CHAPTER VIIISIMPLE NAVIGATION

Among the first things that the amateur sailor should learn are the rules of the road at sea, for there are just as strict and definite rules for boats traversing maritime highways as are in force for vehicles using highways on the land.

But whereas traffic rules ashore vary in different countries, and even in the various states and cities, the rules of the road on the water are alike throughout all the world, and if you learn the rules in force in American waters, the knowledge will serve just as well in the waters of any other country.

The first and principal rule is toturn to the right when meeting another boat. At times this may be impossible and hence signals and rules have been arranged which provide for turning to the left when necessary, but sailing boatsalwayshave the right of way over steamers and power boats. It does not follow, because this is the case, however, that a man in a small sailboat should compel a larger vessel to giveway to him and endanger the other ship for it may be impossible for the larger craft to turn out, owing to the narrow channel or some similar reason, and hence you should know what the various lights and signals mean and should be prepared for any unusual condition which may arise.

In order that sailors may know in which direction a vessel is proceeding at night, as well as the character of the vessel, all vessels carry what are known asside lights, the one on the right or starboard side being green, while that on the port or left side is red. If you remember that theportlight isredlikeport wine, you will never become confused as to which color is port and which starboard. These lights are only used when vessels are sailing or under way and when at anchor or at moorings, a white light orriding-lightis placed in the rigging.

Steamers and power boats carry a white light near the stern and another white light forward. The rear white light is visible from all directions and is high up, while the forward white light is visible only from one side around a half-circle to the other side of the bow, while the side lights can only be seen from ahead or from either side.

By these lights you can always determine the direction in which a vessel is moving and can thus keep clear. If she is approaching bow-on, you will seeboththe side lights and you can be sure she is a power boat or steamer if you see the two white lights. If the two white lights are not in exact line, you will know that she is turning and the direction she is headingis easily determined, for if thelow bow lightis to therightof the high stern light she is turning to yourright, while if it appears at theleftof the higher stern light she is heading to yourleft. If only one side light is seen you may be sure the vessel is moving at right angles, or at nearly right angles to your course, and if she is a power-propelled vessel you can easily tell the angle at which she is moving by the position of the white lights. If a steamer or power boat is ahead of you and moving in the same direction, you can see only the high white stern light and the instant she turns you will know it by the other lights becoming visible.

Steamers and power boats also have signals which are given by the whistles to show which way they wish to proceed and the steamer which signals first dictates the direction. One blast means the vessel is turning to herstarboardorrighthand andtwo blastssignifies she is going to herleftorport, and while such signals should be answered by other power or steam boats, sailing craft are not supposed to reply. Unless there is some unusual reason for not following the ordinary rules of the road, a steamer or power boat will never signal to a sailboat and hence, if a steamer is approaching or overtaking you, and whistles, you should look about and be sure she is not signalling some other steamer forallpower and steam vessels are supposed to keep clear of sailing craft. Naturally they expect the sailing boats’ helmsmen to know the rules of the road and, therefore, if you think their signals are intended for you and change your course the steamer may notknow why you are doing such an unexpected thing and a collision may result. If you adhere strictly to the rules of the road there is no reason why you shouldeverhave an accident through your own fault, but if a power boat or steamer is approaching and does not show signs of giving way to your right of way you should blow a horn, halloo, shout or do something to attract attention and if necessary go about and get out of the way as soon as possible.

During thick weather, in fogs, mists, snow and heavy rain, sailing vessels signal the direction in which they are moving by means of blasts on a foghorn. If they are on thestarboardtack, that is, with the wind on the right or starboard side,oneblast is blown at intervals of about a minute, if on theporttack,twoblasts are blown at intervals, while if runningbeforethe windthreeblasts are sounded. As you can always tell the direction of the wind by your own sails, you can easily determine the direction in which the other boats are headed by their signals and can thus avoid them.

Always remember that a sailing vessel on thestarboard tack has the right of way over a vessel on the port tack, and that a vessel sailingclose hauled or against the wind has the right of way over a vessel running free or on the windregardless of their size, the direction in which they are moving or anything else.

In order to make the primary rules of the road easier to remember they have been made into verse and some of these simple verses, if memorized, will prove a great help.

Rules of the Road and Buoys

1—Meeting head-on, turn to starboard. 2—Crossing, boat to starboard has right of way. 3—Crossing, boat to starboard has right of way. 4—Passing. 5—Meeting, Green to green, hold course. 6—Meeting at angle, boat to starboard has right of way. 7—Meeting at angle, boat to starboard has right of way. 8—Boat on wind has right of way over boat sailing free. 9—Boat on starboard tack has right of way. 10—Red spar buoy, pass on starboard when entering harbor, on port when leaving harbors. 11—Black spar buoy. Leave on port when entering and on starboard when leaving harbors. 12—Horizontal red and black buoy. Danger, keep clear. 13—White and black striped buoy. Midchannel, keep close to it. 14—Anchorage buoy. 15—Nun buoy. 16—Can buoy. 17—Gas buoy. 18—Bell buoy. 19—Whistling buoy. 20—Perch and ball. 21-22—Beacons. 23—Lighthouse. 24—Lightship. 25—Light beacon. 26—Keg beacon. 27—Channel mark. 28—Range marks.

