LITHOGRAPHY.

LITHOGRAPHY.LITHOGRAPHIC PRESS.This is the art of producing designs upon stone in such a manner that impressions may be printed from them. It is often miscalled “engraving on stone;” properly speaking, it is not engraving, but a process depending on the want of affinity between watery and greasy matters, the design being made with a greasy substance, either in the form of ink or crayon called “lithographic chalk,” as follows. A close-grained stone called lithographic stone (a kind of magnesian limestone) is ground perfectly even on the surface, and (if for being written upon) polished with pumice-stone, or (if for being drawn upon with chalk) grained with fine sand; the design is drawn with chalk or ink, each of which is made up of greasy materials—wax, soap, and asphaltum, colored with lamp-black. When the design is made, the stone is etched—washed over with a weak mixture of nitric acid and water—which answers three purposes; it very slightly bites away the stone in all places except where it is covered with the ink or chalk, it smoothes the grain in the same places, and it converts the soap of the ink or chalk into grease. We have now the surface of the stone quite wet, except where the design is, which, being greasy, keeps quite dry. The stone, placed in a press, is rolled over with a roller smeared with greasy printing ink, which will not adhere to the wet stone, but it readily does to all parts of the design; a piece of paper is placed over the stone, and a flap of leather covers it; along this leather the scraper of the press is brought very forcibly when it is worked, and on removing the paper an impression is found to be transferred to it from the stone. This process is repeated again and again, many hundred times, without much injury to the original design.Colored lithography, called chromo-lithography, is produced by using several stones consecutively (each transferring a separate color), so that the design shall be complete when the whole are printed.

LITHOGRAPHIC PRESS.

This is the art of producing designs upon stone in such a manner that impressions may be printed from them. It is often miscalled “engraving on stone;” properly speaking, it is not engraving, but a process depending on the want of affinity between watery and greasy matters, the design being made with a greasy substance, either in the form of ink or crayon called “lithographic chalk,” as follows. A close-grained stone called lithographic stone (a kind of magnesian limestone) is ground perfectly even on the surface, and (if for being written upon) polished with pumice-stone, or (if for being drawn upon with chalk) grained with fine sand; the design is drawn with chalk or ink, each of which is made up of greasy materials—wax, soap, and asphaltum, colored with lamp-black. When the design is made, the stone is etched—washed over with a weak mixture of nitric acid and water—which answers three purposes; it very slightly bites away the stone in all places except where it is covered with the ink or chalk, it smoothes the grain in the same places, and it converts the soap of the ink or chalk into grease. We have now the surface of the stone quite wet, except where the design is, which, being greasy, keeps quite dry. The stone, placed in a press, is rolled over with a roller smeared with greasy printing ink, which will not adhere to the wet stone, but it readily does to all parts of the design; a piece of paper is placed over the stone, and a flap of leather covers it; along this leather the scraper of the press is brought very forcibly when it is worked, and on removing the paper an impression is found to be transferred to it from the stone. This process is repeated again and again, many hundred times, without much injury to the original design.

Colored lithography, called chromo-lithography, is produced by using several stones consecutively (each transferring a separate color), so that the design shall be complete when the whole are printed.

PRINTING.The art of printing consists in producing impressions from a pattern or types—cut out and projecting, or engraved and indented—by smearing the projecting parts or filling up the indented markings with ink, so that impressions, to any number, and exactly resembling each other, may be taken from them. Printing is comparatively a modern invention, although impressing or taking impressions from seals is one of the very oldest. It is divided into two kinds, plate-printing and surface-printing. Printing from type or blocks having the marks to be impressed raised, is called surface-printing, while that in which the lines or marks are cut in, is called plate-printing.PRINTING-PRESS.INKING-TABLE.In surface-printing, when types are used, they are packed up closely into masses and wedged together in iron frames, so that they form, as it were, solid blocks; the types or wood-blocks when required to be printed from are placed in the press, and rolled over by a roller smeared with printing-ink—this roller is coated with an elastic substance made of glue and treacle, and resembling India-rubber. It is worked to and fro on the “inking-table” (a smooth iron slab fitted with a receptacle for ink), in order that the ink may be evenly distributed over its surface—a point to which great care and attention, and no little skill, on the part of the workman, is directed. The ink, being rolled over the type, covers and adheres to the surface of the projecting parts. The paper is placed on a frame turning upon a hinge, and is secured in its place by another frame brought down upon it. These frames, with the paper, are now turned down upon the blackened surface of the type, and the whole—paper and type—passed under the printing press, where, by the working of a handle, a piece of iron is caused to descend and press evenly and with great force upon them. On being withdrawn, and the frames opened, the paper is found to have received a perfect impression, in ink, of the type upon which it was impressed. This process, of course, can be repeated to any extent, and as many impressions produced as may be required.In plate-printing, the plate is first warmed, and all the engraved parts are filled in with ink, the superfluous ink being wiped off, and the surface cleaned bright by using a little whiting (which is rubbed on the hands), leaving only the indented parts full of ink. The paper (in a damp state) is then laid on the plate, with a fold or two of flannel over it, and the whole is carried, by turning the handles of the press, between two rollers, which compress the plate and paper together so forcibly that, when removed, the ink is found to have left the plate and attached itself to the paper, forming an impression.Printing is now in very many cases done by machinery, worked by steam power, so that a very large number of impressions can be produced in a very short time, as in the case of newspapers, the whole impression of which (amounting to many thousands) is printed in a few hours.Printing in colors of various tints, so arranged as to form a picture, has lately been much resorted to. The usual method pursued is to print one color, and when that is dry, to print the next, and so on till the picture is complete; but a machine has been invented by which many colors may be printed at one time.

The art of printing consists in producing impressions from a pattern or types—cut out and projecting, or engraved and indented—by smearing the projecting parts or filling up the indented markings with ink, so that impressions, to any number, and exactly resembling each other, may be taken from them. Printing is comparatively a modern invention, although impressing or taking impressions from seals is one of the very oldest. It is divided into two kinds, plate-printing and surface-printing. Printing from type or blocks having the marks to be impressed raised, is called surface-printing, while that in which the lines or marks are cut in, is called plate-printing.

PRINTING-PRESS.

INKING-TABLE.

In surface-printing, when types are used, they are packed up closely into masses and wedged together in iron frames, so that they form, as it were, solid blocks; the types or wood-blocks when required to be printed from are placed in the press, and rolled over by a roller smeared with printing-ink—this roller is coated with an elastic substance made of glue and treacle, and resembling India-rubber. It is worked to and fro on the “inking-table” (a smooth iron slab fitted with a receptacle for ink), in order that the ink may be evenly distributed over its surface—a point to which great care and attention, and no little skill, on the part of the workman, is directed. The ink, being rolled over the type, covers and adheres to the surface of the projecting parts. The paper is placed on a frame turning upon a hinge, and is secured in its place by another frame brought down upon it. These frames, with the paper, are now turned down upon the blackened surface of the type, and the whole—paper and type—passed under the printing press, where, by the working of a handle, a piece of iron is caused to descend and press evenly and with great force upon them. On being withdrawn, and the frames opened, the paper is found to have received a perfect impression, in ink, of the type upon which it was impressed. This process, of course, can be repeated to any extent, and as many impressions produced as may be required.

In plate-printing, the plate is first warmed, and all the engraved parts are filled in with ink, the superfluous ink being wiped off, and the surface cleaned bright by using a little whiting (which is rubbed on the hands), leaving only the indented parts full of ink. The paper (in a damp state) is then laid on the plate, with a fold or two of flannel over it, and the whole is carried, by turning the handles of the press, between two rollers, which compress the plate and paper together so forcibly that, when removed, the ink is found to have left the plate and attached itself to the paper, forming an impression.

