seychelles in the Indian Ocean.Gallicolumba canifrons(Hartlaub and Finsch)Palau Ground DovePhlegoenas canifronsHartlaub and Finsch, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1872, p. 101. (Type locality, Pelew Islands.)Phlegoenas canifronsFinsch, Journ. Mus. Godeffroy, 8, 1875, pp. 5, 27, pl. 5, fig. 1 (Palau); Schmeltz and Krause, Ethnogr. Abth. Mus. Godeffroy, 1881, p. 407 (Palau); Wiglesworth, Abhandl. und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 57 (Pelew); Hartert; Novit. Zool., 5, 1898, p. 61 (Pelew); Matschie, Journ. f. Ornith., 1901, p. 113 (Palau); Kuroda, in Momiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 53 (Pelews).Phlogoenas canifronsSclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1877, p. 112 (Pelew); Salvadori, Ornith.] Papuasia, 3, 1882, p. 169 (Pelew);idem, Cat. Birds British Mus., 21, 1893, p. 592 (Pelew); Oustalet, Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, (3), 7, 1895, p. 227 (Palaos); Bolau. Mitteil. Naturhist. Mus. Hamburg, 1898, p. 68 (Palau); Dubois, Syn. Avium, 2, 1904, p. 772 (Pelew).Phaps canifronsGiebel, Thes. Ornith., 3, 1877, p. 89 (Pelew).Gallicolumba canifrons canifronsMathews, Syst. Avium Australasianarum, 1, 1927, p. 74 (Pelew).Gallicolumba canifronsHand-list Japanese Birds, rev., 1932, p. 189 (Palau); Mayr, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 828, 1936, p. 4 (Palau); Peters, Check-list Birds World, 3, 1937, p. 136 (Palau); Hand-list Japanese Birds, 3d ed., 1942, p. 211 (Babelthuap); Mayr, Birds Southwest Pacific, 1945, p. 290 (Palau); Mayr, Audubon Mag., 47, 1945, p. 282 (Palau); Baker, Smithson. Misc. Coll., vol. 107, no. 15, 1948, p. 62 (Garakayo, Peleliu).Geographic range.—Micronesia: Palau Islands—Babelthuap, Koror, Garakayo, Peleliu, Ngabad, Angaur.Characters.—Adult male: A small, ground dove with forehead, crown, sides of head, chin, throat, and breast ashy gray, lighter on forehead, chin, and throat, and washed with "light vinaceous-faun" on breast; occiput, nape and mantle dark "ferruginous"; rest of upper parts glossed with bronze-olive; lesser and middle wing-coverts tipped with metallic purple; wings reddish-brown with dark brown tips; under side of wing reddish-brown to brown; abdomen, vent and under tail-coverts dark grayish-brown; tail colored like back, outer feathers have a paler brown terminal band rather obscure; bill horn colored; feet red; iris brown.Female: A female molting into adult plumage is cinnamon colored, mottled with dark brown; on the back an olive-green sheen is beginning to appear; tail brown with some greenish sheen; tips of tail edged with light brown; bill and feet light brown.Measurements.—Measurements of six adult males are: wing, 112-119 (115); tail, 65-72 (70); exposed culmen, 15.3-16.1 (15.7); tarsus, 30.1-31.2 (30.8); of one female in postjuvenal molt: wing, 107; tail, 69; exposed culmen, 17.1; tarsus, 30.Specimens examined.—Total number, 8 (7 males, 1 female), as follows: Palau Islands, USNM—Koror, 1 (Nov. 18)—Garakayo, 2 (Sept. 17, 19)—Peleliu, 2 (Sept. 1, Dec. 5)—Ngabad, 1 (Sept. 11); AMNH—exact locality not given, 1 (Dec. 1).Food habits.—Stomachs of specimens taken by the NAMRU2 party at Peleliu and Garakayo contained one and one-half to two cc. of hard seeds and seed parts.Remarks.—The Palau Ground Dove, according to Amadon (1943:19), is a member of a superspecies containingG. hoedti(Wetar),G. beccarii(New Guinea, Bismarcks, Solomons),G. sanctaecrucis(Santa Cruz, New Hebrides), andG. stairi(central Polynesia).G. canifronsapparently came to the Palaus from either New Guinea or the region of the Bismarck Archipelago, evolving fromG. beccariior some related form. The Palau Ground Dove has a copper-colored occiput, nape, and shoulder patch, but otherwise it resembles this Melanesian species,G. beccarii. Amadon (1943:20) discusses two types of plumage of females inG. stairi; one is a male type of plumage. The lack of female specimens prevents me from determining whether this characteristic is present inG. canifrons.Coultas (field notes) had difficulty in obtaining even one specimen ofG. canifronsin the Palaus in 1931. He concluded that either the bird was practically extinct or that he just could not find it. From the experience of the NAMRU2 party in the southern Palaus in 1945, I would think that he merely did not find the bird. Although it is probably rare in comparison with some other members of the family Columbidae of these islands, we found this bird on most of the islands visited.The NAMRU2 party arrived at Palau expecting to find the ground dove a fairly conspicuous member of the avifauna and expecting to see it sitting in trees and flying across the roads much in the same manner as did the ground dove at Guam,G. x. xanthonura. At first, we did not find the bird, but in the dense jungles a low, penetrating, and intermittent, call was heard which may be described as a moan. This was the call of the ground dove. The bird was difficult to discover because its color blended so well with the shadows and dark background of the coral rocks and forest litter. The bird was very active and moved along rapidly pecking at food particles. Also it was wary. Once the distinctive call note was recognized, it was not difficult to locate the area in which the bird was living; however, finding the bird was difficult. On one occasion I stalked a dove for at least a half an hour knowing that it was always within fifty yards of me. A bird that was flushed, flew about twenty-five feet and dropped down in open forest litter and disappeared. On the basis of specimens collected and call notes heard, I estimate that the population of the Palau Ground Dove on the islands visited in 1945 was as follows: Peleliu—a minimum of 15 (found in most forested areas which were not greatly damaged by the invasion operations); Garakayo—a minimum of 10 (the doves were found to live equally well on the steep hillsides or in flat jungle on this islet); Ngabad—5 to 10 (doves were heard in several areas on this small islet); Angaur—not estimated (one call was heard in brush near the edge of a fresh water lake).Gallicolumba xanthonura xanthonura(Temminck)White-throated Ground DoveColumba xanthonuraTemminck, Pl. col., livr. 32, 1823, pl. 190. (Type locality, Mariannes.)Columba xanthonuraLesson, Compl. de Buffon, 2nd ed., 2, Oiseaux, 1838, p. 281 (Mariannes).Columba PampusanQuoy and Gaimard, Voy. "Uranie," Zool., 1824, pp. 121, 681, pl. 30 (Mariannes); Dumont, Dict. Sci. Nat., ed. Levrault, 40, 1826, p. 345 (Guam); Lesson, Traité