PLATINUM.Platinum is a metal of a white color, and is the heaviest substance known, being more than twenty-one times heavier than water. It is capable of being welded and wrought out by the hammer like iron; it is not acted on by any of the acids, but, like Gold, is dissolved by chlorine or a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acid; it does not tarnish by exposure to air, and is extremely difficult to melt, requiring the very highest heat that can be produced; these qualities render it one of the most useful of the metals to the chemist, furnishing him with retorts, crucibles, and evaporating dishes suitable for many purposes; its high price, however, renders it not so generally used as it would otherwise be.
Platinum is a metal of a white color, and is the heaviest substance known, being more than twenty-one times heavier than water. It is capable of being welded and wrought out by the hammer like iron; it is not acted on by any of the acids, but, like Gold, is dissolved by chlorine or a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acid; it does not tarnish by exposure to air, and is extremely difficult to melt, requiring the very highest heat that can be produced; these qualities render it one of the most useful of the metals to the chemist, furnishing him with retorts, crucibles, and evaporating dishes suitable for many purposes; its high price, however, renders it not so generally used as it would otherwise be.
NICKEL.This metal is of a white color and very difficult to melt, it is about eight times heavier than water and is chiefly obtained from the ore known as kupfer-nickel, found very plentifully in Germany; this kupfer-nickel is a native arseniuret of nickel, that is, nickel in chemical combination with arsenic. It is very difficult to separate these two metals, but an effectual and cheap process has lately been devised to do so.Nickel is attracted by the magnet similar to iron but in an inferior degree. Till lately nickel was but little used, but it now forms the basis of those compound metals known as nickel-silver, German-silver, and British-plate, all which varieties are generally employed as an economical substitute for silver; it is also used largely as a foundation on which to deposit pure silver by the electro-plating process, for which purpose it is most admirably suited being very superior to copper in consequence of its color, as the silver always wears off unequally and exposes the ground work of metal beneath. German-silver is composed of copper, nickel, and zinc, in various proportions. Nickel always forms one of the constituents of meteoric iron, those mysterious masses called aerolites, which sometimes fall to the earth.
This metal is of a white color and very difficult to melt, it is about eight times heavier than water and is chiefly obtained from the ore known as kupfer-nickel, found very plentifully in Germany; this kupfer-nickel is a native arseniuret of nickel, that is, nickel in chemical combination with arsenic. It is very difficult to separate these two metals, but an effectual and cheap process has lately been devised to do so.
Nickel is attracted by the magnet similar to iron but in an inferior degree. Till lately nickel was but little used, but it now forms the basis of those compound metals known as nickel-silver, German-silver, and British-plate, all which varieties are generally employed as an economical substitute for silver; it is also used largely as a foundation on which to deposit pure silver by the electro-plating process, for which purpose it is most admirably suited being very superior to copper in consequence of its color, as the silver always wears off unequally and exposes the ground work of metal beneath. German-silver is composed of copper, nickel, and zinc, in various proportions. Nickel always forms one of the constituents of meteoric iron, those mysterious masses called aerolites, which sometimes fall to the earth.
COAL.(‡ Industrial Scene.)MINERALS.This, the richest product of the mine, the well-known fuel used in almost every branch of industry as well as for warming our houses, is got from the depths of the earth, where it exists in certain localities forming what are called “coal fields” or “basins.” It is the result of changes produced during many ages upon vegetable matter buried during the various convulsions which the earth has undergone, and pressed into layers or strata of various thicknesses. To raise this valuable fuel, powerful machinery is used and deep shafts are sunk at an enormous expense.Coal exists in various forms: the following are the most easily recognised:—1.—Cubical coal; shining and easily broken into squarish fragments. It burns brightly.2.—Slate coal; dull in color, splits like slate. Burns well.3.—Cannel coal; dull color, breaks like resin, and somewhat resembles jet. Burns brilliantly, and splits with a crackling noise when in the fire. It affords the best gas.4.—Glance, or Kilkenny coal; steel-grey color and metallic lustre. Burns without flame or smoke, somewhat like charcoal.5.—Lignite, or brown coal; is an imperfectly formed coal.The quantity of coal used is rapidly increasing owing to the extensive number of steam engines used, especially for navigation and railway transit; and it is a problem, not yet determined, how long the coal existing in Great Britain is likely to last; the lowest statements make it but little below a thousand years.
(‡ Industrial Scene.)MINERALS.
MINERALS.
This, the richest product of the mine, the well-known fuel used in almost every branch of industry as well as for warming our houses, is got from the depths of the earth, where it exists in certain localities forming what are called “coal fields” or “basins.” It is the result of changes produced during many ages upon vegetable matter buried during the various convulsions which the earth has undergone, and pressed into layers or strata of various thicknesses. To raise this valuable fuel, powerful machinery is used and deep shafts are sunk at an enormous expense.
Coal exists in various forms: the following are the most easily recognised:—
1.—Cubical coal; shining and easily broken into squarish fragments. It burns brightly.
2.—Slate coal; dull in color, splits like slate. Burns well.
3.—Cannel coal; dull color, breaks like resin, and somewhat resembles jet. Burns brilliantly, and splits with a crackling noise when in the fire. It affords the best gas.
4.—Glance, or Kilkenny coal; steel-grey color and metallic lustre. Burns without flame or smoke, somewhat like charcoal.
5.—Lignite, or brown coal; is an imperfectly formed coal.
The quantity of coal used is rapidly increasing owing to the extensive number of steam engines used, especially for navigation and railway transit; and it is a problem, not yet determined, how long the coal existing in Great Britain is likely to last; the lowest statements make it but little below a thousand years.
SULPHUR.Sulphur, also called Brimstone, is a natural production, and is found either pure, or combined with metals forming ores, for the most part called “pyrites,” as, iron pyrites, copper pyrites, &c. In chemical language these compounds are called “sulphurets” or “sulphides.” Sulphur is one of the elements; that is to say, it is a simple body, or one neither capable of being made nor separated into other ingredients.It is crystalline, of a bright yellow color, very inflammable and volatile, burns with a blue flame and gives off pungent fumes of sulphurous acid. It is got pure by distillation from various substances containing it, and in Sicily is found nearly pure as a volcanic product. Sulphur is chiefly used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid and gunpowder, and was also largely used for making matches, but phosphorus (a still more inflammable substance) has almost superseded it in the manufacture of this necessary article.
Sulphur, also called Brimstone, is a natural production, and is found either pure, or combined with metals forming ores, for the most part called “pyrites,” as, iron pyrites, copper pyrites, &c. In chemical language these compounds are called “sulphurets” or “sulphides.” Sulphur is one of the elements; that is to say, it is a simple body, or one neither capable of being made nor separated into other ingredients.It is crystalline, of a bright yellow color, very inflammable and volatile, burns with a blue flame and gives off pungent fumes of sulphurous acid. It is got pure by distillation from various substances containing it, and in Sicily is found nearly pure as a volcanic product. Sulphur is chiefly used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid and gunpowder, and was also largely used for making matches, but phosphorus (a still more inflammable substance) has almost superseded it in the manufacture of this necessary article.
