Beginning of Astronomy
The tablets dealing with the Sumerian and Semitic languages together, and the translations from one to the other, we have noted already. The mathematical tablets are multiplication tables, lists of multiples of measures, tables of squares and cubes, and plans with measurements along the sides, which show the practical use of the science. The astronomical records were already tabulated in the time of the early Semitic Empire, Sargon having compiled for his library a work in seventy-two books, the title of which is rendered “The Observations of Bel.” The purpose of this was astrological, like the great mass of short tablets reporting observations of a later date. But the inquiries involved a considerable familiarity with astronomical movements, and a mass of records which became of great value to the student. The astronomical tablets of the Seleucidperiod are of special value, as they often contain valuable historical matter.
A KING’S LETTER OF 1400 B.C.A clay tablet letter from Tushratta, King of Mitani, to Amenophis III., King of Egypt, announcing the despatch of valuable gifts and begging Amenophis to send him a large quantity of gold as payment for expenses incurred by his grandfather in sending gifts to the King of Egypt, and also as a gift in return for his daughter, a princess of Mitani, whom Amenophis had married.
A KING’S LETTER OF 1400 B.C.
A clay tablet letter from Tushratta, King of Mitani, to Amenophis III., King of Egypt, announcing the despatch of valuable gifts and begging Amenophis to send him a large quantity of gold as payment for expenses incurred by his grandfather in sending gifts to the King of Egypt, and also as a gift in return for his daughter, a princess of Mitani, whom Amenophis had married.
LAW. In the domain of law the Babylonian had early formulated a code from the actual working of decisions. Case-made law was his basis, as in most countries, and abstracts of important cases were carefully preserved as precedents. No torture was used upon witnesses, and ample investigation of the right of a case seems to have been usual, with full cross-examination. High penalties were stipulated for the infringement of sales or contracts. The status of women was equal to that of men in the Sumerian, but became inferior in the Semitic law. Slavery was rather an assignation of labour than a control of the person, as a slave family could not be separated. Slaves could hold property, own other slaves, give witness, and were sometimes well educated. The family union was strong, as inherited land could not be sold without assent of relatives, and boys and girls alike inherited intestate property.
The detail of the laws form a long study, but we may here note the main sections of the great code of Hammurabi, showing the scope of the laws, and stating the number of enactments.
Thus the whole scope of an agricultural and commercial community was well safeguarded, and little doubt left as to general principles and penalties. All this must have been the product of innumerable cases and difficulties for two or three thousand years, before such a complete code was set up.
HISTORY INMYTHOLOGY. The religion has usually occupied a large part of the attention and interest given to Mesopotamia; it is comparatively well known owing to the quantity of documents and representations. Here we need only mention such points as bear on the general civilisation. We have already noticed how the purely Sumerian Shamanism, or belief in the spirit of every object, which needed to be appeased, had been tinctured by the worship of personal deities of the Semitic neighbours, and how this influence was shown by borrowing the Semitic beard for the gods and flounced robe for the goddesses, and occasionally for the gods. Thus the Semite was the missionary of theism as against animism.
SIR A. H. LAYARD’S EXCAVATORS LOWERING ONE OF THE GREAT WINGED BULLS FOUND IN NINEVEHThese bulls weighed fifty tons each. Layard found that three hundred men were necessary to pull the cart on which the bulls were placed.LARGER IMAGE
SIR A. H. LAYARD’S EXCAVATORS LOWERING ONE OF THE GREAT WINGED BULLS FOUND IN NINEVEH
These bulls weighed fifty tons each. Layard found that three hundred men were necessary to pull the cart on which the bulls were placed.
LARGER IMAGE
Camp Scene; Ground Plan
A CAMP SCENE IN THE DAYS OF NINEVEH’S POWERThe interior of a castle, indicated by a kind of ground-plan with towers and battlements, is divided into four compartments. In each is a group of figures, either engaged in domestic occupations or in preparations for a religious ceremony. The pavilion is supported by columns, probably of painted wood, and the canopy is adorned with a fringe of alternate flowers and buds, like the usual Egyptian border. Beneath the canopy is a groom cleaning a horse with a curry-comb. A eunuch at the entrance is receiving four prisoners. Above are two mummers dressed in the skins of lions, while a figure with a staff appears to be the keeper of these monsters.
A CAMP SCENE IN THE DAYS OF NINEVEH’S POWER
The interior of a castle, indicated by a kind of ground-plan with towers and battlements, is divided into four compartments. In each is a group of figures, either engaged in domestic occupations or in preparations for a religious ceremony. The pavilion is supported by columns, probably of painted wood, and the canopy is adorned with a fringe of alternate flowers and buds, like the usual Egyptian border. Beneath the canopy is a groom cleaning a horse with a curry-comb. A eunuch at the entrance is receiving four prisoners. Above are two mummers dressed in the skins of lions, while a figure with a staff appears to be the keeper of these monsters.