d'Ornith., 1831, p. 471 (Mariannes); Hartlaub, Journ. f. Ornith., 1854, p. 167 (Mariannen).Columba erythropteraLesson, Traité d'Ornith., 1831, p. 471 (Mariannes); Kittlitz, Obser. Zool., in Lutké, Voy. "Le Séniavine," 3, 1836, p. 305 (Guahan); Hartlaub, Journ. f. Ornith., 1854, p. 167 (Mariannen).Columba xanthuraPrévost and Knip, Les Pigeons, 2, 1838-43, p. 45, pl. 23 (Guam).Pampusana xanthuaBonaparte, Consp. Avium, 2, 1854, p. 89 (Mariannis);idem, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, 40, 1855, p. 207 (Mariannes); Reichenbach, Tauben, 1861, p. 39 (Guam).Caloenas (Pampusana) xanthuraGray, Cat. Birds Trop. Is. Pacific Ocean, 1859, p. 45 (Guam).Phlegoenas erythropteraReichenbach, Tauben, 1861, p. 41 (Mariannen).Caloenas xanthuraGray, Hand-list Birds, 2, 1870, p. 247 (Marian).Phlegoenas yapensisHartlaub and Finsch, 1872, p. 102 (Type locality, Uap); Gräffe, Journ. Mus. Godeffroy, 2, 1873, pp. 122, 123 (Yap); Schmeltz and Krause, Ethnogr. Abth. Mus. Godeffroy, 1881, p. 391 (Yap); Wiglesworth, Abhandl. und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 57 (Yap); Hartert, Novit. Zool., 5, 1898, p. 61 (Yap); Matschie, Journ. f. Ornith., 1901, p. 113 (Yap).Pampusana rousseauiHartlaub and Finsch, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1872, p. 103 (Marianne).Phaps erythropteraGiebel (part), Thes. Ornith., 3, 1877, p. 89 (Marianne).Phaps xanthuraGiebel, Thes. Ornith., 3, 1877, p. 91 (Marianne).Phaps yapensisGiebel, Thes. Ornith., 3, 1877, p. 91 (Uap).Phlegoenas virgoReichenow. Journ. f. Ornith., 1885, p. 110 (Type locality, Palau-Inseln, error = Guam).Phlogaenas erythropteraOustalet, Le Nat., 1889, p. 261 (Mariannes).Phlegoenas pampusanWiglesworth, Abhandl. und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 55 (Marianne); Oustalet, Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, (3), 7, 1895, p. 224 (Saypan, Guam, Rota).Phlogoenas yapensisSalvadori, Cat. Birds British Mus., 21, 1893, p. 593 (Uap); Oustalet, Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, (3), 7, 1895, p. 227 (Mackensie); Bolau, Mitteil. Naturhist. Mus. Hamburg, 1898, p. 68 (Yap); Dubois, Syn. Avium, 2. 1904, p. 772 (Uap).Phlogoenas pampusanSalvadori, Cat. Birds British Mus., 21, 1893, p. 602 (Marianne).Phlegoenas xanthonuraHartert, Novit. Zool., 5, 1898, p. 60 (Guam, Saipan); Wheeler, Report Island of Guam, 1900, p. 13 (Guam); Matschie, Journ. f. Ornith., 1901, p. 113 (Guam, Saipan); Safford, Amer. Anthro., 4, 1902, p. 711 (Guam);idem, Osprey, 1902, p. 68 (Mariannas);idem, The Plant World, 7, 1904, p. 264 (Guam);idem, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., 9, 1905, p. 78 (Guam); Cox, Island of Guam, 1917, p. 20 (Guam).Phlogoenas xanthonuraSeale, Occ. Papers Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 1, 1901, p. 42 (Marianas); Reichenow, Die Vögel, 1, 1913, p. 331 (Mariannen); Bryan, Guam Rec., vol. 13, no. 2, 1936, p. 24 (Guam).Phlegoenas xanthonura xanthonuraKuroda, in Momiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 54 (Guam, Rota, Saipan).Phlegoenas xanthonura yapensisKuroda, in Momoyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 54 (Yap).Gallicolumba xanthonuraMathews, Syst. Avium Australasianarum, 1, 1927, p. 75 (Marianas, Mackenzie); Hand-list Japanese Birds, rev., 1932, p. 189 (Pagan, Almagan, Saipan, Tinian, Rota, Mackenzie); Mayr, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 828, 1936, p. 4 (Marianne); Peters, Check-list Birds World, 3, 1937, p. 136 (Marianne, Yap); Hand-list Japanese Birds, 3d ed., 1942, p. 211 (Yap, Assongsong, Pagan, Almagan, Saipan, Tinian, Rota); Strophlet, Auk, 1946, p. 538 (Guam); Wharton, Ecol. Monogr., 16, 1946, p. 174 (Guam); Baker, Condor, 49, 1947, p. 125 (Guam).Gallicolumba canifrons yapensisMathews, Syst. Avium Australasianarum, 1, 1927, p. 74 (Yap).Terricolumba xanthonuraYamashina, Tori, 10, 1940, p. 677 (Assongsong).Gallicolumba xanthonura xanthonuraMayr, Birds Southwest Pacific, 1945, p. 290 (Marianas, Yap); Watson, The Raven, 17, 1946, p. 41 (Guam); Stott, Auk, 1947, p. 526 (Saipan); Baker, Smithson. Misc. Coll., vol. 107, no. 15, 1948, p. 61 (Guam, Rota Yap).Gallecolumba xanthonura xanthonuraDowns, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 49, 1946, p. 96 (Tinian).Fig. 14Fig. 14.Geographic distribution ofGallicolumbaof Micronesia and Eastern Polynesia and routes of its dispersal. (1)G. jobiensis; (2)G. x. kubaryi; (3)G. x. xanthonura; (4)G. erythroptera; (5)G. rubescens.Geographic range.—Micronesia: Mariana Islands—Asuncion, Pagan, Almagan, Saipan, Tinian, Rota, Guam; Caroline Islands—Yap.Characters.—Adult male: Forehead, face, chin, throat, and upper breast white, lightly washed with pale buff; crown, occiput, sides of head, and nape rusty brown to dark brown; rest of upper parts dark bronze-olive; feathers of mantle and upper wing-coverts broadly edged with metallic purple-violet; primaries, under wing-coverts and axillaries brown; tail, lower breast and rest of underparts dark brown; bill and feet dark brown.Adult female: Resembles adult male, but smaller and with underparts colored between "ochraceous-tawny" and "cinnamon brown" instead of dark brown and white; head and neck darker and with more rufous than underparts; remainder of upper surface resembles underparts but with striking olive green sheen, especially on upper wing-coverts; primaries brown but outer webs lighter; tail rufous-brown, with a broad, black subterminal band.The male type of plumage in the adult female is: breast light drab tinged with light brown and darkening anteriorly; crown resembles that of normal female although darker and becoming lighter and grayer on neck and nape; shoulder and wing-coverts compare favorably with that of adult male although lighter and with yellowish tinge; back bronzed olive-green as in normal female but mantle with a few purplish feathers characteristic of male; abdomen near "olive brown" with buffy-brown edges to feathers.Immature male: Resembles adult male, but head and nape darker brown; throat and upper breast may be more brown and less white.Immature female: Resembles adult female, but with more rufous coloring; olive-green sheen on feathers reduced in amount or absent.Measurements.—Measurements are found intable 28.Table 28. Measurements ofGallicolumba xanthonuraSubspeciesNumberWingTailCulmenTarsusG. x. xanthonura43 males14610222.032(139-153)(97-111)(21.0-23.0)(31-33)31 females1369420.530(131-141)(90-98)(20.0-21.5)(28-32)G. x. kubaryi7 males15723.035(152-160)(20.5-23.5)(33-35)7 females14823.033(145-151)(22.5-23.5)(32-34)