Printing is now in very many cases done by machinery, worked by steam power, so that a very large number of impressions can be produced in a very short time, as in the case of newspapers, the whole impression of which (amounting to many thousands) is printed in a few hours.

Printing in colors of various tints, so arranged as to form a picture, has lately been much resorted to. The usual method pursued is to print one color, and when that is dry, to print the next, and so on till the picture is complete; but a machine has been invented by which many colors may be printed at one time.

PHOTOGRAPHY.CAMERA FOR STEREOSCOPIC PICTURES.(‡ Lens Arrangement.)FIG.2.(‡ Image Transference.)FIG.3.(‡ Reduced Viewer Image.)FIG.1.The principle of this art depends upon the property which certain chemical preparations (chiefly those of silver) possess of being blackened by exposure to light while in contact with organic matter, and that in so gradual a manner that every degree of shade may be represented. Now, as the various appearances of everything we see depend upon the effects of light and shadow (together with the peculiar color of the objects themselves), it follows that if these lights and shadows can be transcribed, we shall have a representation of the objects, minus their own proper colors—and this is what photography effects. For the purpose of bringing the objects to be taken within a small compass, and for increasing their vividness, an instrument is used called a camera, in which there is an achromatic arrangement of lenses (shown infigs. 2and3), which produces a picture on the paper or glass to be affected by the light, in the same way that a common magnifying glass will, if held at a proper distance from a piece of paper, but much more perfectly (fig. 1). The effect of this camera-picture on the paper or glass when properly prepared and subjected to its influence, is to darken the paper in all those parts which in the camera-picture are the brightest, and to leave unaffected those parts which are the darkest, thus producing what is called a “negative picture,” having the lights represented by shadows and the shadows by lights. This is used to form the true or “positive” picture, which is done by placing the negative on a piece of prepared paper, and exposing it to the light. The negative having been made partly transparent by wax (as will be further explained), and the parts of the picture which are to be dark being left transparent, the light passes through them and blackens those parts of the prepared paper behind, while those which are to be light, being dark in the negative, exclude the light and thus preserve the paper at the back from being darkened; the paper is thus affected in the contrary way to the negative, and is therefore a true picture of the lights and shadows of the object copied. This is the principle of all photographic pictures, but with numberless variations in its practice; it would therefore be impossible here to describe the particulars of each process, beyond the most simple.(‡ Photographic Plate.)FIG.4.Perhaps of all the various arts discovered by man, this is the most beautiful, producing a perfect likeness of any being or object in a few moments, and with a truth not to be equalled by years of study and practice in other ways. One of the earliest discovered and simplest modes of forming a sun picture consists in using the object itself (where this is possible) to form the negative. This can only be done when the object is flat, as a manuscript, a picture, a leaf, or a piece of lace-work; a piece of paper washed over with a solution of common salt, dried, and again washed over with a solution of nitrate of silver, will answer for this purpose; it should be prepared by candle-light, as daylight blackens it, and it should be kept from the light till the moment for use. If this paper, having the object to be copied placed on it and kept flat by a piece of glass pressed firmly on by a contrivance shown infig. 4, be exposed to the sunshine, it will be blackened in all places but those kept from the light by the darker parts of the object, and the lights and shadows will vary accordingly as the various parts of the object itself are more or less transparent. When the effect has been produced to a sufficient degree, the paper should be removed and at once washed in a solution of hyposulphite of soda, which removes all the superfluous silver (which otherwise would be darkened by the light); when removed from the hyposulphite of soda it should be well soaked in clean water. This when finished is a true negative picture of the object, and can be used to produce the positive. The negative should first be made partly transparent by brushing it over with some melted white wax, then placing it between folds of blotting paper and passing a hot iron over it, the blotting paper will absorb all the superfluous wax, and the negative will be fit for use. A piece of paper prepared like the first with salt and nitrate of silver, should be placed against the front of the negative, kept smooth by a piece of glass, and exposed to the sunshine for a quarter of an hour or more, taking care that the back of the negative is exposed to the light and the prepared paper behind; a positive picture will be produced, which is to be at once treated with a solution of hyposulphite of soda and washed with clean water, as was the negative. Any number of positive impressions may thus be produced.The “Calotype” or “Talbotype” process may be performed as follows, recollecting that all these processes must be conducted by candlelight, or in a room having the window covered with yellow silk, or some other substance excluding white light. Select a piece of paper of an even surface and structure, such as Whatman’s paper, brush it over with a solution of nitrate of silver—about sixteen grains to an ounce of water—and let it dry, then fold up the edge of the paper all round and dip the surface to which the solution of nitrate of silver has been applied into a solution of iodide of potassium—an ounce to a pint of water—contained in a shallow vessel, and let it partly dry; float it for a quarter of an hour in a vessel of clean water, moving it gently about so as to remove all soluble matter, and hang it up by a corner to dry, taking care to let nothing touch the surface. When about to be used, this paper must be brushed over (using a soft camel-hair brush) with a mixture, in equal quantities, of a solution of nitrate of silver—fifty grains to an ounce of water—and a saturated solution of gallic acid, forming what is called the “gallo-nitrate” of silver. Leave this solution on the surface for ten minutes, and again immerse the paper in two or three successive portions of pure water, moving it to and fro; this, when nearly dry, is in a fit state to place in the camera, and is an exceedingly sensitive paper, which in a good light will be affected in a few seconds. When the image has been impressed by the camera, the paper should again be brushed over with the gallo-nitrate of silver, and held either near a fire or a plate of hot iron, so as to receive a gentle warmth; the impression will now come out, of a deep rich colour. Dip it into warm water for a few minutes, and put it into the hyposulphite of soda bath—an ounce to a quart of water—from which it is finally removed and placed in a large vessel of pure water for several hours. When dry, it is complete, forming a good negative, which, when waxed, may be used to print positives as before described.The “Collodion” process is conducted as follows. Having selected a plate of glass of the required size and of good quality (patent plate answers well), clean it thoroughly with rottenstone and spirits of wine, and polish it with a clean dry linen cloth; then hold it on the tips of the fingers and thumb in a horizontal position, pour upon it a small quantity of the “iodized collodion,” and so incline it from side to side, that all the surface shall be covered with the collodion, that which is superfluous being returned to the bottle by pouring it from one corner of the glass. In a few minutes the coating of collodion will be dry, and should form a perfectly even surface, without air spots or uneven markings. The iodized collodion is made by dissolving gun-cotton in ether, and adding spirit of wine and iodide of ammonia. The glass plate coated with collodion is now dipped into a solution of nitrate of silver—thirty grains to an ounce of water—and allowed to remain two or three minutes; when all the superfluous fluid has drained off, the plate is ready for use, and is extremely sensitive to light. When the impression has been produced by the camera, a solution of pyro-gallic acid, mixed with a little acetic acid, is poured over the surface, which brings up the image; when this is developed to a proper extent, the surface must be washed with clean water and afterwards with a solution of hyposulphite of soda, which dissolves out all the silver from those parts not darkened by the light in the camera, leaving the glass in those parts quite transparent. A negative is thus obtained fit to print from in the usual way, but glass being more transparent than the waxed paper, it produces a more perfect positive. The surface thus prepared should be coated with a varnish, made by dissolving amber in chloroform, which is done by pouring it on and decanting the superfluous varnish similarly to the mode of coating with collodion; this varnish dries in a few minutes, and preserves the surface from injury. Sometimes these negatives are converted into positives, instead of being used to print from; in these cases the surface is coated with black japan, and the collodion, having a whitish surface, owing to reduced silver, shows up in comparison with the black varnish which is seen through the transparent parts. These positives are extremely sharp and well defined.The “Daguerreotype” process consists in forming the image on the surface of a metallic plate (copper coated with silver), which is first polished to a perfect surface like a looking-glass, then exposed to the vapour of iodine in a properly-constructed box, afterwards to the vapour of chloride of bromine, and again to the vapour of iodine; this produces a thin film of a mixture of bromide and iodide of silver, which covers the surface of the plate, and is very sensitive to light, which reduces the iodide and bromide to the metallic state in a few seconds. The plate is then exposed to the action of the light in the camera, and when sufficiently affected, exposed to the vapour of mercury, the mercury being put into a box, and heated by a spirit lamp; the mercurial vapour adheres to all the parts of the silver reduced by the light, and forms a light-coloured amalgam, corresponding to the lights of the objects represented. The plate is then washed with a solution of hyposulphite of soda, which removes all the bromide and iodide of silver not reduced by the light, and exposes the highly-polished surface of the silver, which forms the shadows of the picture; this is now “fixed” with a very weak solution of chloride of gold and hyposulphite of soda, which is poured over the surface and heated while there by applying the flame of the spirit lamp to the back of the plate for a minute or two; the solution is then poured off, and the picture when washed with water is complete.(‡ Stereoscope.)FIG.5.(‡ Stereoscopic Slide Box.)FIG.6.Many photographic pictures, whether Talbotype or Daguerreotype, are taken double for the “stereoscope” (fig. 5). This is an instrument having two lenses (one for each eye), through which the two views may be seen. The principle is this:—Every object is seen by each eye in a slightly different view; for instance, if you look at the edge of a print—placing the printed part towards your right hand, and bringing the edge in front of the lace between the two eyes—by closing the right eye, the left will see the back of the print only, but by closing the left eye the front of the print may be seen, and the front only. The stereoscope presents both of these views to the eyes at once, as when we look with both eyes, and the objects have therefore the appearance of projecting, as do read objects. To take these views, the slide after one view is taken is moved about four inches on one side, and then the other is taken; the distance moved corresponds to the distance between the eyes, and therefore produces the correct view for each. The box for the stereoscopic slide is shown atfig. 6, in whichAis the first view to be taken, while the other half of the glass is kept dark, atB, andCis the shutter forA.