When meeting a vessel head-on you are supposed to turn to the right as the following verse shows:

When two lights you see aheadPort your helm and show your red,

When two lights you see ahead

Port your helm and show your red,

or in other words, put your tiller to port and turn your boat to the right.

If, on the other hand, a vessel is passing side-to you will see but one light and the following verse tells you that

Green to green, or red to redPerfect safety—go ahead,

Green to green, or red to red

Perfect safety—go ahead,

or, in other words, if you see agreenlight on yourgreenorstarboardside or aredorportlight on yourredorportside, the other boat is parallel to you and your course should be kept.

The greatest danger is in approaching another vessel at right angles, but in this case remember that theboat that has the other on the starboard or right-hand side must keep clear of the other, or, as the verse says:

If to your starboard red appear’Tis your duty to keep clear,Act as judgment says is proper,Port or starboard, back or stop her.But when on your port is seenA vessel with a light of greenThere’s not much for you to doThe green light must keep clear of you

If to your starboard red appear

’Tis your duty to keep clear,

Act as judgment says is proper,

Port or starboard, back or stop her.

But when on your port is seen

A vessel with a light of green

There’s not much for you to do

The green light must keep clear of you

But more important perhaps than all is the universal rule thatallboats must keep agood lookout, and the following verse indicates this:

Both in safety and in doubtAlways keep a good lookoutShould there not be room to turnShift your helm and pass astern.

Both in safety and in doubt

Always keep a good lookout

Should there not be room to turn

Shift your helm and pass astern.

The last line is most important.Neverunderanycircumstances attempt tocross the bowsof another moving vessel. If you do and accident occurs it will be your own fault. A boat crossing another’s bowsalways does so at her own risk. No matter how you are heading, no matter how much of a hurry you may be in, no matter how much trouble it may involve, if you are approaching another boat of any kind so that your course will cross hers, remember the last verse andshift your helm and pass astern.

Another very important matter for all boat sailors to learn is the meaning of the various buoys, beacons, lights and other guide-boards of the sea. In small boats these are often of little importance for one may sail hither and thither without paying much attention to channels, but even in the smallest of sailboats there is a danger of running on reefs, rocks or shoals if one does not know what the guiding marks mean.

In nearly every port, harbor, or other navigable body of water, except in the open ocean, there are buoys. To the landsman these appear as so many red, black or parti-colored sticks or metal cylinders, but to the sailor every one has a definite meaning and he knows that if he proceeds according to the route marked by the buoys he is perfectly safe.

There are two general classes of buoys, known aschannel buoysanddanger buoys. The first are usedto mark lanes or channels for boats and are always black or red in color.Allthe red buoys are placed on one side of the channel andallthe black buoys on the other side and every boat, when coming in from sea ormoving towards the land should keep the red buoys on her right or starboard sideand all theblack buoys on her port or left hand. When goingoutof the harbor oraway from land, the red buoys are passed on the left and the black ones on the right.

In other words, inleavinga harbor all thered buoysshould be passed on thered light side of your boat. Moreover, all the channel buoys are numbered, the black buoys bearing odd numbers, while the red ones are marked with even numbers, so that even if the colors are indistinct you can tell whether they are to be passed on right or left. But all channel buoys are not alike for there arespar buoys,can buoysandnun buoys, each of which serves a definite purpose and means a certain thing.

Can buoysare cylindrical, like giant tin cans, and are painted black and marked with odd numbers, whilenun buoysare tapered on the top, are painted red and bear even numbers.

Spar buoysare merely huge, wooden poles painted red or black and bearing odd numbers on the black ones and even numbers on those which are red.

In some places thecanandnun buoysare used to mark the main ship channels and the spar buoys are used to show smaller or less important channels, while in other places only one kind is used orcanornunbuoys may be placed among the spar buoysto mark turning points or to aid mariners in locating their position in the channel. All the buoys’ numbers commence at the one farthest out, which is number 1, for buoys are of more importance to vessels entering a harbor than to those going out to sea.

Danger buoys differ from channel buoys in color and are not numbered and they may be either of the spar, can or nun type. A buoy paintedred and black in horizontal stripesrunning round the buoy indicates that there is some small reef, rock or other obstruction close to it and that vessels must keep clear,but can pass on either side. A buoy painted withvertical stripes of black and whitemeans exactly the opposite and shows that in order to avoid danger vessels mustpass as closely to the buoy as possibleand that there are shoals or obstructions on one or both sides of the buoy a short distance away. Thisstriped buoyalso is used to mark thecenter of a channeland is known as amidchannel buoy.

