CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE CUSTOMS OF MANKIND.—(Continued.)
Origin of the Sheriff’s counting Hobnails—Origin of the Order of the Garter—Origin and History of the Claim and Allowance of the ‘Benefit of Clergy’ in Criminal Convictions—Curious Tenures—The Origin of May Poles and Garlands—Curious Custom at Oakham—Curious Practice in North Holland.
Origin of the Sheriff’s counting Hobnails—Origin of the Order of the Garter—Origin and History of the Claim and Allowance of the ‘Benefit of Clergy’ in Criminal Convictions—Curious Tenures—The Origin of May Poles and Garlands—Curious Custom at Oakham—Curious Practice in North Holland.
Origin of the Sheriff’s counting Hobnails.—This is not an absurd custom of antiquity, such as nobody knows when it begun, or why it is continued; but it originated from the following circumstances:—
In former times, when money was very scarce, and when we had no larger coin than a penny, the reserved rents or grants of lands or tenements, especially small ones, were usually paid in something that had a reference to the nature of the thing granted, or the occupation of the grantee.
The two following extracts from records in the Exchequer, with the translation, will clear up the point.
“Walter de Brun Mareschallus, de Stranda, redit compotum de sex femis equorum, pro habenda quadam placea in Parochia St. Clementis, ad fabrica quam ibidem locandam.”—Mag. Rot. 19. Henry III.
“Walter Mareschallus, ad Crucem Lapideam, redit sex ferra equorum cum clavibus, pro quadam fabrica quam de Rege tenet in capite ex opposito crucis lapidea.”—Memor. 1. Edward I.
“Walter le Brun, Mareshall, or farrier, of the Strand, renders six horse-shoes, to have a certain place in the parish of St. Clement’s, to build a forge there.”—Great Rolls of the 19th Henry III.
“Walter Mareshall, or the farrier at the Stone Cross, renders six horse-shoes with their nails, for (or as a reserved rent) a certain forge, opposite to the stone cross, which he holds of the king in capite.”—Memoranda Rolls in the Exchequer of the first year of King Edward the First.
The first of these points out the beginning, as well as the reason, of the payment of these horse-shoes and nails; for it was to have a piece of ground to build a forge on, therefore that must be the first payment. The nineteenth year of Henry the Third falls in with 1234, now five hundred and eighty-eight years ago. In process of time, this piece of ground, andbuildings on it, came to the mayor and citizens of London; and they, by the sheriffs, have continued to render them into the Exchequer annually to this day.
The spot where the stone cross once stood had afterwards a Maypole erected on it, which many now living can well remember.
Origin of the Order of the Garter.—This is variously related by historians. The common and not improbable account is, that the Countess of Salisbury, happening at a ball to drop her garter, the King took it up, and presented it to her in these words, “Honi soit qui mal y pense;” i. e. Evil to him that evil thinks. This accident gave rise to the order and the motto; it being the spirit of the times to mix love and war together. In the original statutes, however, there is not the least hint of allusion to such a circumstance, farther than is conveyed in the motto.—Camden, Fern, &c. take the order to have been instituted on occasion of the victory obtained by Edward over the French, at the battle of Cressy. That prince, says some historians, ordered his garter to be displayed as a signal of battle; in commemoration whereof, he made a garter the principal ornament of the order erected in memory of this signal victory, and the symbol of this indissoluble union of the knights. And they account for the motto, that king Edward having laid claim to the kingdom of France, denounced shame and defiance upon him that should dare tothink amissof the just enterprise he had undertaken for recovering his lawful rights to that crown; and that the bravery of those knights whom he had elected into this order was such as would enable him to maintain the quarrel against those that thought ill of it. This interpretation, however, appears to be rather forced.—A still more ancient origin of this order is given in Rostel’s Chronicle, lib. vi. quoted by Granger, in the Supplement to his Biographical History: viz. that it was devised by Richard I. at the siege of Acre, when he caused twenty-six knights, who firmly stood by him, to wear thongs of blue leather about their legs; and that it was revived and perfected in the nineteenth year of Edward III.
Origin and History of the Claim and Allowance of the ‘Benefit of Clergy’ in Criminal Convictions.
The following learned dissertation is extracted from ‘Chitty’s Practical Treatise on the Criminal Law.’
“By far the most important circumstance intervening between conviction and judgment, is the claim and allowance of theBenefit of Clergy, in those cases where it is by law to be granted. It is of course claimed immediately before judgmentat the assizes. This is one of the most singular relics of old superstition, and certainly the most important. That, by a mere form, without the shadow of existing reason to support it, the severity of the common law should be tempered, may seem strange to those who have been accustomed to regard our criminal law as a regular fabric, not only attaining great practical benefit, but built upon solid and consistent principles. TheBenefit of Clergyis, no doubt, of great practical advantage, compared to the dreadful list of offences which would otherwise be punished as capital; but it would be well worthy of an enlightened age to forsake such a subterfuge, and at once, without resorting to it, to apportion the degree of suffering to the atrocity and the danger of the crimes.
“The history of this singular mode of pardon, if so it can be termed, is both curious and instructive. In the early periods of European civilization, after the final destruction of the Roman empire, the church obtained an influence in the political affairs of nations, which threw a peculiar colouring over their original institutions. Monarchs who were desirous of atoning for atrocious offences, or of obtaining the sanction of heaven to their projects of ambition, were easily persuaded to confer immunities on the clergy, whom they regarded as the vicegerents of God. Presuming on these favours, that aspiring body soon began to claim as a right what had been originally conferred as a boon, and to found their demand to civil exemptions on a divine and indefeasible charter, derived from the text of scripture, “Touch not mine anointed, and do my prophets no harm.” It need exceed no surprise that they were anxious to take advantage of their dominion over the conscience, to exempt themselves from the usual consequences of crime. To the priests, impunity was a privilege of no inconsiderable value. And so successful was the pious zeal to shield those who were dedicated to religion from the consequences of any breach of temporal enactments, that in several countries they obtained complete exemption from all civil liabilities, and declared themselves responsible only to the pope and his ecclesiastical ministers. They erected themselves into an independent community, and even laid the temporal authorities under subjection. Nobles were intimidated into vast pecuniary benefactions, and princes trembled at the terrors of spiritual denunciation. In England, however, this authority was always comparatively feeble. The complete exemption of the clergy from secular punishments, though often claimed, was never universally admitted: for repeated objections were made to the demand of the bishop and ordinary to have the clerks remitted to them as soon as they were indicted. At length, however, it was finally settled in the reign of Henry VI. that the prisoner should first be arraignedand might then claim theBenefit of the Clergyas an excuse for pleading, or might demand it after conviction: and the latter of these courses has been almost invariably adopted, to allow the prisoner the chance of a verdict of acquittal.
“But if the privileges of the church were less dangerous in England than on the continent, they soon became more extensive. They not only embraced every order of clergymen, but were claimed for every subordinate officer of religious houses, with the numerous classes of their retainers. And so liberal was the application of these dangerous benefits, that, at length, every one who in those days of ignorance was able to read, though not even initiated in holy orders, began to demand them, such reading being deemed evidence of his clerical profession. The privileges of the clergy were recognized and confirmed by statute in the reign of Edward the Third. It was then enacted, that all manner of clerks, secular as well as religious, should enjoy the privileges of holy church for all treasons or felonies except those immediately affecting his majesty. To the advantage of this provision, all who could read were admitted. But as learning became more common, this extensive interpretation was found so injurious to the security of social life, that the legislature, notwithstanding the opposition of the church, were compelled to afford a partial remedy.