PLASTER OF PARIS, OR GYPSUM.Plaster of Paris is sulphate of lime—a combination of lime and sulphuric acid; and exists abundantly in various degrees of purity; it occurs plentifully in the locality of Paris, and is brought here in masses of a greenish, pink, or brown color. To prepare the gypsum it is first made red hot, to separate the water which it contains, and then ground to powder of various degrees of fineness. Plaster of Paris has the peculiar property of uniting with a certain quantity of water and forming a solid compound with it; upon this property all its usefulness depends. If a portion of Plaster of Paris be mixed with sufficient water to form a liquid of the consistence of cream, in a few minutes it will harden and become quite set, and as it dries, it will harden still more, till it is of a hardness almost equal to stone: this useful property causes it to be much used for casting figures and ornaments; cheap plaster figures, &c., are generally cast hollow, to save the plaster; this is done by pouring into the mould a certain quantity of the plaster mixed with water, and quickly turning the mould about so that it shall adhere and form a layer on all the inside of the mould; when set hard, the mould is taken to pieces and the figure finished by scraping off the marks where the mould was joined. Plaster of Paris, combined with whiting, forms what is called by plasterers “putty,” and is much used for ceilings, and similar purposes.
Plaster of Paris is sulphate of lime—a combination of lime and sulphuric acid; and exists abundantly in various degrees of purity; it occurs plentifully in the locality of Paris, and is brought here in masses of a greenish, pink, or brown color. To prepare the gypsum it is first made red hot, to separate the water which it contains, and then ground to powder of various degrees of fineness. Plaster of Paris has the peculiar property of uniting with a certain quantity of water and forming a solid compound with it; upon this property all its usefulness depends. If a portion of Plaster of Paris be mixed with sufficient water to form a liquid of the consistence of cream, in a few minutes it will harden and become quite set, and as it dries, it will harden still more, till it is of a hardness almost equal to stone: this useful property causes it to be much used for casting figures and ornaments; cheap plaster figures, &c., are generally cast hollow, to save the plaster; this is done by pouring into the mould a certain quantity of the plaster mixed with water, and quickly turning the mould about so that it shall adhere and form a layer on all the inside of the mould; when set hard, the mould is taken to pieces and the figure finished by scraping off the marks where the mould was joined. Plaster of Paris, combined with whiting, forms what is called by plasterers “putty,” and is much used for ceilings, and similar purposes.
SALT.Salt is one of the most widely spread and plentiful minerals which the earth gives for the use of man; all the water of the ocean derives its saline taste from salt; many springs are completely saturated and are hence called “brine springs,” and it also exists crystallized in beds within the earth of immense thickness and extending for miles each way. The salt mines of Cheshire are the finest and most extensive in England, and in some places the stratum or layer of salt is more than one hundred feet thick, perfectly white and crystallized. Salt is not a simple body, but is composed of two simple bodies or elements, chlorine and sodium, hence it is called by chemists the chloride of sodium, it can be formed by putting carbonate of soda into hydro-chloric acid (sometimes called muriatic acid,) until no more effervescence takes place, the result will taste salt and yield pure salt on evaporation. The waters of the sea are in some places evaporated by the heat of the sun in shallow hollows dug out in the beach, this is called “bay salt” and is very impure; but the chief part of the salt of commerce is procured by evaporating the waters of brine springs; this water is pumped up into large iron cisterns placed beneath slight sheds to keep the rain off, and having flues running beneath them, the first impurities are thrown away, and as evaporation goes on, the salt crystallizes and falls to the bottom of the cistern in a fine white powder; this is taken out with wooden shovels and placed in conical vessels with a hole in their lower part to drain off all the moisture; it is then dried by stoves and is fit for use; when no more salt falls down, the impure liquor, called “bittern,” is drawn off and used to procure Epsom salts from, by mixing it with sulphuric acid. The bittern contains chloride of magnesium, and the sulphuric acid changes it into sulphate of magnesia, which, when purified, forms the Epsom salts sold by druggists.About half a million tons of salt are made in England every year. Salt, besides its general use as a condiment, and in preserving food for storing ships, &c., is also used for several manufacturing purposes. By adding sulphuric acid and heating it, the acid called “hydrochloric” is given off, which is largely used for many purposes; but the chief use made of salt by the manufacturing chemist is to prepare soda for cleansing and soap making.
Salt is one of the most widely spread and plentiful minerals which the earth gives for the use of man; all the water of the ocean derives its saline taste from salt; many springs are completely saturated and are hence called “brine springs,” and it also exists crystallized in beds within the earth of immense thickness and extending for miles each way. The salt mines of Cheshire are the finest and most extensive in England, and in some places the stratum or layer of salt is more than one hundred feet thick, perfectly white and crystallized. Salt is not a simple body, but is composed of two simple bodies or elements, chlorine and sodium, hence it is called by chemists the chloride of sodium, it can be formed by putting carbonate of soda into hydro-chloric acid (sometimes called muriatic acid,) until no more effervescence takes place, the result will taste salt and yield pure salt on evaporation. The waters of the sea are in some places evaporated by the heat of the sun in shallow hollows dug out in the beach, this is called “bay salt” and is very impure; but the chief part of the salt of commerce is procured by evaporating the waters of brine springs; this water is pumped up into large iron cisterns placed beneath slight sheds to keep the rain off, and having flues running beneath them, the first impurities are thrown away, and as evaporation goes on, the salt crystallizes and falls to the bottom of the cistern in a fine white powder; this is taken out with wooden shovels and placed in conical vessels with a hole in their lower part to drain off all the moisture; it is then dried by stoves and is fit for use; when no more salt falls down, the impure liquor, called “bittern,” is drawn off and used to procure Epsom salts from, by mixing it with sulphuric acid. The bittern contains chloride of magnesium, and the sulphuric acid changes it into sulphate of magnesia, which, when purified, forms the Epsom salts sold by druggists.
About half a million tons of salt are made in England every year. Salt, besides its general use as a condiment, and in preserving food for storing ships, &c., is also used for several manufacturing purposes. By adding sulphuric acid and heating it, the acid called “hydrochloric” is given off, which is largely used for many purposes; but the chief use made of salt by the manufacturing chemist is to prepare soda for cleansing and soap making.