Bell buoysandwhistling buoysare also used to mark danger spots and turning-points in channels. Whistling buoys are metal buoys fitted with whistles which are blown by air forced up by the motion of the waves and are sometimes calledgruntersas the sound is more like a grunt than a whistle.Bell buoysare provided with a bell which is rung by the swaying of the buoy. In many places they are located well out to sea to indicate the beginning of a channel; in other spots they are placed on reefs, rocks or other obstructions as warnings, and in still other places they serve toshow where a channel turns sharply or where another channel branches off.

Still another sort of buoy is thegas buoy. These serve as miniature lighthouses or lightships and are furnished with lamps which burn compressed acetylene or other gas. They are usually placed on outlying reefs or rocks or in spots where it would not pay to keep a regular lightship.

In many places, where ordinary buoys cannot be used, a large sphere is set up on the end of a pole and painted red or black, according to the side on which it should be passed. This is known to seamen as aperch and ball. Often a square, boxlike affair or a cone made of iron or wooden slats is used in the same manner.

In still other localities the government does not think it worth while to establish regular buoys and local fishermen or others use channel marks in the form of kegs set on posts or rods in place of danger buoys and cedar trees fastened on tall posts to indicate the channels.

In many parts of the countrybeaconsare used which are tripods or platforms of wood or iron on which lanterns are suspended. Sometimes the beacons are built of stone or concrete.

On navigable rivers and inland waters and in some places on the coastsrange marksare used. These are square or diamond-shaped frames of boards painted white with a square or circle of black in the center and set on posts. They are placed so that when two come directly in line the boatman knows he is in thecenter of the channel. At night lanterns are often hung upon them.

Sometimes one sees a large spar buoy paintedwhiteand with alittle black anchorpainted upon it. This shows the anchorage for large vessels and indicates that vessels cannot anchor further than the buoy without obstructing a channel or endangering cables, submarine works or other things.

Just as buoys tell the sailor which way to steer in harbors or when close to shore solightshipsandlighthousesshow mariners how to sail along the coasts. Lightships are vessels carrying lights at their mastheads and are anchored out at sea on shoals or off harbors to show where the channels begin.

Lighthouses are usually built on shore close to the sea, but they are often built on stone, masonry or slender steel supports quite a distance from the land. Each lighthouse has a different light, many are painted in stripes or other distinctive patterns and lightships are numbered and named to enable sailors to identify them easily.

Harbor Chart Showing Lights, Buoys, Channels, Soundings, Bearings, Bottom, Etc.

Some lighthouses throw a steady red light, others a steady white light, others flashes of white, others flashes of red, others alternate flashes of red and white, and in many places they are arranged so that a white light is visible from vessels in the channels or in safe waters, while a red sector causes a red light to be thrown over the shallow or dangerous waters. Moreover, the flashing lights have various intervals between flashes and thus, by knowing the colors of the various lights and the duration of their flashes, a sailorcan determine just where he is by the lighthouses he sights.

All of these safeguards of the sea would be of little value to mariners, however, if it were not for charts, for no man could rememberallthe various buoys, beacons, range marks, lightships and lighthouses of the coasts and the various harbors.

To enable the seaman to know just what every one of these means, and to help him find his way in places where he has never been, charts are furnished by the government. These are maps which show all the buoys, lights, signals and other guides and also indicate the depth of the water, the kind of bottom, the points of the compass, the prominent landmarks, the rise and fall of tides and the outlines of the shores.

With the aid of a chart a sailor can safely find his way into any harbor or along any coast, and even if it is some remote place where there are no lights or buoys, or if the weather is too thick to enable him to see the buoys or lights, the charts will tell him where he is by the character of the bottom and the depth of the water.

It may seem queer to think of a sailor navigating a vessel by the bottom of the sea, but it is a method very widely used and of great importance.

In nearly every place the bottom varies more or less and the waters shoal in a certain way and by finding the kind of bottom there is and the depth of the water the seaman identifies the locality he is in. Thus, if the bottom is white sand and the depth is five fathoms,he looks upon the chart and finds the spot where a similar depth and bottom is indicated. Perhaps there are several such spots and the sailor is not sure which one he is on. In that case, he looks in the direction he is sailing and finds that on the chart the water shoals very gradually and that blue mud exists just beyond the spot where hethinkshe should be. If his next sounding shows blue mud and only a little less depth than before he knows he is right, whereas if it shows deeper water and gravel, or much shallower water and sand, he knows he is off his course and by comparing his soundings with the chart he can tell just where he is.

To determine the depth of water, a sounding line is used with a heavy lead weight at the end and with the fathoms marked upon the line and every time the lead is dropped to the bottom a tiny sample of the bottom is brought up sticking to a little tallow which fills a recess in the end of the lead.

Nowadays there are many improved forms of sounding lines and leads, some of which have very cleverly arranged appliances for bringing up samples of the bottom, but the old-fashioned line and lead is still widely used.