“In the reign of Henry the Seventh, a distinction was drawn between persons actually in holy orders, and those who, in other respects secular, were able to read; by which the latter were only allowed the benefit of their learning once, and, on receiving it, to be branded in the left thumb with a hot iron, in order to afford evidence against them on any future occasion. The church seems to have lost ground in the succeeding reign, probably in consequence of the separation of England from the sway of the Roman pontiff; for all persons, though actually in orders, were rendered liable to be branded, in the same way as the learned class of laymen. But, in the time of Edward the Sixth, the clergy were restored to all the rights of which they were deprived by his predecessor, except as to certain atrocious crimes, which it became necessary more uniformly to punish. At the same time, some of the more enormous evils attendant on this general impunity were done away. Murder, poisoning, burglary, highway-robbery, and sacrilege, were excepted from all that privilege which was confirmed as to inferior offences. But peers of the realm, for the first offence were to be discharged, in every case, except murder and poisoning, even though unable to read.
“But here we must pause, before we proceed to follow the gradual improvement of this privilege, to inquire what was originally done with an offender to whom it was allowed by those ecclesiastical authorities who claimed the right ofjudging him, and in what manner the power of the church in this respect was ultimately destroyed. It appears, that after a layman was burnt in the hand, a clerk discharged on reading, or a peer without either burning or penalty, he was delivered to the ordinary, to be dealt with according to the ecclesiastical canons. Upon this, the clerical authorities instituted a kind of purgation, the real object of which was to make him appear innocent, who had already been shewn to be guilty, and to restore him to all those capacities of which his conviction had deprived him. To effect this, the party himself was required to make oath of his innocence, though before he might have confessed himself guilty. Then twelve compurgators were called to testify their belief in the falsehood of the charges. Afterwards he brought forward witnesses completely to establish that innocence, of which he had induced so weighty a presumption. Finally, it was the office of the jury to acquit him; and they seldom failed in their duty. If, however, from any singular circumstance, they agreed in the justice of the conviction, the culprit was degraded, and compelled to do penance. As this seldom occurred, and the most daring perjuries were thus perpetually committed, the courts of common law were soon aroused to abridge the power of these clerical tribunals. They, therefore, sometimes delivered over the privileged of felony, when his guilt was very atrocious, without allowing him to make purgation; the effect of which proceedings was, his perpetual imprisonment, and incapacity to acquire personal or to enjoy real estate, unless released by his majesty’s pardon. But the severity of this proceeding almost rendered it useless; and it became absolutely necessary for the legislature to interfere, in order to prevent the contemptible perjuries which this absurd ceremony produced under the sanction and pretence of religion. This desirable object was effected in the reign of Elizabeth; and the party, after being allowed his clergy, and burnt in the hand, was to be discharged without any interference of the church to annul his conviction.
“The clerical process being thus abolished, it was thought proper, at the same time, to empower the temporal judges to inflict a further punishment where they should regard it as proper. The eighteenth Elizabeth, c. vii. empowered them, therefore, to direct the convict to be imprisoned for a year or any shorter period. But the law on this subject was still in many respects imperfect. Females were still liable to the punishment of death, without any exemption, in all cases of simple felony; because, being never eligible to the clerical office, they were not included in any of the extensions of theBenefit of Clergy. No other proof need be adduced to shew the absurdity of the very foundations of the system. At lengthit was enacted that women convicted of simple larcenies under the value 10s. should be punished with burning in the hand and whipping, exposure in the stocks, or imprisonment for any period less than a year. And in the reign of William and Mary they were admitted to all the privileges of men, in clergiable felonies, on praying the benefit of the statute; though they can only once be allowed this means of escaping. In the same reign, the punishment of burning in the hand was changed for a more visible stigma on the cheek, but was soon afterwards brought back to the original practice.
“Hitherto all laymen except peers, who, on their conviction, were found unable to read, were liable to suffer death for every clergiable felony. But it was at length discovered, that ignorance, instead of an aggravation, was an excuse for guilt, and that the ability to read was no extenuation of crime; and, therefore, by fifth Ann, c. vi. the idle ceremony of reading was abolished, and all those who were before entitled to clergy on reading, were now to be admitted without any such form to its benefits. At the same time it was sensibly felt that the branding, which had dwindled into a mere form, and the year’s imprisonment which the judges were empowered to inflict, were very inadequate punishments for many clergiable offences; and, therefore, the court were authorized to commit the offenders to the house of correction for any time not less than six months nor exceeding two years, and to double it in case of escaping.
“Further alterations have since been made in the penalties consequent upon clergy. The fourth Geo. I. c. xi. and sixth Geo. I. c. xxiii. provide, that the court, on the allowance of this benefit for any larceny whether grand or petty, or other felonious theft not excluded from the statutable indulgence, may, instead of judgment of burning in case of men, and whipping in that of females, direct the offender to be transported for seven years to America, which has been since altered to any part of his majesty’s colonies. To return within the period, was, at the same time, made felony withoutBenefit of Clergy. And by several subsequent provisions, many wise alterations have been made respecting transportation, and the mode of treating offenders while under its sentence.
“At length the burning in the hand was entirely done away, and the judges were empowered to sentence the criminal, in its room, and in addition to the former penalties, to a pecuniary fine, or, except in the case of manslaughter, to private whipping, not more than thrice to be inflicted, in the presence of three witnesses. Provisions were at the same time made for the employment of this description of convicts in penitentiary houses, where a system of reformation might be adopted, and an experiment made how far punishment might becomeconducive to its noblest and most legitimate use—the reformation and benefit of the offender. But this regulation, though applauded by Blackstone and other humane writers, after having been continued by several subsequent acts, was recently suffered to expire. It appears from these several modern regulations, that, as observed by Mr. Justice Foster, we now considerBenefit of Clergy, or rather the benefit of the statutes, as a relaxation of the rigour of the law, a condescension to the infirmities of the human frame, exempting offending individuals in some cases from the punishment of death, and subjecting them to milder punishment; and therefore, in the case of clergiable felonies, we now profess to measure the degree of punishment by the real enormity of the offence, and not, as the ignorance and superstition of former times suggested, by a blind respect for sacred persons or sacred functions, nor by an absurd distinction between subject and subject, originally owing to impudent pretension on one hand, and to mere fanaticism on the other.”
Curious Tenures.—A farm at Broadhouse, in Langsett, in the parish of Peniston, and county of York, pays yearly to Godfrey Bosville, Esq. ‘a snow-ball at Midsummer, and a red rose at Christmas.’
William de Albermarle holds the manor of Loston, ‘by the service of finding, for our lord the king, two arrows, and one loaf of oat bread, when he should hunt in the forest of Eartmoor.’
Solomon Attefield held land at Repland and Atterton, in the county of Kent, upon condition ‘that as often as our lord the king would cross the sea, the said Solomon and his heirs ought to go along with him, to hold his head on the sea, if it was needful.’