Globicera oceanica townsendiWetmore, in Townsend and Wetmore, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoöl., 63, 1919, p. 191. (Type locality, Ponapé).

Carpophaga oceanicaFinsch (part), Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1877 (1878), p. 780 (Ponapé); Nehrkorn, Journ. f. Ornith., 1879, p. 407 (Ponapé); Finsch (part), Journ. f. Ornith., 1880, p. 292 (Ponapé);idem, 1881, pp. 113, 115 (Ponapé); Schmeltz and Krause (part), Ethnogr. Abth. Mus. Godeffroy, 1881, p. 281 (Ponapé); Wiglesworth (part), Abhandl. und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 52 (Ponapé); Matschie (part), Journ. f. Ornith., 1901, p. 113 (Guam, error = Ponapé).

Globicera oceanicaSalvadori (part), Cat. Birds British Mus., 21, 1893, p. 176 (Ponapé).

Globicera oceanica townsendiMomiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 6 (Ponapé); Kuroda, in Momiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 55 (Ponapé); Mathews, Syst. Avium Australasianarum, 1, 1927, p. 45 (Ponapé); Hand-list Japanese Birds, rev., 1932, p. 190 (Ponapé).

Ducula oceanica townsendiPeters, Check-list Birds World, 3, 1937, p. 44 (Ponapé); Bequaert, Mushi, vol. 12, no. 2, 1939, pp. 81, 82 (Ponapé);idem, Occ. Papers Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 16, 1941, pp. 266, 290 (Ponapé); Hand-list Japanese Birds, 3d ed., 1942, p. 212 (Ponapé); Amadon, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 1237, 1943, p. 11 (Ponapé); Mayr, Birds Southwest Pacific, 1945, p. 289 (Ponapé).

Geographic range.—Micronesia: Caroline Islands—Ponapé.

Characters.—Adult: ResemblesD. o. teraokai, but darker. Resembles. closelyD. o. oceanicabut larger and darker on crown and nape; lower parts slightly paler but chin more cream-buff in color. As Adamon (1943:11) states, there is little difference betweenD. o. townsendiandD. o. oceanicaexcept in size.

Measurements.—Measurements are listed intable 27.

Specimens examined.—Total number 21 (11 males, 9 females, 1 unsexed), as follows: Caroline Islands, USNM—Ponapé, 2 (Feb. 11, 12); AMNH—Ponapé, 19 (Nov. 22, 29, Dec. 1, 2, 3).

Nesting.—Coultas (field notes) writes that the pigeon at Ponapé nests the year around, probably two or three times a year. He describes the nest as being made of loose twigs and as placed on a fork of a limb in a tall tree. One egg is laid. Coultas saw "two or three" females nesting in December.

Parasites.—Bequaert (1939:81, 82 and 1941:266, 290) found the flies (Hippoboscidae),Ornithoctona plicataandO. pusilla, on pigeons from Ponapé.

Remarks.—Coultas (field notes) writes that in 1930 several Japanese made a livelihood as professional hunters of pigeons at Ponapé. He notes, "Two or three years ago, 4 or 5 Japanese, each, averaged from 75 to 100 birds per day, which they sold to the inhabitants for 35 sen (17-1/2 cents) per bird.... Now these same hunters are fortunate if they obtain 4 or 5 Ducula each per day and are able to do so only by starting before daylight and covering great distances. Other birds are now replacing Ducula on the market." Coultas further records in his notes that the hunters used calls to attract the pigeons. In 1930, Coultas regarded the pigeon at Ponapé as a rapidly disappearing species; he found it only in small areas in remote regions of the mountains. With the shipping of supplies cut off to the Japanese garrison forces at Ponapé, as well as at Kusaie, Truk, and Yap by the effective American blockade during the latter part of the war, it is probable that the pigeons were hunted more intensively by the Japanese hunting parties than ever before. Richards obtained two specimens at Ponapé in the period from August, 1947, to January, 1948.

Columba oceanicaLesson and Garnot, Dict. Sci. Nat., éd., Levrault, 40, 1826, p. 316. (Type locality, Oualan = Kusaie.)