Still other important items which are indicated on the chart are bearings or landfalls. Often some prominent cliff, hill, mountain or other object is visible long before the shores themselves or any lights can be seen, and by bringing certain such marks in line, or by obtaining the direction which they bear to the ship and then referring to the charts, the sailor can tell just whatpart of the shore he is approaching and how he should steer to enter a harbor or channel.

But charts, bearings or landmarks would be almost useless without that most important of all mariners’ guides, the compass.

Everyone who uses a boat should know how to use a compass and every boat, save the very smallest open boats, should invariably have a compass on board. Even if you never expect to sail far from shore you may some day be caught in a thick fog or blown off to sea for several miles and a compass may save your life and the lives of others. But unless you know how to use a compass this useful instrument will be of little aid. It may seem strange to speak of learning to use a compass for everyone knows that a compass points toward the north, but when an ordinary compass is used on a boat the conditions are very different from using a compass on land. In the first place it is not enough to know the cardinal points of north, south, east and west, for while such general directions may serve on the land, a very slight variation of the course may result in running on a reef or in missing a harbor, when sailing. For this reason you should become thoroughly familiar withallthe points of a compass and should be able tobox the compassor repeat all the thirty-two points from north around the circle to north and back again without looking at the compass. Then you should learn the quarter points and should be able to tell at a glance whether the boat is heading north-one-quarter-east or is a quarter of a point off her course in any direction, for a quarter-point errorin sailing may make a vast difference at the end of a few hours’ run.

There are two general types of compasses in use: one known as thepocket compassormovable-needle compass, the other as themariner’s compass or floating-card compass. The former is generally used on land and has a fixed card with the various points marked upon it and a movable needle which points to the north, while the mariner’s compass has a card with the points which revolves and there is a notch orlubber’s markon one side of the case which should be so placed that when facing north the north mark on the card is exactly in line with the lubber’s mark.

Use of Compass in Boat

A—Mariner’s compass. B-C—Pocket compass.

In a boat the floating-card or mariner’s compass is almost a necessity, for with it the boat’s bow may be headed in the direction or course desired, whereas with a pocket compass the dial remains stationary and the needle moves about and as a result some mental calculation is necessary in order to steer a course correctly.

This will be better understood by studying the accompanying illustration. In this you will see that at A a boat with a mariner’s compass is headednortheast, and that if the course is to be altered to any given point of the compass it is merely necessary to turnuntil the desired mark is in line with the lubber’s mark.

In the diagram B, however, the boat is apparently headed north although the same course is being steered as in A. This is because the compass used is a fixed-card compass with a movable needle and the needle moves as the boat’s course is changed, while the card remains stationary, and although the boat is really headednortheastthe needle points to thenorthwest. In other words, when using such a compass it is necessary to read it backwards and if you wish to steernortheastswing the boat until the needle pointsnorthwest, and so on, for every direction. This, of course, is very confusing and it can be avoided only by shifting the position of the compass so as to bring the needle directly over “north” each time the boat’s course is altered as shown at C. By doing this the boat’s bow will correspond to the direction being steered, as indicated on the compass card, but it is often very inconvenient, if not impossible, to move a compass constantly while bobbing about in a sea or tacking, although on land it is no trouble to turn the compass until the needle and “north” are in line and then proceed in the desired direction.

Moreover, a pivoted needle is often very erratic and swings wildly when in a boat and for these reasons a floating-dial compass should always be used. Many pocket compasses are made with moving dials, or cards, and these will serve very well for small boats, but they are not to be compared to the true boat compasses for steadiness, accuracy and convenience.

Sometimes one may find oneself without a compassand may wish to obtain a general idea of direction and in such a case it is of great value to know that an ordinary watch or clock may be made to serve as a compass.

To use a watch as a compass, place it horizontally, with the hour hand pointing directly towards the sun, or until the shadow of the hour hand falls directly beneath the hand itself. When this position is attained south will be exactly halfway between the point of the hour hand and the figure 12; counting from left to right, or southward, ifbeforenoon and from right to left ifafternoon.

This will prove very accurate for our latitudes during most of the year and the method will be clearly understood by referring to the illustrations in which the watch is shown with the hour hand pointing towards the sun at sixA. M.when the figure 9 indicates south, while in the afternoon, with the hour hand pointing at the sun at four o’clock, the figure 2 indicates south.

This method of determining direction is only useful on sunny or bright days, however, and one often needs to know the points of the compass at night, when the watch would be useless.

In any spot north of the equator the North Star, or Pole Star, serves as a guide, while south of the equator the Southern Cross indicates the true south. But the Southern Cross becomes visible long before the equator is reached, in about twenty degrees north latitude, and hence there is a wide area in which both of these stellar guides serve the mariner.

Compasses

1—Pocket compass. 2—Mariner’s compass. 3—Points of compass. 4—How to use a watch as a compass. 5—How to find the North Star.

It is a very easy matter to locate the North Star byfinding the constellation known as the Great Dipper or the Great Bear. Then by following in a straight line from the two outer stars of the Dipper, the upper one of which would form the lip of the Dipper, or the breast of the Bear, the North Star will be the first bright star in range of these two stars in the constellation and which are known asthe Pointers.