CAMERA FOR STEREOSCOPIC PICTURES.

(‡ Lens Arrangement.)FIG.2.(‡ Image Transference.)FIG.3.

(‡ Lens Arrangement.)FIG.2.

FIG.2.

(‡ Image Transference.)FIG.3.

FIG.3.

(‡ Reduced Viewer Image.)FIG.1.

FIG.1.

The principle of this art depends upon the property which certain chemical preparations (chiefly those of silver) possess of being blackened by exposure to light while in contact with organic matter, and that in so gradual a manner that every degree of shade may be represented. Now, as the various appearances of everything we see depend upon the effects of light and shadow (together with the peculiar color of the objects themselves), it follows that if these lights and shadows can be transcribed, we shall have a representation of the objects, minus their own proper colors—and this is what photography effects. For the purpose of bringing the objects to be taken within a small compass, and for increasing their vividness, an instrument is used called a camera, in which there is an achromatic arrangement of lenses (shown infigs. 2and3), which produces a picture on the paper or glass to be affected by the light, in the same way that a common magnifying glass will, if held at a proper distance from a piece of paper, but much more perfectly (fig. 1). The effect of this camera-picture on the paper or glass when properly prepared and subjected to its influence, is to darken the paper in all those parts which in the camera-picture are the brightest, and to leave unaffected those parts which are the darkest, thus producing what is called a “negative picture,” having the lights represented by shadows and the shadows by lights. This is used to form the true or “positive” picture, which is done by placing the negative on a piece of prepared paper, and exposing it to the light. The negative having been made partly transparent by wax (as will be further explained), and the parts of the picture which are to be dark being left transparent, the light passes through them and blackens those parts of the prepared paper behind, while those which are to be light, being dark in the negative, exclude the light and thus preserve the paper at the back from being darkened; the paper is thus affected in the contrary way to the negative, and is therefore a true picture of the lights and shadows of the object copied. This is the principle of all photographic pictures, but with numberless variations in its practice; it would therefore be impossible here to describe the particulars of each process, beyond the most simple.

(‡ Photographic Plate.)FIG.4.

FIG.4.

Perhaps of all the various arts discovered by man, this is the most beautiful, producing a perfect likeness of any being or object in a few moments, and with a truth not to be equalled by years of study and practice in other ways. One of the earliest discovered and simplest modes of forming a sun picture consists in using the object itself (where this is possible) to form the negative. This can only be done when the object is flat, as a manuscript, a picture, a leaf, or a piece of lace-work; a piece of paper washed over with a solution of common salt, dried, and again washed over with a solution of nitrate of silver, will answer for this purpose; it should be prepared by candle-light, as daylight blackens it, and it should be kept from the light till the moment for use. If this paper, having the object to be copied placed on it and kept flat by a piece of glass pressed firmly on by a contrivance shown infig. 4, be exposed to the sunshine, it will be blackened in all places but those kept from the light by the darker parts of the object, and the lights and shadows will vary accordingly as the various parts of the object itself are more or less transparent. When the effect has been produced to a sufficient degree, the paper should be removed and at once washed in a solution of hyposulphite of soda, which removes all the superfluous silver (which otherwise would be darkened by the light); when removed from the hyposulphite of soda it should be well soaked in clean water. This when finished is a true negative picture of the object, and can be used to produce the positive. The negative should first be made partly transparent by brushing it over with some melted white wax, then placing it between folds of blotting paper and passing a hot iron over it, the blotting paper will absorb all the superfluous wax, and the negative will be fit for use. A piece of paper prepared like the first with salt and nitrate of silver, should be placed against the front of the negative, kept smooth by a piece of glass, and exposed to the sunshine for a quarter of an hour or more, taking care that the back of the negative is exposed to the light and the prepared paper behind; a positive picture will be produced, which is to be at once treated with a solution of hyposulphite of soda and washed with clean water, as was the negative. Any number of positive impressions may thus be produced.

The “Calotype” or “Talbotype” process may be performed as follows, recollecting that all these processes must be conducted by candlelight, or in a room having the window covered with yellow silk, or some other substance excluding white light. Select a piece of paper of an even surface and structure, such as Whatman’s paper, brush it over with a solution of nitrate of silver—about sixteen grains to an ounce of water—and let it dry, then fold up the edge of the paper all round and dip the surface to which the solution of nitrate of silver has been applied into a solution of iodide of potassium—an ounce to a pint of water—contained in a shallow vessel, and let it partly dry; float it for a quarter of an hour in a vessel of clean water, moving it gently about so as to remove all soluble matter, and hang it up by a corner to dry, taking care to let nothing touch the surface. When about to be used, this paper must be brushed over (using a soft camel-hair brush) with a mixture, in equal quantities, of a solution of nitrate of silver—fifty grains to an ounce of water—and a saturated solution of gallic acid, forming what is called the “gallo-nitrate” of silver. Leave this solution on the surface for ten minutes, and again immerse the paper in two or three successive portions of pure water, moving it to and fro; this, when nearly dry, is in a fit state to place in the camera, and is an exceedingly sensitive paper, which in a good light will be affected in a few seconds. When the image has been impressed by the camera, the paper should again be brushed over with the gallo-nitrate of silver, and held either near a fire or a plate of hot iron, so as to receive a gentle warmth; the impression will now come out, of a deep rich colour. Dip it into warm water for a few minutes, and put it into the hyposulphite of soda bath—an ounce to a quart of water—from which it is finally removed and placed in a large vessel of pure water for several hours. When dry, it is complete, forming a good negative, which, when waxed, may be used to print positives as before described.