Columba oceanicaLesson (part), Voy. "La Coquille," Zool.; Atlas, 1826, pl. 41; vol. 2, 1828, pp. 432, 708 (Oualan or Strong);idem, (part), Man. d'Ornith., 11, 1828, p. 166 (Oualan); Kittlitz (part), Kupfertaf. Naturgesch. Vögel, 3, 1833, p. 25, pl. 23, fig. 1 (Ualan);idem(part), Observ. Zool., in Lutké, Voy. "Le Séniavine," 3, 1836, p. 284 (Ualan); Lesson, Compl. de Buffon, 2d ed., 2, Oiseaux, 1839, p. 292 (Oualan); Prévost and Knip (part), Les Pigeons, 2, 1838-43, p. 47, pl. 24 (Oualan); Bonaparte, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, 39, 1854, p. 1072 (Oualan); Kittlitz, Denkw. Reise russ. Amer. Micron. und Kamchat., 1, 1858, pp. 39, 49, 62 (Ualan).

Carpohaga oceanicaHartlaub (part), Archiv f. Naturgesch., 18, 1852, pp. 115, 185 (Ualan);idem, Journ. f. Ornith., 1854, p. 168 (Carolinen = Kusaie); Hartlaub and Finsch (part), Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1872, p. 101 (Ualan); Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, 6, no. 35, 1873, p. 87 (Oualan); Salvadori (part). Cronaca del R. Liceo-Ginnasio Cavour, 1878, pp. 3, 8 (Oualan); Finsch (part), Ibis, 1880, pp. 220, 331, 332 (Taluit);idem(part), Journ. f. Ornith., 1880, pp. 292, 304 (Kuschai);idem, Ibis, 1881, p. 108 (Kuschai);idem, Mitth. Ornith. Ver. Wien, 1884, p. 50 (Kuschai, Jaluit); Hartert, Katalog Vogelsamml, Senckenb., 1891, p. 190 (Ualan); Wiglesworth (part), Abhandl. und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 52 (Ualan, Taluit); Matschie (part), Journ. f. Ornith., 1901, p. 113 (Ualan).

Globicera oceanicaBonaparte (part), Consp. Avium, 2, 1855, p. 31 (Oualan);idem, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, 43, 1856, p. 835 (Oualan); Reichenbach (part), Tauben, 1861, p. 120 (Oualan); Salvadori (part), Cat. Birds British Mus., 21, 1893, p. 176 (Kushai).

Carpophaga pacificaFinsch and Hartlaub (part), Fauna Centralpolynesiens, 1867, p. 145 (Ualan).

Carpophaga (Globicera) oceanicaGray (part), Cat. Birds Trop. Is. Pacific Ocean, 1859, p. 41 (Oualan).

Globicera oceanica oceanicaWetmore, in Townsend and Wetmore, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoöl., 63, 1919, p. 191 (Kusaie); Momiyama (part), Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 6 (Kusaie, Taluit); Kuroda (part), in Momiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 55 (Kusaie, Taluit); Mathews, Syst. Avium Australasianarum, 1, 1927, p. 45 (Kusaie); Takatsukasa and Yamashina, Dobutsu. Zasshi, 44, 1932, p. 221 (Jaluit, Iringlob, Kusaie); Hand-list Japanese Birds, rev., 1932, p. 190 (Kusaie, Jaluit, Elmore).

Muscadivora oceanica oceanicaNeumann (part), Verhandl. Ornith. Ges. Bayern, 25, 1922, p. 234 (Kushai).

Ducula Oceanica oceanicaPeters, Check-list Birds World, 3, 1937, p. 44 (Kusaie, Jaluit, Elmore); Bequaert, Mushi, 12, 1939, p. 81 (Kusaie);idem, Occ. Papers Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 16, 1941, p. 266 (Kusaie); Hand-list Japanese Birds, 3d ed., 1942, p. 212 (Kusaie, Jaluit, Elmore); Amadon, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 1237, 1943, p. 11 (Kusaie, Jaluit, Elmore); Mayr, Birds Southwest Pacific, 1945, p. 289 (Kusaie, Jaluit, Elmore).

Geographic range.—Micronesia: Caroline Islands—Kusaie; Marshall Islands—Jaluit, Elmore.

Characters.—Adult male: A large knob-billed pigeon with breast gray, washed with buff; head and neck dark gray; feathers at base of bill and on chin buff-white; abdomen and under tail-coverts near "burnt sienna," sides grayer; mantle, back, rump, upper tail-coverts, wings and tail bronze-green edged with a dark bluish sheen; under side of wing and under side of tail brown; bill and knob black; feet blackish-red; iris reddish-brown. Adult female resembles adult male but smaller and possibly a little darker bluish-green on back, wings, and tail.

D. o. oceaniaresemblesD. o. townsendi, but is smaller with upper parts slightly darker and abdomen and under side of tail lighter.

Measurements.—Measurements are presented intable 27.

Specimens examined.—Total number, 47 (25 males, 22 females), as follows: Caroline Islands, USNM—Kusaie, 2 (Feb. 8, 9,); AMNH—Kusaie, 45 (Jan., Feb., March).

Parasites.—Bequaert (1939:81 and 1941:266) obtained the fly (Hippoboscidae)Ornithoctona plicatafrom the pigeon at Kusaie.

Remarks.—The Micronesian Pigeon at Kusaie has been known since 1824, when from June 5 to June 15 of that year personnel from the corvette "La Coquille" visited the island and observed the bird. Kittlitz visited Kusaie and observed the pigeon in December, 1827, and January, 1828. Finsch (1880c and 1880d) found the bird in theMarshalls at Jaluit. Takatsukasa and Yamashina (1932:221) record the bird from Elmore in the Marshalls. Coultas (field notes) writes that the pigeon was numerous at Kusaie in 1931. He remarks that they appear stupid and are easily killed by the natives, who use a call to attract them. With regard to their habits he writes, "About four o'clock in the afternoon these birds begin congregating in the high trees of the lowlands close to the salt water where they roost for the night. At daybreak they begin migrating to the high mountain sides and peaks where they spend the time feeding."

Globecera oceanica ratakensisTakatsukasa and Yamashina, Dobutsu. Zasshi, 44, 1932, p. 221. (Type locality, Aruno.)

Columba australisChamisso, in Kotzebue's, Voy. "Rurick," 3, 1821, p. 157 (Radak).

Carpophaga oceanicaFinsch, Ibis, 1880, p. 331 (Arno); Wiglesworth (part), Abhandl. und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 52 (Arno);idem, Ibis, 1893, p. 211 (Marshalls).

Globicera oceanica oceanicaMomiyama (part), Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 5 (Arno); Kuroda (part), in Momiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 55 (Arno).

Globicera oceanica ratakensisHand-list Japanese Birds, rev., 1932, p. 190 (Arhno, Wotze); Mathews, Ibis, 1933, p. 87 (Aruno, Wozzie).