As the Great Dipper revolves around the North Star the latter may be either above or below the Dipper, but by carrying your imaginary line through the pointers, from the foot or bottom of the constellation and beyond the top, the star may always be located if the night is clear and even if the Pole Star isnotvisible the Dipper itself will serve as a guide to enable you to steer a fairly straight course.

Captains of large vessels, sailing out of sight of land, determine their positions and steer their course by taking observations by means of instruments calledsextantsand bychronometers.

The chronometer is merely an extremely accurate clock which is set by standard time with Greenwich, and by comparing the actual time with this at noon, the mariner can work out the distance east or west of Greenwich, or in other words, obtain hislongitude.

By means of the sextant he determines the exact moment at which the sun crosses the meridian, or the exact noon hour at his locality and he also learns the angle ordeclinationof the sun above the horizon. By means of tables he is thus enabled to work out hislatitude, or his distance north or south of the equator, and then by marking the spot on his chart where the longitudeand latitude cross, he indicates the exact position of his ship.

It is an easy matter to learn to “shoot the sun” and to compute latitude and longitude. Every amateur sailor will do well to acquire this knowledge, even if it never becomes necessary to use it.

For all ordinary purposes, however,dead reckoningwill serve and many sailors, and not a few captains of large vessels find dead reckoning sufficiently accurate for their needs if near land or only sailing for comparatively short distances out at sea.

Dead reckoning consists of computing a vessel’s position by the distance sailed from one time to another; the drift or leeway made and the directions in which the boat has sailed.

To find the distance sailed it is necessary to multiply the number of hours by the speed per hour. To determine this an instrument called alogis used. In former days the log was in reality a log, and consisted of a drag of wood attached to a marked line on a reel. The log was thrown over the vessel’s stern and as the line ran out it was timed by asandglassand the number ofknotson the line which ran out while the sand fell through the glass gave the speed of the ship. Today instruments known aspatent logsare used which are like small propellers attached to a line connected with a clocklike arrangement, and as the log whirls around by being dragged through the water the hands on the dials indicate the speed of the vessel.

But while the log has been changed to a metal whirler and the line and sandglass have given place to an accurateand complicated mechanism of wheels and cogs, yet the namelogis still retained and sailors always speak of knots instead of miles.

By marking off the number of knots sailed in the proper direction the sailor might easily tell where he was, provided there were no currents or tides and the vessel moved at a uniform speed and made no leeway. As a matter of fact the ocean is full of currents, streams and tides and moreover a vessel, when sailing, or steaming for that matter, is carried to one side or the other and forwards and backwards by these as well as by the wind.

Besides a sailing vessel moves more slowly or faster according to the strength of the wind and is often obliged to tack or to alter its course to suit the winds.

All of these matters must be considered in working out a position by dead reckoning and the course of a sailing vessel when thuspricked outon a chart often looks like the track made by a drunken man, as it zigzags hither and thither, swings about, and varies widely from one side or the other of its true course.

In order to come anywhere near accuracy by means of dead reckoning a mariner must be thoroughly familiar with the tides and currents through which he is sailing. He must be able to judge the strength of the wind; he must know just what his vessel will do under varying conditions; he must be able to guess very closely the leeway she makes, and he must bear in mind all the changes of course, all the tacks and all the shifting of sails which have been made. Only by such knowledge and by long practice can a sailor determinewhere he is by dead reckoning and even then he can only locate his position approximately. It seems remarkable that any man can come anywhere near the truth by such means but many sea captains have become so expert that they can figure out their position by dead reckoning and come within a very few miles of the right result every time.

Very few amateur sailors will ever need to go into the details of dead reckoning, but it is often convenient to be able to determine roughly where you are and you should strive to become so accustomed to your boat’s speed under various conditions that you can guess very closely how far and how fast she has sailed. You should also study the charts of your vicinity and learn all about the tides and currents and should be able to judge of the leeway you are making, as well as to form an accurate idea of the weight of the wind or the speed at which it is blowing. All these things are a part of knowing how to sail and handling a boat and they will come in mighty handy sooner or later.

Many a race has been won by a man or boy knowing the currents and tides and taking advantage of them. If you are out in a fog or in darkness your knowledge of winds, currents and other conditions will enable you to steer a true course and reach port, whereas, if ignorant of these simple matters, you might be compelled to drift about for hours until you could see your surroundings.

Until you have tried you can have no idea of how much you can learn about such matters or what akeen sense of location and direction you can develop. The fishermen on the coast of Maine and other parts of New England know the currents, winds and tides of their waters so well that thick fogs or the darkest nights have no terrors for them. I have seen a Maine fisherman sail his schooner straight for the rocky, reef-fringed coast through the thickest fog and drive into a narrow harbor entrance as surely as if he was following a well marked lane of buoys. Yet nothing could be seen and the roar of surf was deafening and to make a mistake of a hundred feet in his course meant certain death and the loss of the vessel.