STONE.STONE QUARRY.Stone for building is chiefly of four kinds:—lime-stone, sand-stone, granite, and marble. Slate is never used for building, but is very suitable for roofing. The most common stone is limestone, and that brought from Portland Island is especially good for building-stone; it is called Portland stone, and it is of this stone that St. Paul’s Cathedral is built, and most of the other public buildings of London: it is rather soft when first dug from the quarry, but hardens with age. Sandstone is a very coarse kind of stone, and is only used where not much exposed to the weather; it consists of grains of sand adhering so firmly together as to form a stone of considerable hardness. Granite is a very hard stone, and very durable; so hard that it cannot well be carved, and is therefore only used where durability and plain solidity are required; London Bridge and the Euston Square Terminus of the Birmingham Railway are built of granite. Marble is a very fine heavy kind of limestone, sometimes quite white, and generally partly transparent; the white kind is very expensive, and is used for statuary, that is to say, for carving into figures, vases, &c.; it is very durable, but is too expensive for general use. Chimney-pieces, slabs for washing-stands, and other articles of that description, are also made of it.Limestone, marble, and also chalk (a soft kind of limestone), all become changed into lime if made red hot, hence the name, limestone, is often applied to all three.Stone quarries are those places where stone exists of a quality suitable for building purposes, and in a situation admitting of its easy removal. All stone, with the exception of granite and marble, exists in layers or strata as they are called, so that the stone can be easily split in the direction of these strata or seams. When a large piece of stone has to be removed, wedges are driven in a row into these seams, and when the stone has started, it is notched at the sides and back, so that in general a square piece is thus removed; if it be not so, it is generally made into a somewhat square before leaving the quarry, hence the name, derived from the French “quarre.” Granite having none of the lines of cleavage, as they are called, is broken by a row of wedges driven till a crack forms from one to the other. Slate is a clay-stone found in layers like limestone, but much more perfect; so much so, indeed, that it can be split into slices a quarter of an inch thick and one or two feet square; these, when sorted into sizes, form the slates for roofing houses. It has been much used of late in thick slabs, cut by circular saws, for making cisterns, a purpose for which it is well adapted.
STONE QUARRY.
STONE QUARRY.
Stone for building is chiefly of four kinds:—lime-stone, sand-stone, granite, and marble. Slate is never used for building, but is very suitable for roofing. The most common stone is limestone, and that brought from Portland Island is especially good for building-stone; it is called Portland stone, and it is of this stone that St. Paul’s Cathedral is built, and most of the other public buildings of London: it is rather soft when first dug from the quarry, but hardens with age. Sandstone is a very coarse kind of stone, and is only used where not much exposed to the weather; it consists of grains of sand adhering so firmly together as to form a stone of considerable hardness. Granite is a very hard stone, and very durable; so hard that it cannot well be carved, and is therefore only used where durability and plain solidity are required; London Bridge and the Euston Square Terminus of the Birmingham Railway are built of granite. Marble is a very fine heavy kind of limestone, sometimes quite white, and generally partly transparent; the white kind is very expensive, and is used for statuary, that is to say, for carving into figures, vases, &c.; it is very durable, but is too expensive for general use. Chimney-pieces, slabs for washing-stands, and other articles of that description, are also made of it.
Limestone, marble, and also chalk (a soft kind of limestone), all become changed into lime if made red hot, hence the name, limestone, is often applied to all three.
Stone quarries are those places where stone exists of a quality suitable for building purposes, and in a situation admitting of its easy removal. All stone, with the exception of granite and marble, exists in layers or strata as they are called, so that the stone can be easily split in the direction of these strata or seams. When a large piece of stone has to be removed, wedges are driven in a row into these seams, and when the stone has started, it is notched at the sides and back, so that in general a square piece is thus removed; if it be not so, it is generally made into a somewhat square before leaving the quarry, hence the name, derived from the French “quarre.” Granite having none of the lines of cleavage, as they are called, is broken by a row of wedges driven till a crack forms from one to the other. Slate is a clay-stone found in layers like limestone, but much more perfect; so much so, indeed, that it can be split into slices a quarter of an inch thick and one or two feet square; these, when sorted into sizes, form the slates for roofing houses. It has been much used of late in thick slabs, cut by circular saws, for making cisterns, a purpose for which it is well adapted.
WOOD.(‡ Loggers.)Wood is an article of universal application; its lightness, strength, and the facility with which it can be worked, render it almost invaluable; although in ship-building and many of its applications to house-building iron has to some extent superseded it, yet there are so many other ways in which it is indispensable, that it may be looked upon as one of the greatest boons to mankind. There is scarcely a use to which wood may not be applied, whether as fuel for fires, timber for building, furniture both useful and ornamental, various parts of machinery, vessels to contain wine and other fluids, handles to instruments, (for in cold climates and cold weather metal cannot be handled with impunity), and indeed for all uses in which lightness, dryness, warmth, and variety of form are desirable, wood serves as an excellent material. The kind of trees that produce wood fit for building and other useful purposes are those called by the botanistsexogenous. Amongst which the pine tribe, oak, ash, elm, and beech, stand pre-eminent; while mahogany, walnut, and rosewood are chiefly used for ornamental purposes; box-tree wood is also very useful on account of its closeness and evenness of grain; it is the wood used by engravers.Wood when first cut is wet and heavy, but, by being exposed to the air, it shrinks and the sap dries up in it, it is therefore liable to swell and become damp in moist situations this is detrimental to its usefulness; most woods therefore are improved by being soaked a long time in water, this cleanses it from saline and extractive matters which keeps the wood damp, but which, when separated, allow the wood to shrink and harden permanently, this process is called seasoning, the same effect may be produced by exposure to the air and rain, it is generally resorted to when the timber is cut up into smaller pieces. The structure of wood is porous, hence its lightness, it has also a grain which runs the whole length of the wood in circles round its centre to the surface, one of these circles is produced every year while the tree is growing; wood is therefore capable of being cleft in the direction of the grain by a wedge, in this way builder’s laths are made. Wood cannot be cleft across the grain, but must be cut by sawing or otherwise. The pine or fir tribe produce the largest and straightest timber, but it is not so strong nor so durable as oak and many other woods.Some specimens of theAraucaria Excelsaor Norfolk Island pine, have stems upwards of three hundred feet high, and in the Crystal Palace is the bark of another gigantic tree theWellingtonia Gigantea.
(‡ Loggers.)
Wood is an article of universal application; its lightness, strength, and the facility with which it can be worked, render it almost invaluable; although in ship-building and many of its applications to house-building iron has to some extent superseded it, yet there are so many other ways in which it is indispensable, that it may be looked upon as one of the greatest boons to mankind. There is scarcely a use to which wood may not be applied, whether as fuel for fires, timber for building, furniture both useful and ornamental, various parts of machinery, vessels to contain wine and other fluids, handles to instruments, (for in cold climates and cold weather metal cannot be handled with impunity), and indeed for all uses in which lightness, dryness, warmth, and variety of form are desirable, wood serves as an excellent material. The kind of trees that produce wood fit for building and other useful purposes are those called by the botanistsexogenous. Amongst which the pine tribe, oak, ash, elm, and beech, stand pre-eminent; while mahogany, walnut, and rosewood are chiefly used for ornamental purposes; box-tree wood is also very useful on account of its closeness and evenness of grain; it is the wood used by engravers.
Wood when first cut is wet and heavy, but, by being exposed to the air, it shrinks and the sap dries up in it, it is therefore liable to swell and become damp in moist situations this is detrimental to its usefulness; most woods therefore are improved by being soaked a long time in water, this cleanses it from saline and extractive matters which keeps the wood damp, but which, when separated, allow the wood to shrink and harden permanently, this process is called seasoning, the same effect may be produced by exposure to the air and rain, it is generally resorted to when the timber is cut up into smaller pieces. The structure of wood is porous, hence its lightness, it has also a grain which runs the whole length of the wood in circles round its centre to the surface, one of these circles is produced every year while the tree is growing; wood is therefore capable of being cleft in the direction of the grain by a wedge, in this way builder’s laths are made. Wood cannot be cleft across the grain, but must be cut by sawing or otherwise. The pine or fir tribe produce the largest and straightest timber, but it is not so strong nor so durable as oak and many other woods.