John Compes had the manor of Finchfield given him by Edward III. for the service of ‘turning the spit at his coronation.’
Geoffrey Frumbrand held sixty acres of land in Wingfield, in the county of Suffolk, by the service of paying yearly to our lord the king two white doves. John de Roches holds the manor of Winterslew, in Wiltshire, by the service that when the king should abide at Clarendon, he should go into the butlery of the king’s palace there, and draw, out of whatever vessel be chose, as much wine as should be needful for making a pitcher of claret, which he should make at the king’s expense, and that he should serve the king with a cup, and should have the vessel whence he took the wine, with all the wine then in it, together with the cup whence the king should drink the claret.
The town of Yarmouth is, by charter, bound to send thesheriffs of Norwich a hundred herrings, which are to be baked in twenty-four pies or patties, and delivered to the lord of the manor of East Carlton, who is to convey them to the king.
At the coronation of James II. the lord of the manor of Heyden, in Essex, claimed to hold the basin and ewer to the king by virtue of one moiety, and the towel by virtue of the other moiety of the manor, whenever the king washed before dinner; but the claim was allowed only as to the towel.
The privileges of the great officers of the ancient British court, were particularly striking. Each was annually presented by the king and queen with a piece of linen and woollen cloth, besides some old clothes from the royal wardrobe. The king’s riding-coat was three times a year given to the master of the mews; his caps, saddles, bits, and spurs, became the perquisite of the master of the horse; and the chamberlain appropriated to himself his old clothes and bed-quilts.
The third in rank, in the court of the Anglo-Saxon kings, was, the steward, who had a variety of perquisites, of which the following were the most remarkable:—‘As much of every cask of plain ale, and as much of every cask of ale with spiceries, as he could reach with the second joint of the middle finger; and as much of every cask of mead, as he could reach with the first joint of the same finger.’
Our next article is onThe Origin of May Poles and Garlands.—It was a custom among the ancient Britons, before they were converted to Christianity, to erect May-poles, adorned with flowers, in honour of the goddess Flora; and the dancing of milkmaids on the first of May before garlands, ornamented with flowers, is only a corruption of the ancient custom, in compliance with other rustic amusements.
The leisure days after seed-time had been chosen by our Saxon ancestors for folk-motes, or conventions of the people. It was not till after the Norman conquest that the Pagan festival of Whitsuntide fully melted into the Christian holiday of Pentecost. Its original name is Whittentide, the time of choosing the wits or wisemen to the wittenagemotte. It was consecrated to Hertha, the goddess of peace and fertility; and no quarrels might be maintained, no blood shed, during this truce of the goddess. Each village, in the absence of the baron at the assembly of the nations, enjoyed a kind of saturnalia. The vassals met upon the common green around the May-poles, where they erected a village lord, or king, as he was called, who chose his queen. He wore an oaken, and she a hawthorn wreath; and together they gave laws to the rusticsports during these sweet days of freedom. The Maypole, then, was the English tree of liberty. How are these times of village simplicity and merriment vanished!
Curious Custom at Oakham.—Oakham is remarkable for the following curious custom. Every peer of the realm, the first time he comes within the precincts, forfeits a shoe from his horse to the lord of the manor and castle, unless he agrees to redeem it with money; in which case a shoe is made according to his direction, ornamented in proportion to the sum given by way of fine, and nailed on the castle hall door. Some shoes are of curious workmanship, and stamped with the names of the donors: some are made very large, and some gilt. An ancient poet says of this county,
“Small shire that can produce to thy proportion good,One vale of special name, one forest, and one flood.”
A Curious Practice in North Holland.—To every house, of whatever quality, there is an artificial door, elevated near three feet above the level of the ground, and never opened but upon two occasions. When any part of the family marries, the bride and bridegroom enter the house by this door; and when either of the parties die, the corpse is carried out by the same door. Immediately after the due ceremonies are performed in either of these cases, this door is fastened up, never to turn on its hinges again, till some new event of a similar nature demands its services.
CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE CUSTOMS OF MANKIND.—(Continued.)
Shrovetide—Candlemas Day—Origin of Valentine’s Day—Origin of Plough Monday—New Years Gifts—Origin of Christmas Boxes—Chiltern Hundreds—Origin of the Term “John Bull”—Origin of the Old Adage, “If it rains on St. Swithin’s Day, it will rain Forty Days afterwards”—Curfew Bell.
Shrovetide—Candlemas Day—Origin of Valentine’s Day—Origin of Plough Monday—New Years Gifts—Origin of Christmas Boxes—Chiltern Hundreds—Origin of the Term “John Bull”—Origin of the Old Adage, “If it rains on St. Swithin’s Day, it will rain Forty Days afterwards”—Curfew Bell.
Shrovetide,—in its original meaning, signifies the time of confessing sins to a priest.Tiderefers to time; andshrove,shrive, orshrift, are derived from the Saxon, and signify confession. In the earlier constitution of the church, it is ordered, “That on the week next before Lent, everyman should go to his shrift, and his shrift should shrive him in such a manner as the deeds which he had done required.”
This custom of confessing to the priest at this season, was laid aside at the Reformation.
Fitzstephen informs us, that anciently, on Shrove-Tuesday, schoolboys used to bring “cocks of the game” to their masters, and entertain themselves with cock-fighting. The masters presided at the battle, and claimed the runaway cocks as their perquisite.
The custom of throwing at cocks on this day is not of very ancient institution: it is gradually growing out of use; to which amendment of our manners, the ingenious pencil of Hogarth probably contributed.
Shrove-Tuesday is, in the north, called Fastern’s E’en, because the following day is the commencement of Lent.
Shrove-Monday is also termed Collop-Monday; in the north, collops and eggs being on that day a constant dish, as on the next day the Papists take leave of flesh.
Our custom of eating pancakes on Shrove-Tuesday, was probably borrowed from the Greek church. The Russians begin their Lent always eight weeks before Easter; the first week they eat eggs, milk, cheese, and butter, and make great cheer with pancakes, and such other things.
In the Oxford almanacks, the Saturday preceding this day is termedFestum Overum, Egg feast.
On Shrove-Tuesday, the people in every parish throughout England were obliged, one by one, to confess their sins to their own parish priests, in their own parish churches. And that this might be done more regularly, the great bell in every parish was rung at ten o’clock, or perhaps sooner, that it might be heard by all, and that they might attend according to the custom then in use. And though we are now Protestants, yet the custom of ringing the great bell in an ancient parish church still continues, and has the name of thepancake bell, probably, because after the confession it was customary to dine on pancakes or fritters; and many people even now have these articles as part of their dinner on this day.
This used to be a great holiday amongst apprentices; but a contempt of old customs seems gaining ground in this country, and those, or many of them above-mentioned, will probably soon be forgotten.
Another account of the origin of frying pancakes on Shrove-Tuesday, has been given. It is said that one Simon Eyre, a shoemaker, being chosen lord-mayor of London, made a pancake feast on Shrove-Tuesday for all the apprentices in London; and from that it became a custom.
He ordered, that upon ringing of a bell in every parish, the apprentices should leave work, and shut up their shops for that day; which being ever since yearly observed, is called the pancake bell: he made them a large feast of puddings, pies, and pancakes, and what remained, when all had dined, was given to the poor: afterwards in that year (1446,) he built Leadenhall.