These men don’t knowhowthey know where they are orhowthey are able to find their way blindly on these dangerous coasts when nothing can be seen. They will tell you it’s “by the lay of the land,” although the land cannot be seen, or they may say they “smell where they are,” but as a matter of fact it is owing to their intimate knowledge of conditions and surroundings which has become such a part of their daily life that they are perfectly unconscious of it.

Of course the amateur sailor can scarcely hope to become as expert as these old shellbacks who have spent their lives knocking about in boats, but you can readily learn the bearings of certain places, the location of certain tide-rips and the direction and flow of certain currents in the waters where you sail and these will all help to guide you when sailing in darkness or in fog.

Fog is perhaps the greatest danger that menaces sailors along the coasts, for a thick fog not only hidesall objects and surroundings, but when somethingisseen it is often so distorted, so spectral or so unusual in appearance that it is hard to recognize the most familiar landmarks. Moreover it is next to impossible to judge of distance in a fog and an object, seen dimly through the mist and apparently far away, may be close at hand or again something which looms seemingly near may really be far away. Sound also is distorted by fogs and even old hands are often woefully deceived as to the direction and distance of sounds heard through fog.

Sometimes, too, a fog may settle low and high objects may be visible above it, or again it may lift and hide all objects above a certain height and yet leave things close to the water within plain sight.

In most places the approach of fogs may be readily seen, but quite frequently a fog will come on very suddenly or a light mist may suddenly shut in as a dense fog, while in some places fogs almost always occur at certain seasons or at certain hours and can be expected at such times.

If a fog is seen approaching, or a light mist commences to thicken up, always try to make port before it becomes dense. If you have a compass make a note of the direction you must steer, look about for vessels that may be in your course and note the direction of the wind, the waves and the courses other craft are sailing, if any can be seen.

If you have no compass note the direction of the waves and wind as compared with the course you wish to take, pick out some prominent landmark or beaconfor which you can steer and when the fog shuts in guide your course by the waves andnot by the wind, for a wind often shifts about when the fog arrives.

If you have no compass and are in any doubt as to how you are heading, drop your sails and anchor at once, or if you can reach a buoy, moor to that until the fog lifts.

There is nothing much more perilous than sailing about blindly in a fog, for you are liable to sail in a circle, or far off your course, and when the fog lifts, if you haven’t run aground or into another vessel, you may find yourself out of sight of land or many miles from your destination.

Always have a foghorn when sailing in localities where fogs occur and if for any reason you have no horn, shout halloo or beat on a bucket or a tin pan at intervals to warn other vessels of your presence.

Sometimes, if you climb to the masthead, you may be able to see above the fog or through it, for fogs are often thin a few feet above the water, and if you find this is the case your companion may be able to stay aloft and direct you, or you may be able to locate some landmark and to discover in which direction to proceed. If you see that the water is visible for quite a distance about and yet the fog is thick, you may be able to see a long way by leaning over the boat’s side and peering ahead close to the surface of the sea, while if there are whistling or bell buoys in the vicinity these may serve to guide you.

Always proceed slowly and cautiously in a fog, for a reef or a vessel is likely to loom up close aboard atany moment and you must be ever alert and have your boat under perfect control ready for any emergency. If there is someone with you, have him stand in the bow and report anything which he sees andabove all sound fog signals of some sort at intervals of not more than a minuteand if you hear another vessel’s signals veer off and be sure you understand whether she is on the port or the starboard tack or is running before the wind.

Effect of Waves on Stability

Sailing in heavy weather or in large seas is very different from sailing in smooth water and no one should attempt sailing a boat in strong winds or heavy seas unless thoroughly expert in handling a boat, or unless compelled to do so by necessity.

More accidents happen when running in a seaway than under any other conditions, for a boat which may be perfectly safe and stable in an ordinary sea, may capsize quickly if not handled with the utmost care and skill in large waves.

The effect of waves upon a boat’s stability is seldom realized even by fairly competent sailors. This may be better understood by the accompanying diagram which represents a boat in waves as viewed in section and supposedly sailing with a beam wind in a sea running broadside on, A. If she is heeled to an angle of fifteen degrees, as shown, she would be perfectly safe, provided the surface of the water remained constant, but if a wave came from the leeward, or right, as indicated by the dotted line B, the angle would be suddenly increased to thirty degrees in relation to the waves’ surface. Under normal conditions she might recover herself and swing back to fifteen degrees, or until her mast assumed the position shown by the vertical line, but long before she could so recover herself among the waves she probably would be swamped.

Moreover, in a sea a boat always rolls and if she is sailing at an angle, or heel, of fifteen degrees and rolls an additional fifteen degrees she is liable to capsize, and if her extreme roll occurs in unison with such a position as indicated in the diagram C, she would inevitably upset.