Ducala oceanica ratakensisPeters, Check-list Birds World, 3, 1937, p. 44 (Arno, Wotje); Hand-list Japanese Birds, 3d ed., 1942, p. 212 (Arhno, Wotze); Amadon, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 1237, 1943, p. 12 (Arno, Wotje); Mayr. Birds Southwest Pacific, 1945, p. 289 (Arno, Wotje).

Geographic range.—Micronesia: Marshall Islands (Radak Chain)—Wotje, Arhno.

Characters.—Takatsukasa and Yamashina (1932:221) describe this subspecies as follows, "This form differs from all other forms ofGlobicera oceanicaby its smaller size, more bronze-sheen on the back, more vinaceous grey on the breast and duller brown on the abdomen." On examining two specimens from Arno in the collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy, Amadon (1943:12) writes that he finds no distinguishing color characters betweenD. o. oceanicaandD. o. ratakensis. He also questions whether there is any difference in size between the two populations.

Measurements.—Measurements are listed intable 27.

Remarks.—Chamisso (1821), the naturalist on board the ship "Rurick," was the first person to write of the pigeon in the Radak Chain of the Marshall Islands. The ship visited this area in 1817. Finsch (1880b) published an account of the bird when he visited the area about 1880. Takatsukasa and Yamashina (1932:221) described this bird as new on the basis of an examination of nine skins taken at Arhno and Wotje.

Evolutionary history of Ducula oceanica in Micronesia.—The distribution and evolutionary history ofDucula oceanicahave been treated by Mayr (1940) and Amadon (1943). These authors placeD. oceanicawithin a superspecies containingD. pacifica(Melanesia to Samoa and Cook Islands),D. aurorea(Society Islands),D. galeata(Marquesas Islands), and possibly other species in Papua and Malaysia. According to Mayr (1942b:fig. 7),D. pacificais the species which is ancestral to other species of pigeons in Oceania. ApparentlyD. oceanicawas derived from this ancestral stock and reached Micronesia via the Ellice and Gilbert islands. Records ofDuculawere obtained in the Gilbert Islands in the days of exploration; Amadon (1943:11) tentatively refers these toD. o. oceanica.

The irregular distribution ofD. oceanicain the islands of Micronesia and the fact that the bird exists on both "high" volcanic islands as well as on "low" coral atolls suggest that the present population may be a remnant of a once more widely distributed one. The fact thatD. oceanicamay be divided into several subspecies shows that a greater amount of geographic variation has occurred as compared with its probable ancestral stock,D. pacifica, which is virtually undifferentiated over most of its extensive range. The pigeon of Micronesia has a more rounded wing than that ofD. pacifica, which might, as Amadon has suggested, cause the bird to be more sedentary and lend itself more readily to differentiation through geographic isolation.D. pacificais known to fly from island to island. As shown by the measurements intable 27, the length of wing ofD. oceanicadiffers, in the various insular populations, being longer in the west and shorter in the east. This cline has been discussed by Amadon (1943:11).

It is interesting thatDuculaor some other large pigeon has not become established in the Mariana Islands.Duculais present at Yap and Truk, which are not very distant from Guam. Another tropical pigeon,Columba vitiensis, has extended its range northward and reached the Bonin Islands; probably it arrived there via the Philippines or the Riu Kiu Islands. Thus, there are representatives of large pigeons on islands to the southeast, south, west and northwest of the Marianas, but none has become established in the Marianas themselves.

Columba dusumieriTemminck, Pl. col., livr. 32, 1832, p. 188. (Type locality, Vicinity of Manila, Luzon, Philippine Islands.)

Colombe DussumierQuoy and Gaimard, Voy. "Uranie," Zool., 1824, pp. 35, 680 (Mariannes);idem, Ann. Sci. Nat. Paris, 6, 1825, p. 148 (Mariannes).

Columba dusumieriWagler, Syst. Avium Columba, 1827, p. 266, sp. 99 (Marianis).

Columba DussumieriKittlitz, Obser. Zool., in Lutké, Voy. "Le Séniavine," 3, 1836, p. 305 (Guahan).

Streptopelia gaimardiBonaparte, Consp. Avium, 2, 1854, p. 66 (Type locality, Mariannes);idem, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, 40, 1855, p. 18 (Mariannes); Reichenbach, Tauben, 1862, p. 76 (Mariannen).

Turtur (Streptopelia) GiamardiGray, Cat. Birds Trop. Is. Pacific Ocean, 1859, p. 43 (Guam).

Turtur gaimardiGray, Hand-list Birds, 2, 1870, p. 239 (Marian).

Turtur dussumieriSchlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, 6, no. 35, 1873, p. 120 (Mariannes); Wiglesworth, Abhandl. Und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 54 (Marianne); Salvadori, Cat. Birds British Mus., 21, 1893, p. 423 (Mariannes); Oustalet, Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, (3), 7, 1895, p. 222 (Guam); Hartert, Novit. Zool., 5, 1898, p. 60 (Guam, Saipan); Wheeler, Report Island of Guam, 1900, p. 13 (Guam); Seale, Occ. Papers Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 1, 1901, p. 43 (Marianas); Safford, Osprey, 1902, p. 68 (Marianas);idem, Amer. Anthro., 4, 1902, p. 711 (Guam);idem, The Plant World, 7, 1904, p. 264 (Guam); Dubois, Syn. Avium, 2, 1904, p. 760 (Marianne); Safford, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., 9, 1905, p. 78 (Guam); Schnee, Zeitschr. f. Naturwisch., 82, 1912, p. 466 (Marianen); Prowazek, Die deutschen Marianen, 1913, p. 101 (Marianen); Reichenow, Die Vögel, 1, 1913, p. 341 (Marianen); Cox, Island of Guam, 1917, p. 20 (Guam).

Streptopelia dussumieriKuroda, in Momiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 54 (Guam, Saipan); Mathews, Syst. Avium Australasianarum, 1, 1927, p. 62 (Marianas); Hand-list Japanese Birds, rev., 1932, p. 189 (Saipan, Tinian, Rota).

Tuttur dessumieriBryan, Guam Rec., vol. 13, no. 2, 1936, p. 24 (Guam).