Candlemas Day.—This is the feast of the purification, which was formerly celebrated with many lights in churches. The custom of going in procession on Candlemas-day with lighted candles in the hand, is said to have been derived from the Romans, who went about Rome with torches, and candlesbrenning(burning) in worship of Februa, the mother of Mars. This was afterwards, by Pope Fergius, converted into the worship of our Lady, and her Son, the Lord Jesus Christ. Wheatley says, “The practice of using abundance of lights, both in churches and processions, continued in England till the second year of Edward VI. when Bishop Cranmer forbade it, by order of the Privy Council.”
Valentine’s Day.—Valentine was a pope, or bishop of Rome, that lived in the ninth century; who, on this day, established an annual custom of the poorer clergy drawing patrons by lots for the commenced year; and these patrons, or benefactors, were called Valentines. After his death he was canonized for a saint, and his feast-day kept on the fourteenth day of February, which was thought to be his birth-day. Mr. John Gordon, in his memoirs and account of the popes, says, “that Valentine was too good a man to be a good pope, and died forty days after his consecration, or instalment; being choked with a fish-bone.”
This custom, in Britain, evidently appears to have been copied by the laity from the clergy, in the days of popery, and is a very ancient custom, being almost of a thousand years standing. The birds too are supposed to choose their mates, and pair, on this day; which, no doubt, is an additional reason to our youth of both sexes who are approaching to maturity, to write their verses, and with much ingenuity ply scissars, pen, and pencil, in honour of their selected or allotted lovers.
Plough-Monday.—This day is held on the ninth of January, the Monday after Twelfth-day. The ploughmen, in the north country, draw a plough from door to door, and beg money for drink; from whence this took its name. Plough-day had its origin when the feudal system prevailed in this country, when the lords and barons had their lands tilled by their vassals, or tenants. The Christmas holidays terminatedon Twelfth-day, and the ploughing season for the new year commenced the first Monday after; on which day, the sock-men (as this sort of ploughmen were then called) were obliged to appear with their ploughs, &c. at a place appointed there, to have them examined, whether they were in a proper condition to perform their lord’s work; for ploughs were then scarce, and it was a mark of some consequence to possess one in good order. Hence the appellation of Plough-Monday has ever since being applied to the first Monday after Twelfth-day. It is conjectured, that the system of begging money arose at a time when they could not plough the land on account of its being frozen, as watermen drag about a boat in severe frosts, and beg money, because they are then unable to ply on the river.
New Year’s Gifts.—Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New Year’s Gifts among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, who reigned at Rome conjointly with Romulus, and who, having considered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated toStrenua, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of the new year, authorized this custom afterwards, and gave to these persons the name ofStrenæ. The Romans on that day celebrated a festival in honour of Janus, and paid their respects at the same time to Juno; but they did not pass it in idleness, lest they should become indolent during the rest of the year. They sent presents to one another of figs, dates, honey, &c. to shew their friends that they wished them a happy and agreeable life. Clients, or those who were under the protection of the great, carried presents of this kind to their patrons, adding to them a small piece of silver. Under Augustus, the senate, the knights, and the people, presented such gifts to him, and in his absence deposited them in the capitol. Of the succeeding princes, some adopted this custom, and others abolished it; but it always continued among the people. The early Christians condemned it, because it appeared to be a relic of paganism, and a species of superstition; but when it began to have no other object than that of being a mark of esteem, the church ceased to disapprove of it.
Christmas Boxes.—On looking into history, we find that this custom derived its existence much about the time that mass was first said by a Catholic priest. Rome, which originally gave birth to superstition, had an incredible number of clergy to support, and, among other devices, this was invented as one, and took its name of Mass from the Latin wordmitto, to send. This wordmittowas a kind of remembrancer, or ratherdictator, which said, “Send gifts, offerings, and oblations to the priests, that they may intercede with Christ to save your soul by saying so manymasses.”
Hence it was calledChrist’s mass, or, as it is now abbreviated, Christmas. Thus far the etymology of the word is indisputable, and every man who has attended to the minutiæ of sacred history, must know the fact to be as here related. The wordbox, is a part of the same priestcraft trade, and took its origin from the following circumstance:—
Whenever a ship sailed from any of those ports where the religious profession was under the authority of Rome, a certain saint was always named, unto whose protection it’s safety was committed, and in that ship there was a box, and into that box every poor person put something, in order to induce the priests to pray to that saint for the safe return of the vessel; which box was locked up by the priests, who said the money should not be taken out until the vessel came back.
Chiltern Hundreds.—Frequent mention is made of members of parliament accepting the Chiltern Hundreds. The following is the explanation:—
The Chiltern Hundreds are hundreds, or divisions of counties, parcelled out by the wise Alfred, and now annexed to the crown; they still retain their peculiar courts.
The stewards of these courts are appointed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer; their salary is 20s. a year. As the law enacts that a member of parliament who receives a place under the Crown, may not sit, unless re-elected,—accepting the stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds is merely a formal manner of resigning a seat, when the member wishes to be rechosen.
Origin of the Term “John Bull.”—Dr. John Bull was the first Gresham professor of music, and organist and composer to Queen Elizabeth. John, like a true Englishman, travelled for improvement; and having heard of a famous musician at St. Omer’s, he placed himself under him as a novice; but a circumstance very soon convinced the master, that he was inferior to the scholar. The musician shewed John a song, which he had composed inforty parts! telling him at the same time, that he defied all the world to produce a person capable of adding another part to his composition. Bull desired to be left alone, and to be indulged for a short time with pen and ink. In less than three hours, he added forty parts more to the song. Upon which the Frenchman was so much surprised, that he swore in great ecstasy, he must be either theDevil, orJohn Bull; which has ever since been proverbial in England.
Origin of the Old Adage, “If it rains on Saint Swithin’s Day, it will rain for Forty Days afterwards.”
In the year 805, St. Swithin, bishop of Winchester, dying, was canonized by the then pope. He was singular in his desire to be buried in the open church-yard, and not in the chancel of the minister, as was customary with the bishops; which request was complied with: but the monks, on his being canonized, taking it into their heads that it was disagreeable for the saint to lie in the open church-yard, resolved to move his body into the choir, which was to have been done in solemn procession on the 15th of July. It rained, however, so violently on that day, and for forty days succeeding, as had hardly ever been known, which made them set aside their design, as contrary to the will of Heaven; and instead of removing the body, they shewed their veneration by erecting a chapel over his grave.
Origin of the Saying, when people speak improperly, “That’s a Bull.”—This became a proverb from the repeated blunders of one Obadiah Bull, a lawyer of London, who lived in the reign of king Henry VII.
Curfew Bell.—The curfew bell (called, in the low Latin of the middle ages,ignitegium, orperitegium, and in French,couvrefew) was a signal for all persons to extinguish their fires at a certain hour. In those ages, people made fires in their houses in a hole or pit in the centre of the floor, under an opening formed in the roof; and when the fire was burnt out, or the family went to bed, the hole was shut by a cover of wood or earth. This practice still prevails among the cottagers in some parts of Scotland, and perhaps in other parts of the kingdom. In the dark ages, when all ranks of people were turbulent, a law was almost every where established, that the fire should be extinguished at a certain time in the evening; that the cover should be put over the fire-place, and that all the family should retire to rest, or at least keep within doors. The time when this ought to be done, was signified by the ringing of a bell, called therefore the curfew bell, orignitegium. This was the law of William the Conqueror, who first introduced the practice into England, and which was abolished by Henry the First, in 1100.