Some specimens of theAraucaria Excelsaor Norfolk Island pine, have stems upwards of three hundred feet high, and in the Crystal Palace is the bark of another gigantic tree theWellingtonia Gigantea.
COTTON.Cotton (‡ Plant).COTTON.Cotton consists of the fine long hairs which grow from the seeds of several varieties ofGossypium, a plant belonging to the natural order ofMalvaceæ. These hairs are so long and numerous that they completely fill the pod or seed vessel; they are very delicate, and of the same size throughout, and but seldom jointed, they are each separate from the other.The cotton plant is chiefly cultivated in America and India. In India, and some of the islands in the Indian Ocean, cotton has been cultivated, spun, and woven into textures from time immemorial. Cotton fabrics were in use in Mexico before its conquest by the Spaniards, and have been used in China for many hundred years; its chief source now is America, where more than two hundred times the quantity is grown at present than was grown there half-a-century ago; but the internal communication brought about by railways in India, may, in all probability, revive the cultivation of cotton in that country; the cost of conveyance from the interior having been one of the greatest drawbacks to its exportation.Cotton is not only cheaper than linen (which is woven from flax), but has several advantages over it: it takes dyes much better, and produces brighter colors; the improvements made in the machinery for spinning and weaving cotton, have not only enabled us to match the spinners and weavers of India, which, for a long time supplied nearly the whole of Europe, but at the present time, cotton cloths of English manufacture are exported to India for the purpose of clothing the natives of that country.
Cotton (‡ Plant).COTTON.
COTTON.
Cotton consists of the fine long hairs which grow from the seeds of several varieties ofGossypium, a plant belonging to the natural order ofMalvaceæ. These hairs are so long and numerous that they completely fill the pod or seed vessel; they are very delicate, and of the same size throughout, and but seldom jointed, they are each separate from the other.
The cotton plant is chiefly cultivated in America and India. In India, and some of the islands in the Indian Ocean, cotton has been cultivated, spun, and woven into textures from time immemorial. Cotton fabrics were in use in Mexico before its conquest by the Spaniards, and have been used in China for many hundred years; its chief source now is America, where more than two hundred times the quantity is grown at present than was grown there half-a-century ago; but the internal communication brought about by railways in India, may, in all probability, revive the cultivation of cotton in that country; the cost of conveyance from the interior having been one of the greatest drawbacks to its exportation.
Cotton is not only cheaper than linen (which is woven from flax), but has several advantages over it: it takes dyes much better, and produces brighter colors; the improvements made in the machinery for spinning and weaving cotton, have not only enabled us to match the spinners and weavers of India, which, for a long time supplied nearly the whole of Europe, but at the present time, cotton cloths of English manufacture are exported to India for the purpose of clothing the natives of that country.
FLAX.Flax (‡ Plant).FLAX.Flax is obtained from the stalks of the flax plantLinum Usitatissimum, it is supposed to have been originally brought from Egypt, where linens have been woven from its fibres from time immemorial. It is now found growing wild in this country, and is cultivated in most parts of Europe, either for its stalks to make flax, or for its seed (linseed), which is used for fattening cattle, and yields an oil (linseed oil) much used in the making of paint. The plant grows to two or three feet in height, bears a blue flower in July, and has a great hollow stem; when gathered, it is pulled up by the roots. The fibres of flax are very long and even; it is the inner part which yields the best fibres.
Flax (‡ Plant).FLAX.
FLAX.
Flax is obtained from the stalks of the flax plantLinum Usitatissimum, it is supposed to have been originally brought from Egypt, where linens have been woven from its fibres from time immemorial. It is now found growing wild in this country, and is cultivated in most parts of Europe, either for its stalks to make flax, or for its seed (linseed), which is used for fattening cattle, and yields an oil (linseed oil) much used in the making of paint. The plant grows to two or three feet in height, bears a blue flower in July, and has a great hollow stem; when gathered, it is pulled up by the roots. The fibres of flax are very long and even; it is the inner part which yields the best fibres.
SILK.Silk (‡ Worms).SILK.Silk is by far the strongest of the textile fabrics, being nearly three times as strong as flax; it consists of the filaments spun by the silk-worm,Phalœna Bombyx Anori. These filaments are always double, proceeding from two holes in the head of the worm, and are united by a sort of varnish which is moist and clammy when the threads proceed from the insect, and causes them to adhere together. The silk-worm in spinning, moves the head backwards and forwards, attaching the threads on alternate sides and all around till it is completely covered in with a ball of silk; in this state it is called a “coccoon.” The silk-worm, like others of its class, undergoes four changes or metamorphoses—the Egg, the Grub or Worm, the Chrysalis, and the Imago or perfect insect, which, in this case, is a moth. The worm spins the coccoon to defend itself from injury and cold, but man, taking advantage of the useful qualities possessed by these fine filaments, spins them into his most gorgeous apparel. The coccoons are unwound by placing them in a basin of warm water, which dissolves the varnish, and they are then slowly wound off; formerly this was done by hand, but now machinery is chiefly employed which winds off the silk from a bowl full of coccoons at the same time.The silk is coiled into hanks or skeins, and in this form is imported into this country; from these hanks it is wound off on to large six-sided wheels called “swifts,” and from these on to bobbins or reels; it is then wound off from two or three of these bobbins on to one other bobbin, the threads of silk being laid side by side, and in this process a twist is given to it in one direction and two of these wound on to another receiving a twist in an opposite direction, this forms a fine cord called “organzine,” which is used by the silk weaver in the same way that yarn is by the cotton weaver. The short and broken pieces are carded and spun like cotton, and is called floss silk. The raw silk is of a bright buff or golden yellow color, but there are some kinds which are white.
Silk (‡ Worms).SILK.
SILK.
Silk is by far the strongest of the textile fabrics, being nearly three times as strong as flax; it consists of the filaments spun by the silk-worm,Phalœna Bombyx Anori. These filaments are always double, proceeding from two holes in the head of the worm, and are united by a sort of varnish which is moist and clammy when the threads proceed from the insect, and causes them to adhere together. The silk-worm in spinning, moves the head backwards and forwards, attaching the threads on alternate sides and all around till it is completely covered in with a ball of silk; in this state it is called a “coccoon.” The silk-worm, like others of its class, undergoes four changes or metamorphoses—the Egg, the Grub or Worm, the Chrysalis, and the Imago or perfect insect, which, in this case, is a moth. The worm spins the coccoon to defend itself from injury and cold, but man, taking advantage of the useful qualities possessed by these fine filaments, spins them into his most gorgeous apparel. The coccoons are unwound by placing them in a basin of warm water, which dissolves the varnish, and they are then slowly wound off; formerly this was done by hand, but now machinery is chiefly employed which winds off the silk from a bowl full of coccoons at the same time.The silk is coiled into hanks or skeins, and in this form is imported into this country; from these hanks it is wound off on to large six-sided wheels called “swifts,” and from these on to bobbins or reels; it is then wound off from two or three of these bobbins on to one other bobbin, the threads of silk being laid side by side, and in this process a twist is given to it in one direction and two of these wound on to another receiving a twist in an opposite direction, this forms a fine cord called “organzine,” which is used by the silk weaver in the same way that yarn is by the cotton weaver. The short and broken pieces are carded and spun like cotton, and is called floss silk. The raw silk is of a bright buff or golden yellow color, but there are some kinds which are white.