Even if neither of these occurrences took place there is the danger of a sea underrunning her and leaving the lee side unsupported, as indicated by the line D, and the wind, which has force enough to heel her fifteen degrees when properly immersed in water, would then force her to the capsizing angle as shown.

Aside from these dangers of the seas there is the added peril of a sudden gust or squall and if such asudden increase of wind strikes the sails when the hull is at its extreme leeward roll she will be certain to blow over. In this connection it should always be borne in mind that a wind which will only heel a boat to fifteen degrees when it blows steadily, may heel her to the upsetting point if applied suddenly. In other words, it is not so much the actual force of the wind which must be guarded against as the suddenness of its application.

Many amateur sailors seem to think that when sailing among waves danger may be guarded against by sitting on the upper, or windward, side of the boat or by shifting ballast to the windward side. This is a very grave mistake, for, as the boat rolls to windward when the waves run under her keel, the weight on the windward side may cause her to roll far enough to be swamped or it may prevent her from recovering quickly and the next wave may strike her bottom and turn her completely over. In addition there is the danger that she may swing her sail to windward, be caught aback and upset in a flash.

For these reasonsalwayskeep ballast, whether passengers or real ballast, as near the center of the boat and as near the bottom as possible when sailing among waves and decrease the canvas until she cannot heel at a dangerous angle. A boat may be sailed among waves many times and not upset merely because the conditions described do not happen to occur conjointly and yet the very next time she may capsize under apparently identical conditions. Hence, you should always use the greatest care when among waves andshould invariably shorten sail until you are sure you are safe.

Always try to avoid sailing with a beam sea, especially if the wind is also from the side, for this is the most dangerous of all conditions. A heavy sea may cause the boat to roll over, the sail may swing and spill the wind and allow her to be caught aback with her weather roll and to avoid a breaking sea which may swamp her, it will be necessary to swing her about for eight points, or at right angles, which cannot be done in a seaway in time to avoid swamping.

Nevertry to luff a boat up to a sea when in this position, but ease the sheet, swing her off and let the sea run diagonally under her keel. Remember that in waves a deep keel or a centerboard may prevent a great deal of the roll and even if running free keep your centerboard down, unless you find it causes her to steer badly.

If in order to reach your destination, it is necessary to run across a heavy sea with a beam wind you can avoid the danger of doing so byquarteringor zigzagging—first heading up into the wind for a time and then turning and running with the wind on the quarter as shown by the diagram.

When running up the wind in this way you should luff right up into any heavy sea as it approaches, so as to take it bow-on, and the instant it has passed put the helm up, let the sails fill well and gather good headway to meet the next sea. Finally, when ready to go about choose a time when riding on the top of along, easy sea; swing her about quickly, ease off the sheets and use great care not to let the boat swing beam-on to the seas.

In puffs or squalls, and as you rise towards the crests of the waves, when running in seas, the boat should be luffed up and sheets eased before she is heeled rail-under, for if you wait too long she will answer her helm sluggishly and may capsize before she will luff to meet the sudden gust.Don’tlet her lose headway but as soon as the squall has passed or the craft has righted bear off again until the next puff comes along.

Almost as dangerous as sailing in a beam sea is running before wind and sea or “scudding” among waves, and many a good craft and many a valuable life has been sacrificed to carelessness or ignorance when scudding in a seaway.

The two greatest perils aregetting brought by the leeandbroaching-to. The former occurs when the boat’s bow falls off to leeward by her stern being thrown to windward as a wave runs under her, while the latter is brought about by the head swinging into the wind and her stern off, thus causing her sail to “spill” with the result that she loses headway, swings broadside to the waves and upsets. Only the quickest and most expert handling can save a boat under these conditions and frequently she will refuse to come about or to answer her helm as she is raced along on the crest of a wave. If it is absolutely necessary to run before a sea, reduce sail, top the boom up well by the topping-lift or the peak halyards and stand ready tohaul in the sheet and to swing her into the wind or to ease her off instantly.

Keep the centerboard up, or halfway up is better, and devote every energy, every attention and every sense to handling your boat and pay heed to nothing else.

Even then there are many dangers to be guarded against. If sail is too greatly reduced your boat may lag between seas and a following wave may run over her stern and poop her; if there is a trifle too much sail or even if the sail is of the right area, she may scud off a wave and bury her bow in a preceding sea and be swamped, or her boom may catch in a sea as she yaws and thus capsize her.

If she shows signs of running too fast a drag, such as an oar, a thwart, a floorboard or even a cushion may be attached to a fairly long line over the stern and this will not only hold the boat back, but it will keep her steadier and will serve to prevent seas from breaking as well.

Oil thrown or dropped over the stern will also aid greatly in preventing a following sea from breaking over a boat’s stern. Oil should always be on hand. It doesn’t make much difference what kind of oil is used, but the heavier it is the better and only a very little is necessary; a wad of oil-soaked rag or cotton waste, or even oil squeezed from a sponge will often produce really marvelous results.

But the best and safest method is to avoid running before wind and sea by heading into the wind and running fairly free and then wearing ship and sailingwith a quartering wind and thus zigzagging over the course to be covered.