The ringing of the curfew bell gave rise to the Prayer Bell, as it is called, which is still retained in some Protestant countries. Pope John the Twenty-third, with a view to avert certain apprehended misfortunes which rendered his life uncomfortable, gave orders, that every person, on hearing theignitegium, should repeat theAve Mariathree times.When the appearance of a comet, and the dread of Turks, alarmed all Christendom, Pope Calixtus the Third increased these periodical times of prayer, by ordering the prayer bell to be rung also at noon.
CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE CUSTOMS OF MANKIND.—(Concluded.)
Romish Indulgences—Act of Faith—Baptism of Bells—Curious Baptism—Kalmuck Praying Machines—Curious Penance at Calcutta.
Romish Indulgences—Act of Faith—Baptism of Bells—Curious Baptism—Kalmuck Praying Machines—Curious Penance at Calcutta.
Religious Customs.
Romish Indulgences.—In the Romish church, indulgences are a remission of the punishment due to sins, granted by the church, and supposed to save the sinner from purgatory. According to the Romish doctrine, all the good works of the saints, over and above those which were necessary towards their own justification, are deposited, together with the infinite merits of Jesus Christ, in one inexhaustible treasury. The keys of this were committed to St. Peter, and to his successors the popes, who may open it at pleasure, and by transferring a portion of this superabundant merit to any particular person, for a sum of money, may convey to him either the pardon of his own sins, or a release for any one in whom he is interested, from the pains of purgatory. Indulgences were first invented in the eleventh century, by Urban II. as a recompense for those who went in person upon the glorious enterprise of conquering the Holy Land. They were afterwards granted to those who hired a soldier for that purpose; and in process of time were bestowed on such as gave money for accomplishing any pious work enjoined by the pope. This power of granting indulgences was greatly abused.
Pope Leo X. in order to carry on the magnificent structure of St. Peter’s at Rome, published indulgences, and plenary remission, to all who should contribute money towards it. Finding the project take, he granted to Albert, elector of Mentz, and archbishop of Magdeburg, the benefit of the indulgences of Saxony and the neighbouring parts, and farmed out those of other countries to the highest bidders; who, to make the best of their bargain, procured the ablest preachers to cry up the value of theware. The form of theseindulgences was as follows: “May our Lord Jesus Christ have mercy upon thee, and absolve thee by the merits of his most holy passion. And I, by his authority, that of his blessed apostles Peter and Paul, and of the most holy Pope, granted and committed to me in these parts, do absolve thee, first from all ecclesiastical censures, in whatever manner they have been incurred, then from all thy sins, transgressions, and excesses, how enormous soever they may be, even for such as are reserved for the cognizance of the holy see, and as far as the keys of the holy church extend: I remit to you all punishment which you deserve in purgatory on their account; and I restore you to the holy sacraments of the church, to the unity of the faithful, and to that innocence and purity which you possessed at baptism; so that when you die, the gates of punishment shall be shut, and the gates of the paradise of delight shall be opened; and if you shall not die at present, this grace shall remain in full force when you are at the point of death. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.”
The terms in which the retailers of indulgences described their benefits, and the necessity of purchasing them, are so extravagant, that they appear almost incredible. They maintain, that if any man purchase letters of indulgence, his soul may rest secure with respect to its salvation. That the souls confined in purgatory, for whose redemption indulgences are purchased, as soon as the money tinkles in the chest, instantly escape from that place of torment, and ascend into heaven: That the efficacy of indulgences is so great, that the most heinous sins, even if one should violate (which was impossible) the Mother of God, would be remitted and expiated by them, and the person be freed both from punishment and guilt: That this was the unspeakable gift of God, in order to reconcile men to himself: That the cross erected by the preachers of indulgences was equally efficacious with the cross of Christ. “Lo! (say they) the heavens are open; if you enter not now, when will you enter? For twelve-pence you may redeem the soul of your father out of purgatory; and are you so ungrateful, that you will not rescue your parent from torment? If you had but one coat, you ought to strip yourself instantly, and sell it, in order to purchase such benefits, &c.”—This monstrous abuse of indulgences contributed greatly to the Reformation of religion in Germany, where Martin Luther first began to declaim against the preachers of indulgences, and afterwards against indulgences themselves. Since that period, the popes have been more sparing in the exercise of this power: however, they still carry on a great trade with them to the Indies, where they are purchased at two rials apiece, and sometimes more. The pope likewise grantsindulgences to persons at the point of death; that is, he grants them, by a brief, power to choose what confessor they please, who is authorized thereby to absolve them from all their sins in general.
We proceed to another custom of the Romish church, called theAct of Faith.—Auto da Fé, in the Romish church, is a solemn day observed by the Inquisition, for the punishment of heretics, and the absolution of the innocent persons who have been accused. It is usually contrived to fall on some grand festival, that the execution may take place with the greater pomp and solemnity. At least, it is always on a Sunday. The auto da fé may be considered as the last act of the inquisitorial tragedy; it is a kind of gaol delivery, appointed as often as a sufficient number of prisoners in the Inquisition are convicted of heresy, either by their own voluntary or extorted confession, or on the evidence of witnesses. The process is as follows:—In the morning they are brought into a great hall, where they are clothed in certain habits, which they are to wear in the procession, and by which they know their doom. The procession is led on by the Dominican friars, who enjoy this privilege, because St. Dominic, their founder, instituted the Inquisition. Before them is carried the standard of the holy office, in which the image of the founder is wrought in rich embroidery, holding a sword in one hand, and an olive branch in the other, with the inscription, “Justice and Mercy.” These friars are followed by the penitents, who have narrowly escaped burning, and who over their black coats have flames painted, with their points turned downwards. Next come the negative and relapsed who are intended to be burnt, and who have flames on their habits pointing upwards. After these follow such as profess doctrines contrary to the faith of Rome, and who, besides flames pointing upwards, have their pictures painted on their breasts, and surrounded by dogs, serpents, and devils, all open-mouthed. Each prisoner is attended by a familiar of the Inquisition; and those intended to be burnt, have also on each side a Jesuit, who is continually advising them to abjure. After the prisoners, follow a troop of familiars on horseback; after them, the Inquisitors, and other officers, upon mules; and lastly, the inquisitor-general, upon a white horse, led by two men with black hats and green hatbands. A scaffold is erected sufficiently large for containing two or three thousand people; at one end of the scaffold are the prisoners, at the other end the inquisitors. After a sermon, consisting of encomiums on the Inquisition, and of invectives against heretics, a priest ascends a desk near the scaffold, and, having received the abjuration of the penitents, recites the final sentence of those who are to be put to death, and deliversthem to the secular power, at the same time earnestly beseechingthat their blood be not touched, nor their lives put in danger!!!