INDIA-RUBBER.India-rubber or Caoutchouc which was, a short time back, used only for the very insignificant purpose of rubbing out pencil marks, is now used for almost innumerable purposes. India-rubber is the solidified juice of several trees, such as theSiphonia,Jatropha Elastica,Ficus Elastica, &c., the juice is got by making incisions in the trunk of the trees during winter and collecting the juice, which is caoutchouc combined with water, in the form of a milky thick fluid, the water is then allowed to evaporate and the India-rubber remains. It is brought here in all sorts of shapes, and is purified before it is fit for commercial use by washing in warm water or steaming; it is then cut into pieces and put into a kneading machine which cuts and works it together with such rapidity that it becomes quite hot and the pieces join into one mass. After having undergone every kind of torture that can be well imagined in the form of cutting, tearing, and squeezing, it is finally compressed in a square cast iron mould, where it is kept for a time, and then is fit for any use it has to be applied to. What is called vulcanized India-rubber is produced by incorporating it with powdered sulphur, or some substance containing it, as sulphuret of antimony, or the vapour of sulphur is kneaded into the mass; this vulcanized rubber is very elastic and does not harden by cold. Waterproof fabrics are made by stretching the stuff to be waterproofed on a frame, at one end of which is a partition having a slit in it, through which it is drawn, after having been smeared with a solution of India-rubber in naptha; the slit is so narrow that it scrapes off all superfluous caoutchouc, it is then dried in the air.
India-rubber or Caoutchouc which was, a short time back, used only for the very insignificant purpose of rubbing out pencil marks, is now used for almost innumerable purposes. India-rubber is the solidified juice of several trees, such as theSiphonia,Jatropha Elastica,Ficus Elastica, &c., the juice is got by making incisions in the trunk of the trees during winter and collecting the juice, which is caoutchouc combined with water, in the form of a milky thick fluid, the water is then allowed to evaporate and the India-rubber remains. It is brought here in all sorts of shapes, and is purified before it is fit for commercial use by washing in warm water or steaming; it is then cut into pieces and put into a kneading machine which cuts and works it together with such rapidity that it becomes quite hot and the pieces join into one mass. After having undergone every kind of torture that can be well imagined in the form of cutting, tearing, and squeezing, it is finally compressed in a square cast iron mould, where it is kept for a time, and then is fit for any use it has to be applied to. What is called vulcanized India-rubber is produced by incorporating it with powdered sulphur, or some substance containing it, as sulphuret of antimony, or the vapour of sulphur is kneaded into the mass; this vulcanized rubber is very elastic and does not harden by cold. Waterproof fabrics are made by stretching the stuff to be waterproofed on a frame, at one end of which is a partition having a slit in it, through which it is drawn, after having been smeared with a solution of India-rubber in naptha; the slit is so narrow that it scrapes off all superfluous caoutchouc, it is then dried in the air.
GUTTA-PERCHA.Gutta-percha is a substance possessing many useful and valuable properties; it was unknown in Europe until within a very recent date, though it is said to have been in common use, for a long period previous to our discovery of its utility, amongst the natives of the Indian Archipelago, chiefly for making axe-handles. It is the concrete juice of a large tree, supposed to be theIsonandra Gutta, and is brought to Europe in irregular masses of a brown color, and contains various impurities which are easily got rid of by working it in hot water. Gutta-percha possesses the desirable properties of being solid, slightly elastic, not brittle, and very tough, capable of being melted at the heat of boiling water, and being drawn out or moulded into almost any form; it resists the action of water and spirits, unless very strong, oils, alkalies, and weak acids, but spirits of turpentine, chloroform, and naptha, each dissolve it. A substance which has so many valuable properties as these, of course enters into a multiplicity of forms and uses.
Gutta-percha is a substance possessing many useful and valuable properties; it was unknown in Europe until within a very recent date, though it is said to have been in common use, for a long period previous to our discovery of its utility, amongst the natives of the Indian Archipelago, chiefly for making axe-handles. It is the concrete juice of a large tree, supposed to be theIsonandra Gutta, and is brought to Europe in irregular masses of a brown color, and contains various impurities which are easily got rid of by working it in hot water. Gutta-percha possesses the desirable properties of being solid, slightly elastic, not brittle, and very tough, capable of being melted at the heat of boiling water, and being drawn out or moulded into almost any form; it resists the action of water and spirits, unless very strong, oils, alkalies, and weak acids, but spirits of turpentine, chloroform, and naptha, each dissolve it. A substance which has so many valuable properties as these, of course enters into a multiplicity of forms and uses.
WAX.This useful substance is produced by bees for the purpose of building their comb, which consists of hexagonal cells made of wax; which substance they secrete in scales, between the sections of the abdomen, and draw out for building their beautiful cells. When the honey is drained off from the comb, this is washed and melted, it then constitutes the yellow wax of commerce, commonly called “bee’s-wax.” To make this into the white wax it is boiled in water, spread out into thin layers, and exposed to the light and air; this is repeated until all the color has gone and the wax remains pure and white. Pure wax is a soft-feeling substance, harder than tallow, and not greasy to the touch; it is easily melted, and burns with a clear white flame, hence its most general use—namely, that of making candles; it is not soluble in water, but unites with oils and fats.
This useful substance is produced by bees for the purpose of building their comb, which consists of hexagonal cells made of wax; which substance they secrete in scales, between the sections of the abdomen, and draw out for building their beautiful cells. When the honey is drained off from the comb, this is washed and melted, it then constitutes the yellow wax of commerce, commonly called “bee’s-wax.” To make this into the white wax it is boiled in water, spread out into thin layers, and exposed to the light and air; this is repeated until all the color has gone and the wax remains pure and white. Pure wax is a soft-feeling substance, harder than tallow, and not greasy to the touch; it is easily melted, and burns with a clear white flame, hence its most general use—namely, that of making candles; it is not soluble in water, but unites with oils and fats.
NITRE.This substance, known also in commerce by the name of saltpetre, is brought to this country from India, where in certain places, it forms a sort of efflorescence on the soil; this is taken off together with the surface of the soil, and mixed with water, which, after all the earth has subsided holds the nitre in solution. The water is then evaporated and the nitre crystallizes in six sided prisms.On most parts of the continent nitre is manufactured from what are called nitre beds, these consist of old mortar and other matters containing lime, as the dry rubbish from old building, &c., together with manure and other animal refuse. These beds are packed up and kept from the rain for a certain time, when a small part of the lime is found to be converted into nitrate of lime, this is the white substance frequently seen to exude from newly built walls in the form of crystals like snow. The whole mass of the nitre bed is next washed; the water used for the first portions being poured over the next, and so on till it is pretty rich in nitrate of lime, this is then mixed with carbonate of potash, which decomposes the nitrate of lime forming nitrate of potash, (nitre), and carbonate of lime, (chalk); this last settles down and leaves the solution of nitre clear, which is evaporated, and the nitre got pure.Nitre is used for making gunpowder and fireworks of different kinds, also for curing meat, especially pork and beef, to which it imparts a red color; it is also used for making nitric acid, in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and as a medicine.