The “Collodion” process is conducted as follows. Having selected a plate of glass of the required size and of good quality (patent plate answers well), clean it thoroughly with rottenstone and spirits of wine, and polish it with a clean dry linen cloth; then hold it on the tips of the fingers and thumb in a horizontal position, pour upon it a small quantity of the “iodized collodion,” and so incline it from side to side, that all the surface shall be covered with the collodion, that which is superfluous being returned to the bottle by pouring it from one corner of the glass. In a few minutes the coating of collodion will be dry, and should form a perfectly even surface, without air spots or uneven markings. The iodized collodion is made by dissolving gun-cotton in ether, and adding spirit of wine and iodide of ammonia. The glass plate coated with collodion is now dipped into a solution of nitrate of silver—thirty grains to an ounce of water—and allowed to remain two or three minutes; when all the superfluous fluid has drained off, the plate is ready for use, and is extremely sensitive to light. When the impression has been produced by the camera, a solution of pyro-gallic acid, mixed with a little acetic acid, is poured over the surface, which brings up the image; when this is developed to a proper extent, the surface must be washed with clean water and afterwards with a solution of hyposulphite of soda, which dissolves out all the silver from those parts not darkened by the light in the camera, leaving the glass in those parts quite transparent. A negative is thus obtained fit to print from in the usual way, but glass being more transparent than the waxed paper, it produces a more perfect positive. The surface thus prepared should be coated with a varnish, made by dissolving amber in chloroform, which is done by pouring it on and decanting the superfluous varnish similarly to the mode of coating with collodion; this varnish dries in a few minutes, and preserves the surface from injury. Sometimes these negatives are converted into positives, instead of being used to print from; in these cases the surface is coated with black japan, and the collodion, having a whitish surface, owing to reduced silver, shows up in comparison with the black varnish which is seen through the transparent parts. These positives are extremely sharp and well defined.

The “Daguerreotype” process consists in forming the image on the surface of a metallic plate (copper coated with silver), which is first polished to a perfect surface like a looking-glass, then exposed to the vapour of iodine in a properly-constructed box, afterwards to the vapour of chloride of bromine, and again to the vapour of iodine; this produces a thin film of a mixture of bromide and iodide of silver, which covers the surface of the plate, and is very sensitive to light, which reduces the iodide and bromide to the metallic state in a few seconds. The plate is then exposed to the action of the light in the camera, and when sufficiently affected, exposed to the vapour of mercury, the mercury being put into a box, and heated by a spirit lamp; the mercurial vapour adheres to all the parts of the silver reduced by the light, and forms a light-coloured amalgam, corresponding to the lights of the objects represented. The plate is then washed with a solution of hyposulphite of soda, which removes all the bromide and iodide of silver not reduced by the light, and exposes the highly-polished surface of the silver, which forms the shadows of the picture; this is now “fixed” with a very weak solution of chloride of gold and hyposulphite of soda, which is poured over the surface and heated while there by applying the flame of the spirit lamp to the back of the plate for a minute or two; the solution is then poured off, and the picture when washed with water is complete.

(‡ Stereoscope.)FIG.5.

FIG.5.

(‡ Stereoscopic Slide Box.)FIG.6.

FIG.6.

Many photographic pictures, whether Talbotype or Daguerreotype, are taken double for the “stereoscope” (fig. 5). This is an instrument having two lenses (one for each eye), through which the two views may be seen. The principle is this:—Every object is seen by each eye in a slightly different view; for instance, if you look at the edge of a print—placing the printed part towards your right hand, and bringing the edge in front of the lace between the two eyes—by closing the right eye, the left will see the back of the print only, but by closing the left eye the front of the print may be seen, and the front only. The stereoscope presents both of these views to the eyes at once, as when we look with both eyes, and the objects have therefore the appearance of projecting, as do read objects. To take these views, the slide after one view is taken is moved about four inches on one side, and then the other is taken; the distance moved corresponds to the distance between the eyes, and therefore produces the correct view for each. The box for the stereoscopic slide is shown atfig. 6, in whichAis the first view to be taken, while the other half of the glass is kept dark, atB, andCis the shutter forA.

BOOK-BINDING.(‡ Sewing-Press.)FIG.1.The sheets of which a book is to be made, when properly folded (into half for folio, quarter for quarto, &c.) are pressed flat in a press and then placed, one or more at a time, on a board behind a frame called a “sewing-press” (fig. 1), which has pieces of string or cord (called bands) tied in an upright position, and against these the folded edge of the sheet is brought in such a manner that the bands may be sewn on to the back of the sheet by a thread being passed from the inner part of the folded sheet to one side of the string, then in again on the other, and so on for each cord till they are fastened on to the first sheet, when another is placed on the top of the first and sewed in the same way.(‡ Plough.)FIG.2.When all are sewn, the back is glued thickly over, and the book is fixed between two boards in a press and the back beaten till it is curved; the sides and front are then cut smooth with an instrument called a plough (fig. 2), which works in the grooves of a press where the book is fixed, and a knife (which forms part of the plough) being passed backwards and forwards, cuts through the edges of the book and makes them smooth.(‡ Cutting With Shears.)FIG.3.(‡ Engraved Tools.)FIG.4.The covers—made of a thick pasteboard called “millboard,” and cut to the right size by shears (fig. 3)—are fitted to the sides of the book, the ends of the string-bands are then passed through holes in the sides of the boards, and are beaten flat and glued down. The book is then covered with cloth, vellum, paper, or leather, as desired, and finally pressed in a powerful press to make the leaves smooth. Ornaments, such as gilt bands or corner decorations, are produced by gold-leaf put on and stamped by means of tools engraved at their ends, or, where the margin is to have a pattern or line on it, by means of wheels with engraved edges (fig. 4). Leather-backed books are glazed on the outside with white of eggs, which forms a kind of varnish when dry.(‡ Glued Backing.)FIG.6.(‡ Sewn Backing.)FIG.7.(‡ Book Mould.)FIG.5.Books have lately been bound without any sewing, by “Hancock’s Patent” process. This consists in having all the sheets folded into double leaves, and the folded parts all brought evenly to a curved form for the back of the book by means of a mould or hollow cut in the edges of two upright boards (fig. 5); they are then removed to a press which holds the book tightly together, leaving this curved back just projecting in front of the press-boards. The back is smeared with India-rubber dissolved in naptha, which when dry is several times repeated, till a coating of sufficient thickness is produced, when it is covered with cloth or linen and the book is ready to be finished in the usual way; thus the sewing is quite dispensed with, for the folded edge of each sheet is held to the next one by a thin coating of India-rubber. This plan allows great freedom in opening, and for thick books produces a level surface much superior to those bound in the old way (figs. 6and7).

(‡ Sewing-Press.)FIG.1.

FIG.1.

The sheets of which a book is to be made, when properly folded (into half for folio, quarter for quarto, &c.) are pressed flat in a press and then placed, one or more at a time, on a board behind a frame called a “sewing-press” (fig. 1), which has pieces of string or cord (called bands) tied in an upright position, and against these the folded edge of the sheet is brought in such a manner that the bands may be sewn on to the back of the sheet by a thread being passed from the inner part of the folded sheet to one side of the string, then in again on the other, and so on for each cord till they are fastened on to the first sheet, when another is placed on the top of the first and sewed in the same way.

(‡ Plough.)FIG.2.

FIG.2.