Streptopelia bitorquata dusumieriPeters, Check-list Birds World, 3, 1937, p. 96 (Marianne); Hand-list Japanese Birds, 3d ed., 1942, p. 211 (Saipan, Tinian, Rota); Mayr, Birds Southwest Pacific, 1945, p. 289 (Marianas); Watson, The Raven, 17, 1946, p. 41 (Guam); Downs, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 49, 1946, p. 96 (Tinian); Strophlet, Auk, 1946, p. 538 (Guam); Stott, Auk, 1947, p. 526 (Saipan); Baker, Smithson. Misc. Coll., vol. 107, no. 15, 1948, p. 60 (Guam, Rota).

Streptopelia bitorquataBaker, Trans. 11th N. American Wildlife Conf., 1946, p. 208 (Guam);idem, Condor. 49, 1947, p. 125 (Guam).

Geographic range.—Philippine Islands, Sula Archipelago, northern Borneo. In Micronesia: Mariana Islands (introduced)—Guam, Rota, Tinian, Saipan.

Characters.—Adult: A medium-sized dove with head and nape near "light Quaker drab" with a vinous tinge; chin and upper throat whitish becoming near "vinaceous buff" on lower throat and to near "vinaceous-faun" on breast and upper abdomen; lower abdomen, vent, and under tail-coverts white; tibia grayish; neck feathers dark with grayish centers and metallic greenish-slate edges; color near "Japan rose"; back, rump, upper tail-coverts, scapulars, upper wing-coverts, and inner secondaries dark "drab"; sides, upper wing coverts, outer secondaries, and under wing-coverts lead colored; primaries blackish edged with light gray; central tail feathers like back but paler, outer feathers of tail darker with brownish tinge on edges; outermost tail feathers blackish tipped with gray and with outer webs whitish; bill dark; feet reddish; iris orange.

Measurements.—Measurements of 15 adult males from Guam, Rota and Tinian: wing, 154-162 (158); tail, 127-135 (130); culmen, 16.2-18.1 (17.2); tarsus, 24-27 (25.5); of 10 adult females from Guam and Rota: wing, 150-162 (156); tail, 120-130 (127); culmen, 16.2-19.1 (17.5); tarsus, 24-26 (25). No differences in measurements were found between populations from Guam, Rota and Tinian.

Weights.—The author (1948:61) reports the weights of five adult males as 130-167 (152) and of six adult females as 135-159 (146). These birds were taken at Guam.

Specimens examined.—Total number, 27 (16 males, 11 females), as follows: Mariana Islands, USNM—Guam, 21 (Feb. 7, May 25, 26, June 9, July 6, 7, 10, 18, 23, Aug. 2, 11, Sept. 8, Oct. 8)—Rota, 4 (Oct. 18, 22, 23, Nov. 2)—Tinian, 2 (Oct. 24, 25).

Nesting.—The NAMRU2 party found evidences of nesting by this dove at Guam in February, March, April, and June. Nests were observed on May 29 and June 28. On the latter date a nest containing one nestling and one unhatched egg was found near Mount Santa Rosa. The nest was situated approximately five feet from the ground in a low bush. Two eggs taken by Necker at Rota on October 31, 1945, are white and measure 29.6 by 23.0 and 30.1 by 23.0. Strophlet (1946:538) observed a bird carrying nest materials at Guam on November 13. Hartert (1898:60) reports on nests found at Guam in April and May. Each nest contained one egg. It is probable that this bird nests at all times of the year. The nuptial flight of these birds reminds one very much of that of the mourning dove of North America.

Remarks.—The Philippine Turtle Dove was introduced from the Philippines to Guam and other islands of the southern Marianas by the Spanish probably in the 18th Century; it was in 1771-1774 that the Philippine deer (Rusa) was introduced to Guam. Perhaps these birds were initially introduced as caged birds or possibly were liberated to offer hunting for the colonial governors. They have been a very successful introduction and are well established. At Guam (see Baker 1947b:124), this species comprised 15.5 percent of all birds seen along roadways. Although open areas appear to be preferred by this dove and although it may be on the increase owing to the clearing operations of the war effort, it appears to be equally adapted to forested areas and coconut groves. It feeds on the ground to a large extent, fitting into an ecologic niche which few other species of birds of the islands occupy. It was even observed feeding on sandy beaches and tidal flats at low tide.

In 1931, Coultas found the dove to be numerous at Guam, but thought that it was in danger of extinction at Tinian and Saipan owing to extensive hunting. Downs (1946:96) reported that in 1945 the dove was abundant at Tinian. Gleise (1945:22) estimated the population of these doves at 300 on Tinian in 1945. From the remarks of Stott (1947:526), we may assume that the population at Saipan is in no immediate danger of extinction.

A comparison of specimens from the Marianas with those from the Philippines reveals no significant difference between the two. Bonaparte described the dove in the Marianas as new, naming itStreptopelia gaimardi. The nameTurtur prevostianushas been used by some authors to denote the dove in the Marianas, but this was through error as explained by Salvadori (1893:410). This name refers to a dove found on Marianne, an island of the Seychelles in the Indian Ocean.

Phlegoenas canifronsHartlaub and Finsch, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1872, p. 101. (Type locality, Pelew Islands.)

Phlegoenas canifronsFinsch, Journ. Mus. Godeffroy, 8, 1875, pp. 5, 27, pl. 5, fig. 1 (Palau); Schmeltz and Krause, Ethnogr. Abth. Mus. Godeffroy, 1881, p. 407 (Palau); Wiglesworth, Abhandl. und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 57 (Pelew); Hartert; Novit. Zool., 5, 1898, p. 61 (Pelew); Matschie, Journ. f. Ornith., 1901, p. 113 (Palau); Kuroda, in Momiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 53 (Pelews).

Phlogoenas canifronsSclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1877, p. 112 (Pelew); Salvadori, Ornith.] Papuasia, 3, 1882, p. 169 (Pelew);idem, Cat. Birds British Mus., 21, 1893, p. 592 (Pelew); Oustalet, Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, (3), 7, 1895, p. 227 (Palaos); Bolau. Mitteil. Naturhist. Mus. Hamburg, 1898, p. 68 (Palau); Dubois, Syn. Avium, 2, 1904, p. 772 (Pelew).

Phaps canifronsGiebel, Thes. Ornith., 3, 1877, p. 89 (Pelew).

Gallicolumba canifrons canifronsMathews, Syst. Avium Australasianarum, 1, 1927, p. 74 (Pelew).