This substance, known also in commerce by the name of saltpetre, is brought to this country from India, where in certain places, it forms a sort of efflorescence on the soil; this is taken off together with the surface of the soil, and mixed with water, which, after all the earth has subsided holds the nitre in solution. The water is then evaporated and the nitre crystallizes in six sided prisms.
On most parts of the continent nitre is manufactured from what are called nitre beds, these consist of old mortar and other matters containing lime, as the dry rubbish from old building, &c., together with manure and other animal refuse. These beds are packed up and kept from the rain for a certain time, when a small part of the lime is found to be converted into nitrate of lime, this is the white substance frequently seen to exude from newly built walls in the form of crystals like snow. The whole mass of the nitre bed is next washed; the water used for the first portions being poured over the next, and so on till it is pretty rich in nitrate of lime, this is then mixed with carbonate of potash, which decomposes the nitrate of lime forming nitrate of potash, (nitre), and carbonate of lime, (chalk); this last settles down and leaves the solution of nitre clear, which is evaporated, and the nitre got pure.
Nitre is used for making gunpowder and fireworks of different kinds, also for curing meat, especially pork and beef, to which it imparts a red color; it is also used for making nitric acid, in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and as a medicine.
BLACKLEAD.This substance, called by mineralogists “plumbago” and “graphite,” is found in small quantities in various districts, and in a very pure state in Cumberland. It is almost pure carbon, having but a very slight admixture of iron; it is used to make blacklead pencils; for coating the surface of iron, giving it a bright appearance and preventing it from rusting; it is also used to prevent friction in wooden machinery, and, mixed with tallow, as a lubricate for iron machinery; blacklead, mixed with clay, is also used to make crucibles for various purposes, these are especially adapted for melting glasses and enamels, and are known in the trade as blue pots.
This substance, called by mineralogists “plumbago” and “graphite,” is found in small quantities in various districts, and in a very pure state in Cumberland. It is almost pure carbon, having but a very slight admixture of iron; it is used to make blacklead pencils; for coating the surface of iron, giving it a bright appearance and preventing it from rusting; it is also used to prevent friction in wooden machinery, and, mixed with tallow, as a lubricate for iron machinery; blacklead, mixed with clay, is also used to make crucibles for various purposes, these are especially adapted for melting glasses and enamels, and are known in the trade as blue pots.
SPERMACETI.This substance is obtained from the oily matter contained in the head of the spermaceti whale,Phyceter Macrocephales, which consists of sperm oil and spermaceti. The latter crystallizes as the mass cools, and is afterwards purified. It is white and crystalline, is used chiefly for candles, or mixed with oil and wax, it forms an ointment.
This substance is obtained from the oily matter contained in the head of the spermaceti whale,Phyceter Macrocephales, which consists of sperm oil and spermaceti. The latter crystallizes as the mass cools, and is afterwards purified. It is white and crystalline, is used chiefly for candles, or mixed with oil and wax, it forms an ointment.
MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS.SUGAR.(‡ Sugar Cane Field.)Sugar, like starch, exists naturally formed in many vegetables, and has to be separated from the various foreign matters with which it is combined; the sugar used in this country is all extracted from the juice of the sugar-cane,Arundo Saccharifera, but in France a great portion is extracted from beet-root.The raw, or Muscovado sugar as it is called, is a brownish compound of small crystals of sugar held together by molasses or treacle, which gives the sugar its color and peculiar moistness; when pure, sugar is quite white and capable of crystallization, as may be seen in sugar candy, which is crystallized sugar; sugar, if heated, becomes converted into a dark brown liquid called burnt sugar or “caramel,” this has an intensely rich color, but scarcely any sweetness; it is used to color wines and spirits. The tendency of sugar to be converted into caramel is very great, and the whole difficulty of sugar refining depends upon this fact, for a solution of sugar heated is constantly changing into this substance.To obtain the sugar from the sugar cane, it is first crushed between powerful rollers, by which all the juice is pressed out, this is immediately clarified by boiling it strongly with a small quantity of slaked lime, or it would speedily ferment, it is then put into evaporating pans, in which it is evaporated till it is ready to crystallize or granulate; from these pans it is ladled out into a cooler, and from thence into wooden boxes where it granulates; the next process is called “curing” this consists of draining the sugar of its molasses, for this purpose hogsheads or large broad barrels are arranged on a sloping floor, and having several holes at their lower part with a piece of plantain leaf put into them; through these holes the molasses runs out and is collected in a vessel for the purpose.The best kinds of sugar are partly purified by a process called “claying;” this consists in putting the sugar into conical earthen jars, with a hole at the point which is turned downwards; the top is piled up with a mass of wet clay, the moisture from which slowly sinks down, carrying with it most of the coloring matter of the sugar; the cone of sugar is afterwards dried, broken up, and each part ground up separately, as they form sugars of different value, the point being the brownest and the base of the cone the whitest.Sugar is made from the beet root in the same way as from the cane, the roots being rasped up into a pulp by a wheel with a notched edge acting against them. Beet-root sugar crystallizes better than cane sugar; otherwise it is exactly like it, and purifies as well.
(‡ Sugar Cane Field.)
Sugar, like starch, exists naturally formed in many vegetables, and has to be separated from the various foreign matters with which it is combined; the sugar used in this country is all extracted from the juice of the sugar-cane,Arundo Saccharifera, but in France a great portion is extracted from beet-root.
The raw, or Muscovado sugar as it is called, is a brownish compound of small crystals of sugar held together by molasses or treacle, which gives the sugar its color and peculiar moistness; when pure, sugar is quite white and capable of crystallization, as may be seen in sugar candy, which is crystallized sugar; sugar, if heated, becomes converted into a dark brown liquid called burnt sugar or “caramel,” this has an intensely rich color, but scarcely any sweetness; it is used to color wines and spirits. The tendency of sugar to be converted into caramel is very great, and the whole difficulty of sugar refining depends upon this fact, for a solution of sugar heated is constantly changing into this substance.
To obtain the sugar from the sugar cane, it is first crushed between powerful rollers, by which all the juice is pressed out, this is immediately clarified by boiling it strongly with a small quantity of slaked lime, or it would speedily ferment, it is then put into evaporating pans, in which it is evaporated till it is ready to crystallize or granulate; from these pans it is ladled out into a cooler, and from thence into wooden boxes where it granulates; the next process is called “curing” this consists of draining the sugar of its molasses, for this purpose hogsheads or large broad barrels are arranged on a sloping floor, and having several holes at their lower part with a piece of plantain leaf put into them; through these holes the molasses runs out and is collected in a vessel for the purpose.The best kinds of sugar are partly purified by a process called “claying;” this consists in putting the sugar into conical earthen jars, with a hole at the point which is turned downwards; the top is piled up with a mass of wet clay, the moisture from which slowly sinks down, carrying with it most of the coloring matter of the sugar; the cone of sugar is afterwards dried, broken up, and each part ground up separately, as they form sugars of different value, the point being the brownest and the base of the cone the whitest.