When all are sewn, the back is glued thickly over, and the book is fixed between two boards in a press and the back beaten till it is curved; the sides and front are then cut smooth with an instrument called a plough (fig. 2), which works in the grooves of a press where the book is fixed, and a knife (which forms part of the plough) being passed backwards and forwards, cuts through the edges of the book and makes them smooth.

(‡ Cutting With Shears.)FIG.3.

FIG.3.

(‡ Engraved Tools.)FIG.4.

FIG.4.

The covers—made of a thick pasteboard called “millboard,” and cut to the right size by shears (fig. 3)—are fitted to the sides of the book, the ends of the string-bands are then passed through holes in the sides of the boards, and are beaten flat and glued down. The book is then covered with cloth, vellum, paper, or leather, as desired, and finally pressed in a powerful press to make the leaves smooth. Ornaments, such as gilt bands or corner decorations, are produced by gold-leaf put on and stamped by means of tools engraved at their ends, or, where the margin is to have a pattern or line on it, by means of wheels with engraved edges (fig. 4). Leather-backed books are glazed on the outside with white of eggs, which forms a kind of varnish when dry.

(‡ Glued Backing.)FIG.6.(‡ Sewn Backing.)FIG.7.

(‡ Glued Backing.)FIG.6.

FIG.6.

(‡ Sewn Backing.)FIG.7.

FIG.7.

(‡ Book Mould.)FIG.5.

FIG.5.

Books have lately been bound without any sewing, by “Hancock’s Patent” process. This consists in having all the sheets folded into double leaves, and the folded parts all brought evenly to a curved form for the back of the book by means of a mould or hollow cut in the edges of two upright boards (fig. 5); they are then removed to a press which holds the book tightly together, leaving this curved back just projecting in front of the press-boards. The back is smeared with India-rubber dissolved in naptha, which when dry is several times repeated, till a coating of sufficient thickness is produced, when it is covered with cloth or linen and the book is ready to be finished in the usual way; thus the sewing is quite dispensed with, for the folded edge of each sheet is held to the next one by a thin coating of India-rubber. This plan allows great freedom in opening, and for thick books produces a level surface much superior to those bound in the old way (figs. 6and7).

PAPER-STAINING.“GROUNDING” THE PAPER.This name is given to the process for making paper-hangings for the decoration of the walls of apartments. The colors used in this process are all what are called body-colors, or those which are not transparent, but mixed with whiting or prepared chalk and a small quantity of size to the required tint. The colors are applied by means of wooden blocks having their surfaces so engraved that the pattern shall project; all the pattern is not engraved on one block, but only that part of it which is to be of one color, and the number of blocks required depends upon the number of colors in the pattern—usually three or four. The paper is printed in pieces of about twelve yards in length; these are first “grounded,” that is, colored all over with the color intended to form the ground of the pattern, and hung on poles to dry. The blocks are applied to a sort of sieve, with a leather bottom, on which some color is spread with a brush, and when the block is taken up sufficient of the color adheres to give a good impression on the paper. Each block has a register, which produces a little mark at the edge of the paper, and serves as a guide in applying the succeeding blocks, so that when printed they fit into and correspond with each other.PRINTING THE PATTERN.“Flock” paper is produced by printing part of the pattern in a varnish of boiled oil and whiting, and laying the paper so printed in a trough or tray over which the flock is sprinkled. The flock is made by grinding shreds of cloth of the required color in a mill. This rough surface gives a very rich and velvety appearance to the paper.

“GROUNDING” THE PAPER.

This name is given to the process for making paper-hangings for the decoration of the walls of apartments. The colors used in this process are all what are called body-colors, or those which are not transparent, but mixed with whiting or prepared chalk and a small quantity of size to the required tint. The colors are applied by means of wooden blocks having their surfaces so engraved that the pattern shall project; all the pattern is not engraved on one block, but only that part of it which is to be of one color, and the number of blocks required depends upon the number of colors in the pattern—usually three or four. The paper is printed in pieces of about twelve yards in length; these are first “grounded,” that is, colored all over with the color intended to form the ground of the pattern, and hung on poles to dry. The blocks are applied to a sort of sieve, with a leather bottom, on which some color is spread with a brush, and when the block is taken up sufficient of the color adheres to give a good impression on the paper. Each block has a register, which produces a little mark at the edge of the paper, and serves as a guide in applying the succeeding blocks, so that when printed they fit into and correspond with each other.

PRINTING THE PATTERN.

“Flock” paper is produced by printing part of the pattern in a varnish of boiled oil and whiting, and laying the paper so printed in a trough or tray over which the flock is sprinkled. The flock is made by grinding shreds of cloth of the required color in a mill. This rough surface gives a very rich and velvety appearance to the paper.

FLAX MANUFACTURE.Flax, before being spun into “yarn” for weaving linens, undergoes several processes, to separate its fibres sufficiently, and to rid them of all short and uneven portions. The first operation consists in a kind of fermentation called “retting,” the stalks of the flax being packed up in bundles and steeped in water, or exposed to damp air, spread out, till they soften and become fit for the next process, called “breaking.” This is done by contrivances which beat and bruise or give it several sharp bends, the object being to break off the outer part, called the “boon,” and leave the inner fibres or “harl” free; this, which is the part to be used, is thus in a great measure freed from the outer part, but to do so completely it is scraped with a blunt kind of knife till all the “boon” is gone. The next process is called “heckling,” a sort of combing, in which the flax is dragged through brushes of fine iron spikes, used closer and closer till the flax is combed out quite fine and perfectly free from knots or uneven pieces, being beaten from time to time to break or separate the fibres. During this process much of the short and uneven fibres collect in the “heckle,” and is called “tow,” which has to be separated and the fibres arranged similarly to “carding” cotton (see “Cotton Manufacture”). The flax has now to be drawn out, doubled, and drawn out again into “slivers,” also in the same way that is described for drawing out cotton, and these slivers are finally twisted into yarn, being previously wetted to take off their stillness. The yarn is then wound upon bobbins, forming the material from which linens, muslins, and other goods are woven.

Flax, before being spun into “yarn” for weaving linens, undergoes several processes, to separate its fibres sufficiently, and to rid them of all short and uneven portions. The first operation consists in a kind of fermentation called “retting,” the stalks of the flax being packed up in bundles and steeped in water, or exposed to damp air, spread out, till they soften and become fit for the next process, called “breaking.” This is done by contrivances which beat and bruise or give it several sharp bends, the object being to break off the outer part, called the “boon,” and leave the inner fibres or “harl” free; this, which is the part to be used, is thus in a great measure freed from the outer part, but to do so completely it is scraped with a blunt kind of knife till all the “boon” is gone. The next process is called “heckling,” a sort of combing, in which the flax is dragged through brushes of fine iron spikes, used closer and closer till the flax is combed out quite fine and perfectly free from knots or uneven pieces, being beaten from time to time to break or separate the fibres. During this process much of the short and uneven fibres collect in the “heckle,” and is called “tow,” which has to be separated and the fibres arranged similarly to “carding” cotton (see “Cotton Manufacture”). The flax has now to be drawn out, doubled, and drawn out again into “slivers,” also in the same way that is described for drawing out cotton, and these slivers are finally twisted into yarn, being previously wetted to take off their stillness. The yarn is then wound upon bobbins, forming the material from which linens, muslins, and other goods are woven.