Gallicolumba canifronsHand-list Japanese Birds, rev., 1932, p. 189 (Palau); Mayr, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 828, 1936, p. 4 (Palau); Peters, Check-list Birds World, 3, 1937, p. 136 (Palau); Hand-list Japanese Birds, 3d ed., 1942, p. 211 (Babelthuap); Mayr, Birds Southwest Pacific, 1945, p. 290 (Palau); Mayr, Audubon Mag., 47, 1945, p. 282 (Palau); Baker, Smithson. Misc. Coll., vol. 107, no. 15, 1948, p. 62 (Garakayo, Peleliu).

Geographic range.—Micronesia: Palau Islands—Babelthuap, Koror, Garakayo, Peleliu, Ngabad, Angaur.

Characters.—Adult male: A small, ground dove with forehead, crown, sides of head, chin, throat, and breast ashy gray, lighter on forehead, chin, and throat, and washed with "light vinaceous-faun" on breast; occiput, nape and mantle dark "ferruginous"; rest of upper parts glossed with bronze-olive; lesser and middle wing-coverts tipped with metallic purple; wings reddish-brown with dark brown tips; under side of wing reddish-brown to brown; abdomen, vent and under tail-coverts dark grayish-brown; tail colored like back, outer feathers have a paler brown terminal band rather obscure; bill horn colored; feet red; iris brown.

Female: A female molting into adult plumage is cinnamon colored, mottled with dark brown; on the back an olive-green sheen is beginning to appear; tail brown with some greenish sheen; tips of tail edged with light brown; bill and feet light brown.

Measurements.—Measurements of six adult males are: wing, 112-119 (115); tail, 65-72 (70); exposed culmen, 15.3-16.1 (15.7); tarsus, 30.1-31.2 (30.8); of one female in postjuvenal molt: wing, 107; tail, 69; exposed culmen, 17.1; tarsus, 30.

Specimens examined.—Total number, 8 (7 males, 1 female), as follows: Palau Islands, USNM—Koror, 1 (Nov. 18)—Garakayo, 2 (Sept. 17, 19)—Peleliu, 2 (Sept. 1, Dec. 5)—Ngabad, 1 (Sept. 11); AMNH—exact locality not given, 1 (Dec. 1).

Food habits.—Stomachs of specimens taken by the NAMRU2 party at Peleliu and Garakayo contained one and one-half to two cc. of hard seeds and seed parts.

Remarks.—The Palau Ground Dove, according to Amadon (1943:19), is a member of a superspecies containingG. hoedti(Wetar),G. beccarii(New Guinea, Bismarcks, Solomons),G. sanctaecrucis(Santa Cruz, New Hebrides), andG. stairi(central Polynesia).

G. canifronsapparently came to the Palaus from either New Guinea or the region of the Bismarck Archipelago, evolving fromG. beccariior some related form. The Palau Ground Dove has a copper-colored occiput, nape, and shoulder patch, but otherwise it resembles this Melanesian species,G. beccarii. Amadon (1943:20) discusses two types of plumage of females inG. stairi; one is a male type of plumage. The lack of female specimens prevents me from determining whether this characteristic is present inG. canifrons.

Coultas (field notes) had difficulty in obtaining even one specimen ofG. canifronsin the Palaus in 1931. He concluded that either the bird was practically extinct or that he just could not find it. From the experience of the NAMRU2 party in the southern Palaus in 1945, I would think that he merely did not find the bird. Although it is probably rare in comparison with some other members of the family Columbidae of these islands, we found this bird on most of the islands visited.

The NAMRU2 party arrived at Palau expecting to find the ground dove a fairly conspicuous member of the avifauna and expecting to see it sitting in trees and flying across the roads much in the same manner as did the ground dove at Guam,G. x. xanthonura. At first, we did not find the bird, but in the dense jungles a low, penetrating, and intermittent, call was heard which may be described as a moan. This was the call of the ground dove. The bird was difficult to discover because its color blended so well with the shadows and dark background of the coral rocks and forest litter. The bird was very active and moved along rapidly pecking at food particles. Also it was wary. Once the distinctive call note was recognized, it was not difficult to locate the area in which the bird was living; however, finding the bird was difficult. On one occasion I stalked a dove for at least a half an hour knowing that it was always within fifty yards of me. A bird that was flushed, flew about twenty-five feet and dropped down in open forest litter and disappeared. On the basis of specimens collected and call notes heard, I estimate that the population of the Palau Ground Dove on the islands visited in 1945 was as follows: Peleliu—a minimum of 15 (found in most forested areas which were not greatly damaged by the invasion operations); Garakayo—a minimum of 10 (the doves were found to live equally well on the steep hillsides or in flat jungle on this islet); Ngabad—5 to 10 (doves were heard in several areas on this small islet); Angaur—not estimated (one call was heard in brush near the edge of a fresh water lake).

Columba xanthonuraTemminck, Pl. col., livr. 32, 1823, pl. 190. (Type locality, Mariannes.)

Columba xanthonuraLesson, Compl. de Buffon, 2nd ed., 2, Oiseaux, 1838, p. 281 (Mariannes).

Columba PampusanQuoy and Gaimard, Voy. "Uranie," Zool., 1824, pp. 121, 681, pl. 30 (Mariannes); Dumont, Dict. Sci. Nat., ed. Levrault, 40, 1826, p. 345 (Guam); Lesson, Traité d'Ornith., 1831, p. 471 (Mariannes); Hartlaub, Journ. f. Ornith., 1854, p. 167 (Mariannen).

Columba erythropteraLesson, Traité d'Ornith., 1831, p. 471 (Mariannes); Kittlitz, Obser. Zool., in Lutké, Voy. "Le Séniavine," 3, 1836, p. 305 (Guahan); Hartlaub, Journ. f. Ornith., 1854, p. 167 (Mariannen).

Columba xanthuraPrévost and Knip, Les Pigeons, 2, 1838-43, p. 45, pl. 23 (Guam).

Pampusana xanthuaBonaparte, Consp. Avium, 2, 1854, p. 89 (Mariannis);idem, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, 40, 1855, p. 207 (Mariannes); Reichenbach, Tauben, 1861, p. 39 (Guam).

Caloenas (Pampusana) xanthuraGray, Cat. Birds Trop. Is. Pacific Ocean, 1859, p. 45 (Guam).

Phlegoenas erythropteraReichenbach, Tauben, 1861, p. 41 (Mariannen).

Caloenas xanthuraGray, Hand-list Birds, 2, 1870, p. 247 (Marian).