On the other hand, the civilisation of Babylonia is expressly stated to have been given by Ea, or Oannes, who rose from the sea of the Persian Gulf; he passed the day among men, and taught letters and sciences and arts—the building of cities and temples, and the use of laws and geometry. Also he showed the uses of seeds and fruits, and softened and humanised the people, who had lived in a lawless manner like wild beasts. This full ascription of civilisation to sea immigrants shows that itcannot be set down as an indigenous growth, or as due to the Sumerian, or still less to the Semite. The date of this movement is roughly indicated by Ea, belonging to the city of Eridu; and 5000B.C.is the earliest date at which we can suppose the ground of that city to have been dry land. Such must be taken as the extreme limit of the early civilisation, and what we find of the early kings of about 4700B.C.is the first efficient rise of monumental history in the land. All this is parallel to the early civilisation in Egypt. That also came in apparently from the Red Sea at about 5800B.C., as the civilising movement which changed the prehistoric age to the dynastic. And it came only a few centuries earlier than the mission of Ea. It may be possible that there is one common source of a seafaring people for both civilisations, and, if so, we might look to Hadhramot as being in the most likely common centre. At least, it is always convenient to explain the unknown by the unknown.
The nature gods of Apsu and Tiamat, the ocean and the chaos, described in the first tablet of the Creation series, belong to the primitive Sumerian. “The waters of these mingled in union, and no fields were embanked, no islands were seen; when the gods had not come forth, not one; when they neither had being nor destinies.” And afterward “Evil they plotted againstthe great gods.” After an attempt of Anshar (perhaps the same as the Egyptian Anher, the sky god) to subdue Tiamat (tablet 2), Marduk, the sun god, gains the victory; and in tablets 3 and 4, the supremacy of Marduk is finally confirmed by all the gods. In this we seem to have the echoes of a tribal history as in the Egyptian theology. The Shamanistic worship of a confused host of warring and malignant spirits, is at last subdued by the worshippers of personal gods under Semitic influence, and of these the people of the sun god take in the end the leading place. All of these changes were, however, long before the political domination of the Semite, which began about 3800B.C., with Sargon.
A CHASE IN THE DESERT, RECORDED ON THE MONUMENTS OF NINEVEHThe series of which this bas-relief formed a part appears to have recorded the conquest by the Assyrians of an Arab tribe or nation who made use of the camel in war as a beast of burden. This sculpture belongs to a later period than the bas-relief from the North-West Palace at Ninevehreproduced below.
A CHASE IN THE DESERT, RECORDED ON THE MONUMENTS OF NINEVEH
The series of which this bas-relief formed a part appears to have recorded the conquest by the Assyrians of an Arab tribe or nation who made use of the camel in war as a beast of burden. This sculpture belongs to a later period than the bas-relief from the North-West Palace at Ninevehreproduced below.
ROYAL SPORT IN THE DAYS OF ANCIENT NINEVEHThis bas-relief probably formed part of a subject representing the King of Nineveh in his chariot hunting the wild bull. The warrior rides on one horse and leads a second, richly caparisoned, for the use of the monarch. Numerous small marks on the body of the animal probably denote long and shaggy hair.
ROYAL SPORT IN THE DAYS OF ANCIENT NINEVEH
This bas-relief probably formed part of a subject representing the King of Nineveh in his chariot hunting the wild bull. The warrior rides on one horse and leads a second, richly caparisoned, for the use of the monarch. Numerous small marks on the body of the animal probably denote long and shaggy hair.
BABYLON: THE WONDER CITY OF ANCIENT CIVILISATION AT THE HEIGHT OF ITS POWERLARGER IMAGE
BABYLON: THE WONDER CITY OF ANCIENT CIVILISATION AT THE HEIGHT OF ITS POWER
LARGER IMAGE
NIMRUD: ALL THAT IS LEFT OF ONE OF THE WONDER CITIES OF ANCIENT BABYLONIAA view of Birs Nimrud, the traditional site of the Tower of Babel. On the plain below are the silent ruins of the ancient city, once filled with a teeming population.LARGER IMAGE
NIMRUD: ALL THAT IS LEFT OF ONE OF THE WONDER CITIES OF ANCIENT BABYLONIA
A view of Birs Nimrud, the traditional site of the Tower of Babel. On the plain below are the silent ruins of the ancient city, once filled with a teeming population.
LARGER IMAGE
A VIEW OF HILLAH, THE MODERN BABYLON
A VIEW OF HILLAH, THE MODERN BABYLON
We have now reviewed the questions of the rise of civilisation, as apart from the ordinary history of the countries, which is dealt with in its proper place in this work. Though it is difficult, and rather misleading, to look at civilisation and the political history apart, yet, so much has come to light in recent years to clear our view of the origins of culture that we may be allowed to focus our attention on that view of man, apart from his better known history. We seem at last to have reached back to a definite beginning of arts and capacities on both the Nile and the Euphrates, and to have touched a condition of things that seems to point in both lands to some external source of a yet pre-existing culture, which yet has to be traced. I am happy to add that one of our greatest Babylonian scholars, Dr. Pinches, concurs in the view of his subject which is here presented.
W. M. FLINDERSPETRIE
THE EXILES IN BABYLON“By the rivers of Babylon there we sat down; yea, we wept.” From the painting by Bendemann.
THE EXILES IN BABYLON
“By the rivers of Babylon there we sat down; yea, we wept.” From the painting by Bendemann.