When sailing to windward against a sea there is comparatively little danger, if the boat is luffed up to meet the seas and is not allowed to lose headway. Then when ready to go about, if tacking, wait for an opportunity when there is a long, smooth-topped sea and swing the boat on the other tack quickly and stand ready to bring her about with an oar if she misses stays, for if she does this serious results may follow and she may be caught without headway, swung about and upset before you can get her under way again.

It is far less dangerous to handle a boat in a gale than in a seaway, but of course if the gale continues for any length of time the seas will rise. It is often far safer to ride out a gale than to attempt sailing in it, for few boats will fail to weather even a hard and prolonged gale and heavy seas if properly handled. If you have a sea-anchor or drogue aboard cast this over, lower or snug down sails, keep low down in the boat and if you have oil aboard allow it to drip over the bows. Under such conditions the drogue will break the force of the seas and keep the craft head to the wind and seas and the oil will prevent the crests from breaking over the boat. While she may rise and fall and pitch about tremendously there will be little real danger.

If the wind is blowing in a different direction from the seas or across them, lower and stow the sails, but if the wind is in the same direction as the seas a bit of canvas will often keep her steady and make herride more easily. With a boom-and-gaff sail the sail may be lowered until a very small portion remains and the rest of the sail should then be secured about the boom and the sheets trimmed flat. Sometimes a small triangular sail, such as a spare jib, may be set aft above the furled sail, while with a yawl or ketch rig the mizzen may be set and trimmed flat.

Above all things donotallow anyone to move about, to stand on the deck or to sit upon the gunwales of a boat in a heavy sea or in a squall, but keep all the weight as low and as stationary as possible. Always make everything snug and fasten all loose ropes and lines when riding out a gale or a squall, for trailing ropes, flapping sails and swinging lines are liable to cause trouble, aside from the fact that they will become tangled and will not run freely when wanted.

As a rule it will not be necessary to ride out a gale in a small boat for severe storms seldom come so quickly that sails cannot be reefed and shelter reached before the wind and seas rise until dangerous. Thunder storms and squalls, however, are often so sudden and unexpected that the amateur sailor has no time to run for a harbor and sometimes, when off a lee shore, it is dangerous to heave a boat to in order to reef. Under such circumstances great care and skill are required to weather the sudden blow in safety, especially when off a lee shore and everyone who handles a sailboat should be prepared for such events.

Have the sheet ready to let go instantly and drop the peak of the sail, if a boom-and-gaff rig, and if the boat carries a jib drop that.

If the squalls are light they may be seen approaching by watching the surface of the water, while if heavy or if they come when there is quite a sea running, the approach of the gusts will be indicated by white, scudding crests to the waves. Don’t try to bear away or ease off the sheets to avoid these squalls but luff up slightly to meet them, allowing the luff of the sail to tremble but keeping the after part of the sail filled and by doing this and bearing off between squalls to gather headway a boat may be safely sailed through very heavy and frequent puffs.

If close to shore, however, or among reefs where there is little space for maneuvering, it is often impossible to luff into the squalls without danger of running aground and in such situations it will be necessary to ease off the sheet and flow the sail until the luff trembles, butunder no circumstancesshould you turn andrun beforethe wind when it’s squally. As soon as your sail is before the wind you cannot prevent the full force of the puffs from hitting it without swinging broadside to the squall and if this is done there is a very great chance of upsetting the boat.

If on a lee shore you should of course luff up, for you must use every endeavor to “claw-off” the land. If you always remember the following simple rule you will seldom have trouble in weathering reasonable squalls.Off a lee shore or where there is ample sea room, luff up to squalls. If off a weather shore or with obstructions to windward ease off for squalls.

Finally, if you lower sails in a squall, be sure to spill the sail before lowering away, as otherwise it maycatch a puff of wind, balloon out and capsize the boat. If you wish to reef in squalls either anchor or throw out a drogue to keep head-on to the puffs.

If the squalls are very heavy and there is plenty of space to leeward lower the sails, throw out a drogue or anchor or scud before the wind under bare poles until the squalls decrease sufficiently to permit you to reef.

In handling boats an ounce of prevention is worth many tons of cure, and if you keep your weather eye open, as sailors say, there will seldom be occasion for you to face difficulties unprepared. Changes of wind or weather are almost invariably presaged by certain signs or symptoms which may readily be noticed and understood and everyone who sails a boat should learn to recognize the signs which indicate certain conditions.

Of course if one has a barometer the approaching weather conditions may be determined very easily, but even without this instrument a person who is weatherwise may usually foretell the approach of good or bad weather or of rain or wind many hours in advance.

Among the commonest and most noticeable indications are the following, and only in very rare instances will these signs fail:

Many of these weather indications have become so widely known and universally recognized by seamen that they have been put into doggerel verse to make them more easily remembered and every boat sailor should learn these, for nine times out of ten they will prove true.

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