Phlegoenas yapensisHartlaub and Finsch, 1872, p. 102 (Type locality, Uap); Gräffe, Journ. Mus. Godeffroy, 2, 1873, pp. 122, 123 (Yap); Schmeltz and Krause, Ethnogr. Abth. Mus. Godeffroy, 1881, p. 391 (Yap); Wiglesworth, Abhandl. und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 57 (Yap); Hartert, Novit. Zool., 5, 1898, p. 61 (Yap); Matschie, Journ. f. Ornith., 1901, p. 113 (Yap).

Pampusana rousseauiHartlaub and Finsch, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1872, p. 103 (Marianne).

Phaps erythropteraGiebel (part), Thes. Ornith., 3, 1877, p. 89 (Marianne).

Phaps xanthuraGiebel, Thes. Ornith., 3, 1877, p. 91 (Marianne).

Phaps yapensisGiebel, Thes. Ornith., 3, 1877, p. 91 (Uap).

Phlegoenas virgoReichenow. Journ. f. Ornith., 1885, p. 110 (Type locality, Palau-Inseln, error = Guam).

Phlogaenas erythropteraOustalet, Le Nat., 1889, p. 261 (Mariannes).

Phlegoenas pampusanWiglesworth, Abhandl. und Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, no. 6, 1890-1891 (1891), p. 55 (Marianne); Oustalet, Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, (3), 7, 1895, p. 224 (Saypan, Guam, Rota).

Phlogoenas yapensisSalvadori, Cat. Birds British Mus., 21, 1893, p. 593 (Uap); Oustalet, Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, (3), 7, 1895, p. 227 (Mackensie); Bolau, Mitteil. Naturhist. Mus. Hamburg, 1898, p. 68 (Yap); Dubois, Syn. Avium, 2. 1904, p. 772 (Uap).

Phlogoenas pampusanSalvadori, Cat. Birds British Mus., 21, 1893, p. 602 (Marianne).

Phlegoenas xanthonuraHartert, Novit. Zool., 5, 1898, p. 60 (Guam, Saipan); Wheeler, Report Island of Guam, 1900, p. 13 (Guam); Matschie, Journ. f. Ornith., 1901, p. 113 (Guam, Saipan); Safford, Amer. Anthro., 4, 1902, p. 711 (Guam);idem, Osprey, 1902, p. 68 (Mariannas);idem, The Plant World, 7, 1904, p. 264 (Guam);idem, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., 9, 1905, p. 78 (Guam); Cox, Island of Guam, 1917, p. 20 (Guam).

Phlogoenas xanthonuraSeale, Occ. Papers Bernice P. Bishop Mus., 1, 1901, p. 42 (Marianas); Reichenow, Die Vögel, 1, 1913, p. 331 (Mariannen); Bryan, Guam Rec., vol. 13, no. 2, 1936, p. 24 (Guam).

Phlegoenas xanthonura xanthonuraKuroda, in Momiyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 54 (Guam, Rota, Saipan).

Phlegoenas xanthonura yapensisKuroda, in Momoyama, Birds Micronesia, 1922, p. 54 (Yap).

Gallicolumba xanthonuraMathews, Syst. Avium Australasianarum, 1, 1927, p. 75 (Marianas, Mackenzie); Hand-list Japanese Birds, rev., 1932, p. 189 (Pagan, Almagan, Saipan, Tinian, Rota, Mackenzie); Mayr, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 828, 1936, p. 4 (Marianne); Peters, Check-list Birds World, 3, 1937, p. 136 (Marianne, Yap); Hand-list Japanese Birds, 3d ed., 1942, p. 211 (Yap, Assongsong, Pagan, Almagan, Saipan, Tinian, Rota); Strophlet, Auk, 1946, p. 538 (Guam); Wharton, Ecol. Monogr., 16, 1946, p. 174 (Guam); Baker, Condor, 49, 1947, p. 125 (Guam).

Gallicolumba canifrons yapensisMathews, Syst. Avium Australasianarum, 1, 1927, p. 74 (Yap).

Terricolumba xanthonuraYamashina, Tori, 10, 1940, p. 677 (Assongsong).

Gallicolumba xanthonura xanthonuraMayr, Birds Southwest Pacific, 1945, p. 290 (Marianas, Yap); Watson, The Raven, 17, 1946, p. 41 (Guam); Stott, Auk, 1947, p. 526 (Saipan); Baker, Smithson. Misc. Coll., vol. 107, no. 15, 1948, p. 61 (Guam, Rota Yap).

Gallecolumba xanthonura xanthonuraDowns, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 49, 1946, p. 96 (Tinian).

Fig. 14Fig. 14.Geographic distribution ofGallicolumbaof Micronesia and Eastern Polynesia and routes of its dispersal. (1)G. jobiensis; (2)G. x. kubaryi; (3)G. x. xanthonura; (4)G. erythroptera; (5)G. rubescens.

Geographic range.—Micronesia: Mariana Islands—Asuncion, Pagan, Almagan, Saipan, Tinian, Rota, Guam; Caroline Islands—Yap.

Characters.—Adult male: Forehead, face, chin, throat, and upper breast white, lightly washed with pale buff; crown, occiput, sides of head, and nape rusty brown to dark brown; rest of upper parts dark bronze-olive; feathers of mantle and upper wing-coverts broadly edged with metallic purple-violet; primaries, under wing-coverts and axillaries brown; tail, lower breast and rest of underparts dark brown; bill and feet dark brown.

Adult female: Resembles adult male, but smaller and with underparts colored between "ochraceous-tawny" and "cinnamon brown" instead of dark brown and white; head and neck darker and with more rufous than underparts; remainder of upper surface resembles underparts but with striking olive green sheen, especially on upper wing-coverts; primaries brown but outer webs lighter; tail rufous-brown, with a broad, black subterminal band.

The male type of plumage in the adult female is: breast light drab tinged with light brown and darkening anteriorly; crown resembles that of normal female although darker and becoming lighter and grayer on neck and nape; shoulder and wing-coverts compare favorably with that of adult male although lighter and with yellowish tinge; back bronzed olive-green as in normal female but mantle with a few purplish feathers characteristic of male; abdomen near "olive brown" with buffy-brown edges to feathers.

Immature male: Resembles adult male, but head and nape darker brown; throat and upper breast may be more brown and less white.

Immature female: Resembles adult female, but with more rufous coloring; olive-green sheen on feathers reduced in amount or absent.

Measurements.—Measurements are found intable 28.

Table 28. Measurements ofGallicolumba xanthonura

43 males

31 females

7 males

7 females

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