GLASS-PAINTING.CARTOON, OR DESIGNING ROOM.PAINTING.Of glass-painting there are two kinds, the one being known as “painted,” and the other as “stained glass.” In the former the design and coloring are produced by the application, to the surface of colorless glass, of transparent pigments of various colors, which, under the action of the furnace, become vitrified and incorporated with the body of the glass. In this manner of glass-painting—which is capable of none of the powerful and rich effects of color peculiar to stained glass—it will be understood that the process much resembles the practice of the picture painter. In the one case canvasses are used, and in the other sheets of colorless glass; the picture-painter using colors mixed with oils and varnishes, the glass-painter colors made of earths and metals, and mixed with a flux, which, under the action of fire, vitrifies his work. It is quite possible to produce a large composition, containing many figures and a great variety of colors, on but few pieces of glass. Indeed, one of the necessities of making a window of “painted glass” in several pieces, is simply to avoid the danger of breakage, in using sheets of too large a size. The various pieces are joined together with lead work of precisely similar nature to that which is used in the diamond “quarry-glass” seen in the windows of country cottages.CUTTING ROOM.GLAZING THE WORK UP.FURNACE.“Stained glass” differs from glass-painting in very many particulars. In this case the colors, instead of being laid on with a brush as in painted glass, are formed in the substance of the glass itself. This necessitates the use of separate pieces of glass for every color or tint required, and thus the process in some degree resembles that of mosaic work, a term, indeed, which is often applied to this kind of glass-painting. The first process in producing a stained glass window is the making of the design, colored or otherwise. This office is, of course, that of the artist, who is at the head of his establishment. From his design, which is always made to a small scale, the full-sized drawings or cartoons are made, by the artist and his assistants. When finished, with all details and colors determined, they are placed in the hands of the glazier, who cuts with his diamond the glass of the required shapes and colors, respectively, so that when his task is complete, the window, as laid out on the “cutting-board,” much resembles a child’s puzzle—each piece of glass, although often of the most complicated form and minute size, fitting with accuracy to the other pieces by which it is surrounded. This process completed, the next course is for the painter to produce on the blank piece of colored glass prepared for him by the glazier the various outlines and shadings, as represented in the cartoon, it being his business to take such means as will ensure the production of a faithful copy. This outlining and shading is produced by the use of a brownish or warm grey tint, which is generally used a little over all the colors represented in the work. There are some slight gradations of these brown tints used occasionally, principally when it is desired to paint the flesh shadows with some separate tint, but generally it may be understood that the office of the painter in stained glass is not to produce the colors, but by his brown shadowing to bring out the design and forms of the composition. When the glass, thus shaded and outlined, has passed through the furnace—where the shadows are vitrified—and been allowed gradually to cool, the glazier fits it together with lead-work, soldering in all the pieces, then the whole is made weather-tight, and the stained glass window is complete.

CARTOON, OR DESIGNING ROOM.

PAINTING.

Of glass-painting there are two kinds, the one being known as “painted,” and the other as “stained glass.” In the former the design and coloring are produced by the application, to the surface of colorless glass, of transparent pigments of various colors, which, under the action of the furnace, become vitrified and incorporated with the body of the glass. In this manner of glass-painting—which is capable of none of the powerful and rich effects of color peculiar to stained glass—it will be understood that the process much resembles the practice of the picture painter. In the one case canvasses are used, and in the other sheets of colorless glass; the picture-painter using colors mixed with oils and varnishes, the glass-painter colors made of earths and metals, and mixed with a flux, which, under the action of fire, vitrifies his work. It is quite possible to produce a large composition, containing many figures and a great variety of colors, on but few pieces of glass. Indeed, one of the necessities of making a window of “painted glass” in several pieces, is simply to avoid the danger of breakage, in using sheets of too large a size. The various pieces are joined together with lead work of precisely similar nature to that which is used in the diamond “quarry-glass” seen in the windows of country cottages.

CUTTING ROOM.

GLAZING THE WORK UP.

FURNACE.

“Stained glass” differs from glass-painting in very many particulars. In this case the colors, instead of being laid on with a brush as in painted glass, are formed in the substance of the glass itself. This necessitates the use of separate pieces of glass for every color or tint required, and thus the process in some degree resembles that of mosaic work, a term, indeed, which is often applied to this kind of glass-painting. The first process in producing a stained glass window is the making of the design, colored or otherwise. This office is, of course, that of the artist, who is at the head of his establishment. From his design, which is always made to a small scale, the full-sized drawings or cartoons are made, by the artist and his assistants. When finished, with all details and colors determined, they are placed in the hands of the glazier, who cuts with his diamond the glass of the required shapes and colors, respectively, so that when his task is complete, the window, as laid out on the “cutting-board,” much resembles a child’s puzzle—each piece of glass, although often of the most complicated form and minute size, fitting with accuracy to the other pieces by which it is surrounded. This process completed, the next course is for the painter to produce on the blank piece of colored glass prepared for him by the glazier the various outlines and shadings, as represented in the cartoon, it being his business to take such means as will ensure the production of a faithful copy. This outlining and shading is produced by the use of a brownish or warm grey tint, which is generally used a little over all the colors represented in the work. There are some slight gradations of these brown tints used occasionally, principally when it is desired to paint the flesh shadows with some separate tint, but generally it may be understood that the office of the painter in stained glass is not to produce the colors, but by his brown shadowing to bring out the design and forms of the composition. When the glass, thus shaded and outlined, has passed through the furnace—where the shadows are vitrified—and been allowed gradually to cool, the glazier fits it together with lead-work, soldering in all the pieces, then the whole is made weather-tight, and the stained glass window is complete.

COTTON MANUFACTURE.MULE FRAMES.FRENCH COMBING-MACHINE.“SCOTCHING” OR BLOWING MACHINE.CARDING MACHINE.DRAWING MACHINE.LAP FRAME.After the cotton is sorted, and the grosser impurities picked from it by hand, it is dressed by the “combing machine,” or subjected to a machine (called a “willow,” as it was originally a sort of basket) contrived to open out and mix the cotton well together, at the same time blowing off all dust and allowing the heavier impurities to fall through a grating. The next process is called “scotching,” and the machine is sometimes called a “blowing machine.” From this the cotton is passed in a “lap” or thin layer, which is beaten as it passes, to get rid of dust, and a draught of air produced by a blowing apparatus assists in the same object; it is thus entirely freed from all impurities. The cotton is then carried to the “carding machine,” for the purpose of having its fibres all laid parallel with each other; this machine is, in fact, a sort of comb, and consists of cylinders having fine wires projecting from their surfaces acting in different directions, so as to draw out the fibres till they all lie in one direction, forming a kind of “fillet,” called a “card,” which is carried by rollers into a tin can and then subjected to a process called “drawing and doubling.” As the “card ends” are not yet sufficiently parallel in their fibres, they have to be passed between three sets of rollers, the undermost of which are fluted on their surfaces, the upper ones being covered with flannel. These rollers act in a peculiar manner; the first pair pass the cotton at a certain rate on to the second pair, which would pass it on to the third unchanged if they revolved at the same rate as the first pair, but they are turned a little faster, and therefore stretch the fillet of cotton at an even and regular rate, and in such a manner that it is not broken; the third pair, going faster than the second, again stretch the fillet. After the fillet has passed through it is doubled, passed through again and again, till it is quite uniform in its structure, and drawn out by these stretchings very fine, it is then called a “sliver.” When it is drawn as fine as the kind of cotton admits, the first twist is given to it by the “roving” machine, which twists it into a soft card, delivers it wound on “bobbins,” and it is finally twisted into yarn by the “winding machine.”BOBBIN FRAME.WINDING MACHINE.These processes are carried on with great precision and rapidity, and, by the aid of these machines, one man is able in a day to produce as much yarn as the most expert spinner by hand could furnish in a year! Cotton, until about 1760, was all spun by hand. A little later, James Hargreaves invented the “spinning-jenny,” and Arkwright afterwards improved the “carding machine;” the “mule-jenny” (seeHeading), invented by Crompton, was a still further improvement.The cotton, when spun, is called yarn, which is used for weaving into calicoes and other cotton goods. Cotton thread is made by twisting (by machinery) two or more yarns into one, which are afterwards dressed with starch, and wound on reels or into balls.