Sugar is made from the beet root in the same way as from the cane, the roots being rasped up into a pulp by a wheel with a notched edge acting against them. Beet-root sugar crystallizes better than cane sugar; otherwise it is exactly like it, and purifies as well.
ALCOHOL, OR SPIRIT.Alcohol, commonly called spirits of wine, is procured from any liquid which has undergone the vinous fermentation, such as wine and beer. The spirit used in England is procured from a wash made by pouring boiling water upon ground malt, as for making beer; this, when fermented and distilled, produces a colorless spirit, which, by being again distilled at a gentle heat, called rectifying, produces a very strong spirit; but even this contains some considerable quantity of water, and to get rid of this, for certain chemical purposes, it is necessary to add carbonate of potash, quick lime, or some other ingredient greedy of water, and again distil it. Brandy, rum, and whiskey, are but various forms of spirit colored and flavored with different substances. Brandy is distilled from wine; rum from the molasses, a sort of treacle produced in sugar making; and whiskey from malt. The strongest brandy does not contain more than one half of its bulk of pure spirit.Alcohol, when pure, is a very limpid, colorless fluid, lighter than water, in the proportion that 792 bears to 1000. It is very volatile, boiling at 172 deg. of Fahrenheit, and highly inflammable, it dissolves resins and volatile oils, and is, therefore, used largely in perfumery. The well known lavender water and eau de Cologne, are solutions of volatile oils of various kinds in pretty strong alcohol, and what are called spirit-varnishes, are most of them solutions of various kinds of resin in strong alcohol, although some of them, as mastic varnish, are made with spirit of turpentine, a volatile oil, in place of alcohol.
Alcohol, commonly called spirits of wine, is procured from any liquid which has undergone the vinous fermentation, such as wine and beer. The spirit used in England is procured from a wash made by pouring boiling water upon ground malt, as for making beer; this, when fermented and distilled, produces a colorless spirit, which, by being again distilled at a gentle heat, called rectifying, produces a very strong spirit; but even this contains some considerable quantity of water, and to get rid of this, for certain chemical purposes, it is necessary to add carbonate of potash, quick lime, or some other ingredient greedy of water, and again distil it. Brandy, rum, and whiskey, are but various forms of spirit colored and flavored with different substances. Brandy is distilled from wine; rum from the molasses, a sort of treacle produced in sugar making; and whiskey from malt. The strongest brandy does not contain more than one half of its bulk of pure spirit.
Alcohol, when pure, is a very limpid, colorless fluid, lighter than water, in the proportion that 792 bears to 1000. It is very volatile, boiling at 172 deg. of Fahrenheit, and highly inflammable, it dissolves resins and volatile oils, and is, therefore, used largely in perfumery. The well known lavender water and eau de Cologne, are solutions of volatile oils of various kinds in pretty strong alcohol, and what are called spirit-varnishes, are most of them solutions of various kinds of resin in strong alcohol, although some of them, as mastic varnish, are made with spirit of turpentine, a volatile oil, in place of alcohol.
STARCH.Starch exists naturally in various kinds of grain, as wheat and barley, and in the roots and tubers of many plants, as potatoes. The process of extracting the starch, and separating it from the other constituents of the seed or root, consists, essentially, of crushing it, and wishing out the starch with cold water; the liquid resulting from this mode of treatment is of a milky whiteness, and deposits starch by sediment. This liquid is passed through five sieves to separate the husks and skins, and when the starch has settled, and the liquid fermented and become sour, it is drawn off; it is allowed to become sour as the gluten of the grain is more completely separated by so doing. The starch is repeatedly stirred, allowed to settle, and the water drawn off, till it is quite pure; the top of the starch is scraped to separate any slime adhering, and the pure starch dug out with wooden shovels and put in a box lined with linen, in which the moisture drains off; the cakes taken from these boxes are cut up into squares, put upon bricks, and dried by a gentle heat; the squares are then scraped clean and packed in paper for sale, in these packages it breaks up into pieces, so that when they are opened, the starch has that peculiar appearance so familiar, and almost resembling six-sided columns. Arrow-root is the starch obtained from a West Indian plant calledMaranta Arundinacea.Cassava and Tapioca are starches from the manioc, and Sago, from the sago palm. Starch, under the microscope, appears in the form of minute globules, and is quite insoluble in cold water, in which it falls to the bottom, leaving the water at the upper part quite clear; but water that is nearly boiling (that is to say at 160 deg. of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, or above), breaks or dissolves the granules, and the starch forms with it a sort of paste, this is the liquid used for stiffening linen and other articles in domestic laundry.The starch sold in this country is colored blueish by smalt or indigo; but on the continent is used of its natural white color. If starch be baked in an oven at the temperature of about 300 deg. it becomes, to a great extent, soluble in cold water, forming what is called “British gum,” this is largely used for calico printing and other purposes; if boiled in water under great pressure, so that the temperature can be raised to the same degree, it is also changed into an adhesive sort of gum—this is the substance made use of by the government authorities to spread over the backs of postage and receipt stamps to make them adhere. The starch of grain during germination, or growth, becomes converted into sugar; the same effect can be produced by heating starch with diluted sulphuric acid.
Starch exists naturally in various kinds of grain, as wheat and barley, and in the roots and tubers of many plants, as potatoes. The process of extracting the starch, and separating it from the other constituents of the seed or root, consists, essentially, of crushing it, and wishing out the starch with cold water; the liquid resulting from this mode of treatment is of a milky whiteness, and deposits starch by sediment. This liquid is passed through five sieves to separate the husks and skins, and when the starch has settled, and the liquid fermented and become sour, it is drawn off; it is allowed to become sour as the gluten of the grain is more completely separated by so doing. The starch is repeatedly stirred, allowed to settle, and the water drawn off, till it is quite pure; the top of the starch is scraped to separate any slime adhering, and the pure starch dug out with wooden shovels and put in a box lined with linen, in which the moisture drains off; the cakes taken from these boxes are cut up into squares, put upon bricks, and dried by a gentle heat; the squares are then scraped clean and packed in paper for sale, in these packages it breaks up into pieces, so that when they are opened, the starch has that peculiar appearance so familiar, and almost resembling six-sided columns. Arrow-root is the starch obtained from a West Indian plant calledMaranta Arundinacea.
Cassava and Tapioca are starches from the manioc, and Sago, from the sago palm. Starch, under the microscope, appears in the form of minute globules, and is quite insoluble in cold water, in which it falls to the bottom, leaving the water at the upper part quite clear; but water that is nearly boiling (that is to say at 160 deg. of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, or above), breaks or dissolves the granules, and the starch forms with it a sort of paste, this is the liquid used for stiffening linen and other articles in domestic laundry.
The starch sold in this country is colored blueish by smalt or indigo; but on the continent is used of its natural white color. If starch be baked in an oven at the temperature of about 300 deg. it becomes, to a great extent, soluble in cold water, forming what is called “British gum,” this is largely used for calico printing and other purposes; if boiled in water under great pressure, so that the temperature can be raised to the same degree, it is also changed into an adhesive sort of gum—this is the substance made use of by the government authorities to spread over the backs of postage and receipt stamps to make them adhere. The starch of grain during germination, or growth, becomes converted into sugar; the same effect can be produced by heating starch with diluted sulphuric acid.