The prisoners being thus in the hands of the civil magistrate, are immediately loaded with chains, and carried first to the secular gaol, and thence, in an hour or two, brought before the civil judge. After inquiring in what religion they intend to die, the civil judge pronounces sentence on such as declare they die in the communion of the church of Rome, that they shall be first strangled, and then burnt to ashes; on such as die in any other faith, that they be burnt alive. Both are immediately carried to the place of execution, where as many stakes are set up as there are prisoners to be burnt, and about each stake is laid a quantity of dry furze. The stakes of the professed, or of such as persist in their heresy, are about four yards in height, and towards the top have a small board, on which the prisoner is seated. The negative and relapsed being first strangled and burnt, the professed mount their stakes by a ladder; and the Jesuits, after repeatedly exhorting them to be reconciled to the church, part with them, and say that they leave them to the devil, who is standing at their elbow to receive their souls, and to carry them with him to the flames of hell. On hearing this, a great shout is raised by the people, who cry, ‘Let the dogs’ beards be made!’ This is performed by thrusting flaming furze, fastened to long poles, against their chins, till their faces are burned to a coal. This inhuman act is accompanied with the loudest acclamations of joy. At last, fire is set to the furze at the bottom of the stakes, over which the professed are chained so high, that the top of the flame seldom reaches higher than the seat upon which they sit, and they seem rather roasted than burnt. There cannot be a more lamentable spectacle: the sufferers continually cry out, while they are able, ‘Pity, for the love of God!’ Yet it is beheld by all ages, and by both sexes, with transports of joy and admiration!
Another curious custom in the same church, is,The Baptism of Bells.—“Being come to Veletre, the abbot took up his lodging with one of his friends, and I betook myself to an inn, near the Piazza. My host asked me if I had not a mind to see the ceremony which was to be celebrated the next day at thedome, (so they call the cathedral churches in Italy;) he told me there was a bell to be baptized, whereof a great lord was to be the godfather, and a lady of quality the godmother; and that there would be a great appearance of the nobility, who had been invited to the solemnity from all parts. I had before this seen bells baptized in France; but because I knew that the Italians surpass all other nations inthe magnificence of their ceremonies, and that they commonly season them with a double portion of superstition, I resolved with myself to see it baptized, and with that design I staid all the next day at Veletre. I went to the church in the morning, to take a view of the preparatives that had taken up a whole week’s time, which I found to be great and sumptuous indeed. The bell was placed at the lower end of the body of the church, hanging upon two gudgeons, covered with rich hangings of velvet of a violet colour, and the bell itself was accoutred with a kind of robe of the same stuff. There were two theatres built on each side of it for the musicians, and an amphitheatre for the ladies who were to be present at the ceremony. The pillars and walls of the church were richly adorned with curious sheets of silk, and pictures. Near to the bell was erected an altar very neatly set forth, and on it lay a white satin robe, which was to be put upon the bell as soon as it should be baptized, with a great and choice garland of flowers: there was also upon the altar a Roman ritual, a censer, and a vessel with holy water, and round about the altar rich elbow chairs for the priests who were to perform the ceremony. Just over against it a throne was seen, most magnificently hung, for the godfather and godmother of the bell.
“About ten o’clock the company came, and having taken their several places, the priests began their function. He who officiated was a bishopin partibus, whom the bishop of Veletre, being at that time very sick, had deputed for this purpose, and his chair was placed upon the steps of the high altar. He struck up the first Psalm, which was continued by the music. The psalms, by the way, which may be seen in the Roman ritual, have as much reference to the baptizing of the moon, as to the baptizing of a bell: for the prophet David very probably had not the least notion of the baptism of bells. After the psalms were ended, the bishop began the blessing of holy water, to sanctify it in the first place, to the end that afterwards it might sanctify the bell also. This benediction is very long, and no less ridiculous; which being finished, the bishop and priests dipped spunges in it, with which they rubbed over the bell, from the top to the bottom, within and without, being in this regard certainly much better baptized than children are, upon whose heads only they pour or sprinkle it. They repeated, in the mean time, abundance of prayers, which speak of nothing else but heavenly blessings, that are to purify, sanctify, and consecrate the bell.Ut hoc tintinnabulum(say they)cœleste benedictione perfundere, purificare, sanctificare, et consecrare digneris: ‘That thou wouldest be pleased to rinse, purify, sanctify, and consecrate this bell with thy heavenly benediction.’
“The bell being thus washed, they dried it with clean napkins; and the bishop having taken the vial of holy oils, which are those they bless on Holy Thursday for the whole year following, he therewith anointed the cross of metal, which is on the top of the bell, in order to make the devils flee at the sound or ringing of it:Ut hoc audientes tintinnabulum, tremiscant et fugiant ante crucis in eo depictum vexillum: ‘That hearing this bell, they may tremble and flee before the banner of thy cross designed upon it.’ He afterwards made seven other crosses with the said oil upon the outside of the bell, and four on the inside. This done, he made the godfather and godmother draw near, and demanded of them in Italian, ‘Whether they were the persons that presented this bell to be consecrated?’ Who having answered that they did, he then asked them, ‘Whether the metal of the bell, and the workmanship of it, had been paid for to the artificers?’ To which they answered, ‘Yea.’—They make this demand, because it had sometimes happened, that for want of proper payment, the workmen have seized and fetched away their bells the same day, or the day after they had been baptized, and have melted them down to be employed to profane uses. The third question he asked of them was, ‘Whether they believed all that the Catholic apostolic churches believes concerning the holiness and virtue of bells?’ The answer to which was affirmative also. In the last place, he demanded of them, ‘What name they desired should be put upon the bell?’ To which the lady replied, ‘Mary.’ Then the bishop took two great silk ribands, which had been fastened to the gudgeons of the bell, and gave each of them one in their hands, and pronounced, with a loud intelligible voice, the words of consecration, which are these,—Consecretur et sanctificetur signum istud, in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti. Amen.‘Let this sign be consecrated and sanctified in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Amen.’ Then turning himself to the people, he said, ‘The name of this bell is Mary.’ He then takes the censer, and censeth it on the outside round about, and afterwards puts the censer under the bell, filling it with sacred fumes, and repeating prayers and invocations, that it might be filled with the dew of the Holy Spirit, that at the sound of it the enemy of all good may take his flight.
“The office was carried on with a great number of psalms, which they repeated, the music all the while performing wonders; and then the bishop, to sum up the whole ceremony, arrayed the bell with the white robe of a proselyte, or convert, and with a loud voice read the gospel of ‘Mary and Martha.’ I supposed at that time that the reason of their reading this gospel was, because the bell was called Mary; but I have since seen, in the Roman ritual, that the same gospel is readat the consecration of all bells, whatever their names be. This is what I am astonished at, because that gospel hath no reference at all to the ceremony. The whole solemnity being thus ended, the bishop gave his benediction, and the priests received great presents from the godfather and godmother.”
A Curious Baptism, which took place atDublin, in the year 1807.—A Moor, a native of Mogadore, in Africa, a strict observer of the religion of Mahomet, wearing always, of course, the costume of his country, resided a few months in the above city. A family, where he occasionally visited, being about to baptize their infant, solicited the stranger to stand godfather, which was immediately consented to; and on the appointed day, he appeared splendidly arrayed in his turban and robes, at the sacred font, where, with due solemnity, he answered to the accustomed interrogatives,—“All this I stedfastly believe.” To add still further to the oddity of the circumstance, the father was a member of the Roman Catholic church, and the mother of the Established one.