MULE FRAMES.

FRENCH COMBING-MACHINE.

“SCOTCHING” OR BLOWING MACHINE.CARDING MACHINE.DRAWING MACHINE.

“SCOTCHING” OR BLOWING MACHINE.

CARDING MACHINE.

DRAWING MACHINE.

LAP FRAME.

After the cotton is sorted, and the grosser impurities picked from it by hand, it is dressed by the “combing machine,” or subjected to a machine (called a “willow,” as it was originally a sort of basket) contrived to open out and mix the cotton well together, at the same time blowing off all dust and allowing the heavier impurities to fall through a grating. The next process is called “scotching,” and the machine is sometimes called a “blowing machine.” From this the cotton is passed in a “lap” or thin layer, which is beaten as it passes, to get rid of dust, and a draught of air produced by a blowing apparatus assists in the same object; it is thus entirely freed from all impurities. The cotton is then carried to the “carding machine,” for the purpose of having its fibres all laid parallel with each other; this machine is, in fact, a sort of comb, and consists of cylinders having fine wires projecting from their surfaces acting in different directions, so as to draw out the fibres till they all lie in one direction, forming a kind of “fillet,” called a “card,” which is carried by rollers into a tin can and then subjected to a process called “drawing and doubling.” As the “card ends” are not yet sufficiently parallel in their fibres, they have to be passed between three sets of rollers, the undermost of which are fluted on their surfaces, the upper ones being covered with flannel. These rollers act in a peculiar manner; the first pair pass the cotton at a certain rate on to the second pair, which would pass it on to the third unchanged if they revolved at the same rate as the first pair, but they are turned a little faster, and therefore stretch the fillet of cotton at an even and regular rate, and in such a manner that it is not broken; the third pair, going faster than the second, again stretch the fillet. After the fillet has passed through it is doubled, passed through again and again, till it is quite uniform in its structure, and drawn out by these stretchings very fine, it is then called a “sliver.” When it is drawn as fine as the kind of cotton admits, the first twist is given to it by the “roving” machine, which twists it into a soft card, delivers it wound on “bobbins,” and it is finally twisted into yarn by the “winding machine.”

BOBBIN FRAME.

WINDING MACHINE.

These processes are carried on with great precision and rapidity, and, by the aid of these machines, one man is able in a day to produce as much yarn as the most expert spinner by hand could furnish in a year! Cotton, until about 1760, was all spun by hand. A little later, James Hargreaves invented the “spinning-jenny,” and Arkwright afterwards improved the “carding machine;” the “mule-jenny” (seeHeading), invented by Crompton, was a still further improvement.

The cotton, when spun, is called yarn, which is used for weaving into calicoes and other cotton goods. Cotton thread is made by twisting (by machinery) two or more yarns into one, which are afterwards dressed with starch, and wound on reels or into balls.

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.Wool is almost exclusively derived from the fleece of the sheep, goats’ wool being only occasionally used. Wool differs from hair in possessing a notched surface, giving it the very useful quality of “felting,” and enabling the fibres to adhere into a mass when pressed and beaten together, the notches catching into each other. Woollen articles are chiefly of two kinds, “woollens,” or those partly felted and made from “short” or “clothing” wools, called “cloths,” and those made without felting from “combing” or “long” wools, as “merinos,” “stuffs,” &c. Wool undergoes a numerous succession of processes before it is complete in its manufacture. It is first sorted according to the quality required, next scoured and washed in a warm solution of soap, and then rinsed in cold water, to get rid of the “yelk” or grease with which the wool is naturally coated. It is then passed between rollers to dry it, next dyed, and then “willowed” (this last process is to disentangle the fibres and at the same time get rid of any dust which may have been mixed with it); afterwards it is spread out and sprinkled with a small quantity of olive oil being thoroughly beaten with rods, to spread the oil over the surface of every fibre. It next undergoes a process called “scribbling,” which is effected by a machine which combs out the fibres and lays them in layers, in a parallel direction; the wheels which effect this are armed on their surfaces with wires and the wool passes from one set to another, finer and finer, till at last it passes out in threads or “cards” and these are spun by the “slubbing machine” into “yarns” for weaving. After being woven, the oil is again washed out with warm soap and water, and the fabric is then stretched by means of “tenter-hooks” stuck in a margin or “list” of coarser worsted, left on each side of the cloth for that purpose, and it is allowed to dry in this position.The material is now fit for “felting,” or “fulling,” as it is called, which is done in the “fulling mill.” The process consists in thoroughly beating the cloth with heavy wooden mallets or “stocks” for ten or twelve hours, it being at the same time wetted with soap and water, and folded into a mass of many layers. This beating causes the fibres to interlace and adhere together till the cross-bar pattern made by the warp and weft in weaving is obliterated, and the cloth has the appearance of a felted surface, which, however, is rugged and uneven. It is next “teazled,” a process formerly performed by means of a bundle of thistle-heads—called “teazles”—which were dragged over the cloth, so as to raise the ends of the woollen fibres perpendicular to the surface; but this is now performed by machinery, the teazles being fixed round a roller turning one way, while the cloth is moved in an opposite direction. In some machines wire brushes are used instead of teazles. The cloth is next “milled,” or “sheared,” which is done by stretching it out on a perfectly level surface, where a pair of circular knives fixed to a wheel work over it and “shear” off the fibres, leaving the surface perfectly even. It is now wetted, brushed, and finally dried and packed in a finished state.

Wool is almost exclusively derived from the fleece of the sheep, goats’ wool being only occasionally used. Wool differs from hair in possessing a notched surface, giving it the very useful quality of “felting,” and enabling the fibres to adhere into a mass when pressed and beaten together, the notches catching into each other. Woollen articles are chiefly of two kinds, “woollens,” or those partly felted and made from “short” or “clothing” wools, called “cloths,” and those made without felting from “combing” or “long” wools, as “merinos,” “stuffs,” &c. Wool undergoes a numerous succession of processes before it is complete in its manufacture. It is first sorted according to the quality required, next scoured and washed in a warm solution of soap, and then rinsed in cold water, to get rid of the “yelk” or grease with which the wool is naturally coated. It is then passed between rollers to dry it, next dyed, and then “willowed” (this last process is to disentangle the fibres and at the same time get rid of any dust which may have been mixed with it); afterwards it is spread out and sprinkled with a small quantity of olive oil being thoroughly beaten with rods, to spread the oil over the surface of every fibre. It next undergoes a process called “scribbling,” which is effected by a machine which combs out the fibres and lays them in layers, in a parallel direction; the wheels which effect this are armed on their surfaces with wires and the wool passes from one set to another, finer and finer, till at last it passes out in threads or “cards” and these are spun by the “slubbing machine” into “yarns” for weaving. After being woven, the oil is again washed out with warm soap and water, and the fabric is then stretched by means of “tenter-hooks” stuck in a margin or “list” of coarser worsted, left on each side of the cloth for that purpose, and it is allowed to dry in this position.