Some account ofKalmuck Praying Machines: from Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia.—“Among the most remarkable of the sacred utensils of the temples, is theKürdä, a cylindrical vessel of wood or metal, either very small, or of immense size. In its centre is fixed an iron axle; but the interior of the cylinder, which is quite hollow, is filled with sacred writings, the leaves of which are all stuck one to another at the edge, throughout the whole length. This paper is rolled tightly round the axis of the cylinder till the whole space is filled up. A close cover is fixed on at each end, and the whole kürdä is very neatly finished, painted on the outside with allegorical representations, or Indian prayers, and varnished. This cylinder is fastened upright in a frame by the axis; so that the latter, by means of a wheel attached to it below, may be set a-going with a string, and with a slight pull kept in a constant rotatory motion. When this cylinder is large, another, twice as small, and filled with writing, is fixed for ornament at the top of it. The inscription on such prayer-wheels commonly consists of masses for souls, psalms, and the six great general litanies, in which the most moving petitions are preferred for the welfare of all creatures. The text they sometimes repeat a hundred, or even a thousand times, attributing, from superstition, a proportionably augmented effect to this repetition, and believing that by these frequent copies, combined with their thousands of revolutions, they will prove so much the more efficacious. You frequently see, as well on the habitations of the priests, as on the whole roofof the temple, small kürdä placed close to each other, in rows, by way of ornament; and not only over the gates, but likewise in the fields, frames set up expressly for these praying-machines, which, instead of being moved by a string, are turned by the wind, by means of four sails, shaped and hollowed out like spoons.
“Other similar kürdä are fastened to sticks of moderate thickness; a leaden weight is then fastened to the cylinder by a string, which, when it is once set a-going, keeps it, with the help of the stick, in constant motion. Such like prayer-wheels, neatly wrought, are fastened upon short sticks to a small wooden pedestal, and stand upon the altars, for the use of pious persons. While the prayer-wheel is thus turned round with one hand, the devotee takes the rosary in the other, and at the same time repeats penitential psalms.
“A fourth kind of these kürdä is constructed on the same principle as those which are turned by wind, only it is somewhat smaller, and the frame is adapted to be hung up by a cord, in the chimneys of the habitations or huts of the Monguls. When there is a good fire, they are likewise set in motion by the smoke and the current of air, and continue to turn round as long as the fire is kept up.
“A fifth kind of kürdä is erected on a small stream of water, upon a foundation like that of a mill, over which a small house is built to protect it from the weather. By means of the wheel attached to it, and the current, the cylinder is in like manner kept in a constant circular motion. These water kürdä are commonly constructed on a large scale, and maintained at the joint expense of the inhabitants of a whole district. They have a reference to all aquatic animals, whether alive or dead, whose temporal and eternal happiness is the aim of the writings contained in them, in like manner as the object of the fire. Kürdä is the salvation of the souls of all animals suffering by fire.”
Curious Account of an expiatory Penance at Calcutta.—About a mile from the town is a plain, where the natives annually undergo a very strange kind of penance on the 9th of April; some for the sins they have committed, others for those they may commit, and others in consequence of a vow made by their parents. This ceremony is performed in the following manner. Thirty bamboos, each about the height of twenty feet, are erected in the plain above-mentioned. On the top of these they contrive to fix a swivel, and another bamboo of thirty feet or more crosses it, at both ends of which hangs a rope. The people pull down one end of this rope, and the devotee, placing himself under it, the brahmin pinches up a large piece of skin under both theshoulder blades, sometimes in the breasts, and thrusts a strong iron hook through each. These hooks have lines of Indian grass hanging to them, which the priest makes fast to the rope at the end of the cross bamboo, and at the same time puts a sash round the body of the devotee, laying it loosely in the hollow of the hooks, lest, by the skin giving way, he should fall to the ground. The people then haul down the other end of the bamboo: by which the devotee is immediately lifted up thirty feet or more from the ground, and they run round as fast as their legs can carry them. Thus the devotee is thrown out the whole length of the rope, where, as he swings, he plays a thousand antic tricks; being painted and dressed in a very particular manner, on purpose to make him look more ridiculous. Some of them continue swinging half an hour, others less. The devotees undergo a preparation of four days for this ceremony. On the first and third, they abstain from all kinds of food; but eat fruit on the other two. During this time of preparation they walk about the streets in their fantastical dresses, dancing to the sound of drums and horns; and some, to express the greater ardour of devotion, run a wire of iron quite through their tongues, and sometimes through their cheeks.
Happy are Christians in being delivered from the darkness, absurdities, and horrors of superstition, by the bright effulgence of the Sun of righteousness!
CURIOSITIES RESPECTING VARIOUS PHENOMENA OR APPEARANCES IN NATURE.
On the Ignis Fatuus.
TheIgnis Fatuusis a luminous appearance, which is most frequently observed in boggy districts and near rivers, though sometimes also in dry places. By its appearance, benighted travellers are said to have been sometimes led into imminent danger, taking it for a candle at a distance; from whichseemingly mischievous property it has been thought by the vulgar to be a spirit of a malignant nature, and been named accordingly,Will-with-a-Wisp, orJack-with-a-Lantern; for the same reason that it had its Latin nameIgnis Fatuus. This light is frequently seen about burying-places and dunghills. Some countries are also remarkable for it, as about Bologna in Italy, and some parts of Spain and Ethiopia. Its forms are so uncertain and variable, that they can scarcely be described, especially as philosophical observers seldom meet with it. Dr. Derham, however, one night perceived one of them, and got so near that he had a very advantageous view of it. This is very difficult to be obtained; for, among other singularities of the ignis fatuus, it avoids the approach of any person, and flies from place to place as if it were animated. That which Dr. Derham observed, was in some boggy ground betwixt two rocky hills; and the night was dark and calm, by which means he was enabled to advance within two or three yards of it. It appeared like a complete body of light without any division, so that he was sure it could not be occasioned by insects. It kept dancing about a dead thistle, till a very slight motion of the air, occasioned, as he supposed, by his near approach to it, made it jump to another place; after which it kept flying before him as he advanced.