The material is now fit for “felting,” or “fulling,” as it is called, which is done in the “fulling mill.” The process consists in thoroughly beating the cloth with heavy wooden mallets or “stocks” for ten or twelve hours, it being at the same time wetted with soap and water, and folded into a mass of many layers. This beating causes the fibres to interlace and adhere together till the cross-bar pattern made by the warp and weft in weaving is obliterated, and the cloth has the appearance of a felted surface, which, however, is rugged and uneven. It is next “teazled,” a process formerly performed by means of a bundle of thistle-heads—called “teazles”—which were dragged over the cloth, so as to raise the ends of the woollen fibres perpendicular to the surface; but this is now performed by machinery, the teazles being fixed round a roller turning one way, while the cloth is moved in an opposite direction. In some machines wire brushes are used instead of teazles. The cloth is next “milled,” or “sheared,” which is done by stretching it out on a perfectly level surface, where a pair of circular knives fixed to a wheel work over it and “shear” off the fibres, leaving the surface perfectly even. It is now wetted, brushed, and finally dried and packed in a finished state.

WEAVING.The art of weaving threads of various descriptions is one of the oldest, and is frequently mentioned in the Scriptures and other ancient records. It consists in so crossing or interlacing the fibres that they shall form fabrics fitted for the various requirements to which they are applied.Weaving, as now performed by machinery, for the production of what are called “textile fabrics,” is far too complicated to be here described in detail, the machines which are used being amongst the most complicated contrivances of men’s hands. Dr. Ure says of the weaving of “bobbin-net,”—“It may be said to surpass every other branch of human industry in the complex ingenuity of its machinery; one of ‘Fisher’s spotting-frames’ being as much beyond the most curious chronometer as that is beyond a common roasting-jack.” The principle is, however, nearly the same, whether performed by hand or by machinery, but some of the more complex fabrics could only be produced by hand, and by those few who may have devoted great talents and years of application to the acquirement of the requisite skill, whereas a machine once made can be imitated by ordinary workmen, and itself worked by unskilled mechanics.(‡ Linen Weave.)FIG.1.(‡ Heddle Raised.)FIG.2.THE JACQUARD LOOM.(‡ Shuttle.)FIG.3.(‡ Twilled Fabric.)FIG.4.In plain weaving, as infig. 1, of which linen or calico may be the examples, the yarn or threads simply cross each other, going alternately above and below. The thread which runs from end to end of the cloth is called the “warp,” and that from side to side the “weft” or “woof.” In nearly all wearing the weft is the same, but in “figured” or “twilled” fabrics the warp is so arranged that a pattern shall be formed, as is seen on towels, table-cloths, &c. In plain weaving, the threads are first wound off, of the required quantity and length, on a frame called a “warping frame;” they are then wound on a roller, side by side, and attached to the “loom,” or machine for weaving, through which they run, also side by side. Near the end they are attached to what are called heddles, which consist of threads stretched in an upright frame, having loops near their centres; a pair of these is used in plain weaving, one half of the warp threads being attached to the loops of one, and the rest to those of the other heddle, alternately, thus—first a thread through a loop of one heddle, then another through a loop of the other heddle, and so on. These heddles can be raised alternately by a pulley attached to treadles worked by the weaver’s feet, and it follows, that when one of the heddles is raised, every alternate thread of the warp is raised also, a space of a triangular form being left (fig. 2). Through this space the weaver throws the “shuttle” (fig. 3), which is a piece of wood pointed at each end, bearing a reel of “weft” in its centre, which weft-thread unwinds as it is thrown through. The other heddle is then raised, and the shuttle thrown back again, each time leaving a line of weft behind it. In this way the crossings of all plain fabrics are produced, a contrivance being used between each throw to press the weft close to the former one. If instead of one half of the warp-threads being up and the other half down at the time the shuttle is thrown, one only is raised at every fifth thread, the intervening four being down, and the one that is raised differing at each throw of the shuttle, a kind of structure is produced called “tweeled” or “twilled,” such as satin, bombazine, &c.;fig. 4shows the appearance of the edge of such a structure. If the warp consists of alternate threads of different colors, white and blue for example, it is clear that either color will predominate where the warp thread of that particular color is most seen. Infig. 5,a a a arepresent white, andb b b bblue threads, and this will show how the pattern on any structure, although the same on both sides, is blue on the one side where it is white on the other, as in damasks, or raised on one side where it is sunk on the other, as in dimity, or diaper.(‡ Dual Color Weave.)FIG.5.

The art of weaving threads of various descriptions is one of the oldest, and is frequently mentioned in the Scriptures and other ancient records. It consists in so crossing or interlacing the fibres that they shall form fabrics fitted for the various requirements to which they are applied.

Weaving, as now performed by machinery, for the production of what are called “textile fabrics,” is far too complicated to be here described in detail, the machines which are used being amongst the most complicated contrivances of men’s hands. Dr. Ure says of the weaving of “bobbin-net,”—“It may be said to surpass every other branch of human industry in the complex ingenuity of its machinery; one of ‘Fisher’s spotting-frames’ being as much beyond the most curious chronometer as that is beyond a common roasting-jack.” The principle is, however, nearly the same, whether performed by hand or by machinery, but some of the more complex fabrics could only be produced by hand, and by those few who may have devoted great talents and years of application to the acquirement of the requisite skill, whereas a machine once made can be imitated by ordinary workmen, and itself worked by unskilled mechanics.

(‡ Linen Weave.)FIG.1.(‡ Heddle Raised.)FIG.2.

(‡ Linen Weave.)FIG.1.

FIG.1.

(‡ Heddle Raised.)FIG.2.

FIG.2.

THE JACQUARD LOOM.(‡ Shuttle.)FIG.3.(‡ Twilled Fabric.)FIG.4.

THE JACQUARD LOOM.

(‡ Shuttle.)FIG.3.

FIG.3.

(‡ Twilled Fabric.)FIG.4.

FIG.4.

In plain weaving, as infig. 1, of which linen or calico may be the examples, the yarn or threads simply cross each other, going alternately above and below. The thread which runs from end to end of the cloth is called the “warp,” and that from side to side the “weft” or “woof.” In nearly all wearing the weft is the same, but in “figured” or “twilled” fabrics the warp is so arranged that a pattern shall be formed, as is seen on towels, table-cloths, &c. In plain weaving, the threads are first wound off, of the required quantity and length, on a frame called a “warping frame;” they are then wound on a roller, side by side, and attached to the “loom,” or machine for weaving, through which they run, also side by side. Near the end they are attached to what are called heddles, which consist of threads stretched in an upright frame, having loops near their centres; a pair of these is used in plain weaving, one half of the warp threads being attached to the loops of one, and the rest to those of the other heddle, alternately, thus—first a thread through a loop of one heddle, then another through a loop of the other heddle, and so on. These heddles can be raised alternately by a pulley attached to treadles worked by the weaver’s feet, and it follows, that when one of the heddles is raised, every alternate thread of the warp is raised also, a space of a triangular form being left (fig. 2). Through this space the weaver throws the “shuttle” (fig. 3), which is a piece of wood pointed at each end, bearing a reel of “weft” in its centre, which weft-thread unwinds as it is thrown through. The other heddle is then raised, and the shuttle thrown back again, each time leaving a line of weft behind it. In this way the crossings of all plain fabrics are produced, a contrivance being used between each throw to press the weft close to the former one. If instead of one half of the warp-threads being up and the other half down at the time the shuttle is thrown, one only is raised at every fifth thread, the intervening four being down, and the one that is raised differing at each throw of the shuttle, a kind of structure is produced called “tweeled” or “twilled,” such as satin, bombazine, &c.;fig. 4shows the appearance of the edge of such a structure. If the warp consists of alternate threads of different colors, white and blue for example, it is clear that either color will predominate where the warp thread of that particular color is most seen. Infig. 5,a a a arepresent white, andb b b bblue threads, and this will show how the pattern on any structure, although the same on both sides, is blue on the one side where it is white on the other, as in damasks, or raised on one side where it is sunk on the other, as in dimity, or diaper.

(‡ Dual Color Weave.)FIG.5.

FIG.5.

Back to Index Next