Beccari obtained information, that two of these lights appeared in the plains about Bologna, the one north, the other south of that city, and were to be seen almost every dark night, especially that to the eastward, giving a light equal to an ordinary faggot. The latter appeared to a gentleman of his acquaintance, as he was travelling; moved constantly before him for about a mile, and gave a better light than a torch which was carried before him. Both these appearances gave a very strong light, and were constantly in motion. Sometimes they would rise, sometimes sink; but commonly they would hover about six feet from the ground; they would also frequently disappear on a sudden, and appear again in some other place. They differed also in size and figure, sometimes spreading pretty wide, and then contracting themselves; sometimes breaking into two, and then joining again. Sometimes they would appear like waves, at others they would seem to drop sparks of fire: they were but little affected by the wind; and in wet or rainy weather, were frequently observed to cast a stronger light than in dry weather: they were also observed more frequently when snow lay upon the ground, than in the hottest summer; but he was assured, that there was not a dark night throughout the whole year, in which they were not to be seen. The ground east of Bologna, where the largest of these was observed, is a hard chalky soil mixed with clay, which retains moisture long, but breaksand cracks in hot weather. On the mountains, where the soil is looser, the ignes fatui were less. From the best information, M. Beccari found that these lights were very frequent about rivers and brooks. He concludes his narrative with the following singular account.—
“An intelligent gentleman travelling in the evening, between eight and nine o’clock, in a hilly road about ten miles south of Bologna, perceived a light which shone very strongly upon some stones which lay on the banks of the Rio Verde. It seemed to be about two feet above the stones, and near the water. In size and figure it had the appearance of a parallelo-piped, above a foot in length, and half a foot high, the largest side being parallel to the horizon. Its light was so strong, that he could plainly see by it part of a neighbouring hedge and the water of the river; only in the east corner of it the light was rather faint, and the square figure less perfect, as if it were cut off or darkened by the segment of a circle. On examining it a little nearer, he was surprised to find that it changed gradually from a bright red to a yellowish, and then to a pale colour, in proportion as he drew nearer; and when he came to the place itself it quite vanished. Upon this, he stepped back, and not only saw it again, but found that the farther he went from it, the stronger and brighter it grew. When he examined the place of this luminous appearance, he could perceive no smell, nor any other mark of fire,” Another gentleman informed M. Beccari, that he had seen the same light five or six different times in spring and autumn; and that it always appeared of the same shape, and in the very same spot. One night in particular, he observed it come out of a neighbouring field to settle in the usual place.
A very remarkable account of an ignis fatuus is given by Dr. Shaw, in his Travels to the Holy Land. It appeared in the valleys of mount Ephraim, and attended him and his company for above an hour. Sometimes it appeared globular, or like the flame of a candle, at others it spread to such a degree as to involve the whole country in a pale inoffensive light, then contracted itself, and suddenly disappeared, but in less than a minute it would appear again; sometimes, running swiftly along, it would expand itself at certain intervals over more than two or three acres of the adjacent mountains. The atmosphere from the beginning of the evening had been remarkably thick and hazy; and the dew, as they felt it on the bridles of their horses, was very clammy and unctuous. Lights resembling the ignis fatuus are sometimes observed at sea, skipping about the masts and rigging of ships; and Dr. Shaw informs us, that he has seen these in such weather as that just mentioned, when he saw the ignis fatuus in Palestine. Similar appearances have been observed in variousother situations; and we are told of one which appeared about the bed of a woman in Milan, surrounding it, as well as her body, entirely. This light fled from the hand which approached; but was at length entirely dispersed by the motion of the air.
Of the same kind also, most probably, are those small luminous appearances which sometimes appear in houses, or near them, called, in Scotland,Elf-candles, and which are supposed to portend the death of some person about the house. In general these lights are harmless, though not always; for some of them have encompassed stacks of hay and corn, and set them on fire; so that they became objects of great terror to the country people. Of these, it was observed, that they would avoid a drawn sword, or sharp-pointed iron instrument; and that they would be driven away by a great noise.
Several philosophers have endeavoured to account for these appearances, but hitherto with no great success; nor indeed does there seem to be sufficient data for solving all their phenomena. Sir Isaac Newton calls it a vapour shining without heat; and supposes that there is the same difference between a vapour of the ignis fatuus and flame, that there is between the shining of rotten wood and burning coals. But though this seems generally to be the case, there are exceptions, as has been instanced in the vapours which set fire to the stacks of corn. Dr. Priestley supposes that the light is of the same nature with that produced by putrescent substances; others, that the electrical fluid is principally concerned; but none have attempted to give any particular solution of the phenomena.
From the frequent appearance of the ignis fatuus in marshes, moist ground, burying-places, and dunghills, putrefaction seems to be concerned in the production of it. This process is attended with the emission of an aqueous steam, together with a quantity of fixed inflammable and alkaline air, blended together in one common vapour. It is likewise attended with some degree of heat, and there are some vapours, that of sulphur particularly, which becomes luminous with a degree of heat much less than that sufficient to set fire to combustibles. The putrid vapour, therefore, may be capable of shining with a still smaller degree of heat than that of sulphur, and consequently may become luminous by that which putrefaction alone affords. This would account for the ignis fatuus, were it only a steady luminous vapour arising from places where putrid matters are contained; but its extreme mobility, and flying from one place to another on the approach of any person, cannot be accounted for on this principle. If one quantity of the putrid vapour becomes luminous by means of heat, all the rest ought to do so likewise; so that though we may allowheat and putrefaction to be concerned, yet of necessity we must have recourse to some other agent, which can be no other than electricity. Without this, it is impossible to conceive how any body of moveable vapour should not be carried away by the wind; but so far is this from being the case, that the ignes fatui described by M. Beccari, were but little affected by the wind. It is, besides, proved by undoubted experiment, that electricity is always attended with some degree of heat; and this, however small, may be sufficient to give a luminous property to any vapour on which it acts strongly: not to add, that the electric fluid itself is no other than light, and may therefore by its action easily produce a luminous appearance independent of any vapour. We have a strong proof that electricity is concerned, or indeed the principal agent, in producing the ignis fatuus, from an experiment related by Dr. Priestley, of a flame of this kind being artificially produced.
A gentleman, who had been making many electrical experiments for a whole afternoon in a small room, on going out of it, observed a flame following him at some little distance. This was doubtless a true ignis fatuus, and the circumstances necessary to produce it were then present, viz. an atmosphere impregnated with animal vapour, and likewise strongly electrified, for the quantity of perspiration emitted by a human body is by no means inconsiderable; and it, as well as the electricity, would be collected by reason of the smallness of the room. In this case, however, there seems to have been a considerable difference between the artificial ignis fatuus, and those commonly met with; for this flame followed the gentleman as he went out of the room, but the natural ones commonly fly from those who approach them. This may be accounted for, from a difference between the electricity of the atmosphere in the one room and the other; in which case the flame would naturally be attracted towards that place where the electricity was either different in quality or in quantity; but in the natural way, where all bodies may be supposed equally electrified for a great way round, a repulsion will as naturally take place. Still, however, this does not seem to be always the case. In those instances where travellers have been attended by an ignis fatuus, we cannot suppose it to have been influenced by any other power than what we call attraction, and which electricity is very capable of producing. Its keeping at some distance, is likewise easily accounted for; as we know that bodies possessed of different quantities of electricity may be made to attract one another for a certain space, and then repel without having ever come into contact. On this principle we may account for the light which surrounded the woman at Milan, but fled from the hand of anyother person. On the same principle may we account for those mischievous vapours which set fire to the hay and corn stacks, but were driven away by presenting to them a pointed iron instrument, or by making a noise. Both these are known to have a great effect upon the electric matter; and by means of either, lightning may occasionally be made to fall upon, or to avoid, particular places, according to the circumstances by which the general mass happens to be effected. On the whole, therefore, it seems most probable, that the ignis fatuus is a collection of vapours of the putrescent kind, very much affected by electricity; according to the degree of which, it will either give a weak or strong light, or even set fire to certain substances. This opinion seems to be confirmed from some luminous appearances observed in privies, where the putrid vapours have been collected into balls, and exploded violently on the approach of a candle. This last effect, however, we cannot so well ascribe to the electricity, as to the ascension of the inflammable air which abounds in such places.