SOAP.(‡ Soap Making.)CUTTING SOAP.COPPERS FOR THE MIXING PROCESS.This very useful article is produced by a combination of tallow or oil with soda or potash; with soda, hard soap is formed; with potash, soft soap. The yellow soap of commerce has also an addition of resin or turpentine, and often palm oil, these give it its yellow color and peculiar smell; pure white soap is made by boiling a solution of soda with tallow or olive oil; ordinary soaps are generally made by mixing a solution of the soda of commerce, (carbonate of soda) with quick lime, this takes away the carbonic acid and makes the soda what is called “caustic;” this solution is drawn off, and kitchen stuff, tallow, turpentine, and sometimes palm oil, are added and boiled together, until all is converted into soap, but a large quantity of water remaining, it is necessary to separate the soap from this, for this purpose salt is added until the water becomes so heavy that the soap rises to the surface, whence it is removed into moulds or frames and allowed to cool, when it is cut into bars for sale.FILLING YELLOW SOAP.MOTTLED SOAP FRAMES.Soft soap is made in the same way, using potash instead of soda, and, generally, a large quantity of train-oil. Castile soap is pure soda soap, and the blueish or red mottled appearance is produced by stirring in some sulphate of iron (green vitriol); when new it is of a blueish color, but gets red by exposure to the air.Oils and fats combine with the oxides of several of the metals, and a combination of oxide of lead with olive oil forms a firm solid substance, or plaister, which, with the addition of a little resin, is used in surgery, and when spread upon linen or calico, forms the common adhesive plaister.Oils and fats all consist of a combination of organic acids, (stearic, oleic, and margaric), with glycerine. When these fats are boiled with soda, potash, or metallic oxides, a combination of the oxide and fatty acid takes place, and this constitutes soap. The glycerine is then set free, and, when purified, forms a sweet, oily, colorless fluid, very similar to syrup, but not so sweet; it has lately been used for several purposes, especially as a remedy for chapped hands; a soap called “glycerine soap,” has lately been used for the same purpose; it is a soap made without separating the glycerine.MACHINE FOR CUTTING SOAP IN BARS.The above illustration represents an ingenious contrivance for the purpose of cutting soap.
(‡ Soap Making.)
CUTTING SOAP.
CUTTING SOAP.
COPPERS FOR THE MIXING PROCESS.
COPPERS FOR THE MIXING PROCESS.
This very useful article is produced by a combination of tallow or oil with soda or potash; with soda, hard soap is formed; with potash, soft soap. The yellow soap of commerce has also an addition of resin or turpentine, and often palm oil, these give it its yellow color and peculiar smell; pure white soap is made by boiling a solution of soda with tallow or olive oil; ordinary soaps are generally made by mixing a solution of the soda of commerce, (carbonate of soda) with quick lime, this takes away the carbonic acid and makes the soda what is called “caustic;” this solution is drawn off, and kitchen stuff, tallow, turpentine, and sometimes palm oil, are added and boiled together, until all is converted into soap, but a large quantity of water remaining, it is necessary to separate the soap from this, for this purpose salt is added until the water becomes so heavy that the soap rises to the surface, whence it is removed into moulds or frames and allowed to cool, when it is cut into bars for sale.
FILLING YELLOW SOAP.
FILLING YELLOW SOAP.
MOTTLED SOAP FRAMES.
MOTTLED SOAP FRAMES.
Soft soap is made in the same way, using potash instead of soda, and, generally, a large quantity of train-oil. Castile soap is pure soda soap, and the blueish or red mottled appearance is produced by stirring in some sulphate of iron (green vitriol); when new it is of a blueish color, but gets red by exposure to the air.
Oils and fats combine with the oxides of several of the metals, and a combination of oxide of lead with olive oil forms a firm solid substance, or plaister, which, with the addition of a little resin, is used in surgery, and when spread upon linen or calico, forms the common adhesive plaister.
Oils and fats all consist of a combination of organic acids, (stearic, oleic, and margaric), with glycerine. When these fats are boiled with soda, potash, or metallic oxides, a combination of the oxide and fatty acid takes place, and this constitutes soap. The glycerine is then set free, and, when purified, forms a sweet, oily, colorless fluid, very similar to syrup, but not so sweet; it has lately been used for several purposes, especially as a remedy for chapped hands; a soap called “glycerine soap,” has lately been used for the same purpose; it is a soap made without separating the glycerine.
MACHINE FOR CUTTING SOAP IN BARS.
MACHINE FOR CUTTING SOAP IN BARS.
The above illustration represents an ingenious contrivance for the purpose of cutting soap.
STEARINE.The Stearine Candles, so much in use of late, are made of what chemists call “stearic acid.” It is extracted from tallow by the following process:—The fat is first melted, then boiled with water and quick lime; the lime forms a solid insoluble soap with the stearic acid of the fat. This, when cold, is dug out of the cistern and separated from the watery parts; it is then melted in a wooden cistern by means of perforated iron pipes, through which steam passes; the steam not only melts it, but condenses and runs to the bottom, thoroughly washing it; it is again allowed to cool, separated when it is mixed, stirred well with sulphuric acid and a large quantity of water, and allowed to settle. This separates all the lime, which settles to the bottom, leaving the stearine floating on the top, from whence, when cold, it is taken and again well washed with steam. The mass, after cooling, is cut into shavings by a machine consisting of a wheel, having knives attached to its edge; the shavings are put into hair-cloth bags and subjected to the most powerful pressure by means of the hydraulic press; each hair-cloth bag having a warm iron plate interposed between it and the next bag. The oily parts of the mass are, by these means, all pressed out; the remainder is again cut up and a second time pressed, leaving the pure stearine, white and crystalline like spermaceti.
The Stearine Candles, so much in use of late, are made of what chemists call “stearic acid.” It is extracted from tallow by the following process:—The fat is first melted, then boiled with water and quick lime; the lime forms a solid insoluble soap with the stearic acid of the fat. This, when cold, is dug out of the cistern and separated from the watery parts; it is then melted in a wooden cistern by means of perforated iron pipes, through which steam passes; the steam not only melts it, but condenses and runs to the bottom, thoroughly washing it; it is again allowed to cool, separated when it is mixed, stirred well with sulphuric acid and a large quantity of water, and allowed to settle. This separates all the lime, which settles to the bottom, leaving the stearine floating on the top, from whence, when cold, it is taken and again well washed with steam. The mass, after cooling, is cut into shavings by a machine consisting of a wheel, having knives attached to its edge; the shavings are put into hair-cloth bags and subjected to the most powerful pressure by means of the hydraulic press; each hair-cloth bag having a warm iron plate interposed between it and the next bag. The oily parts of the mass are, by these means, all pressed out; the remainder is again cut up and a second time pressed, leaving the pure stearine, white and crystalline like spermaceti.
SODA.(‡ Soda Furnace.)The Soda of commerce is a carbonate of soda, and it is made from sea salt. It is used in large quantities for the general purposes of washing and cleansing, and very extensively in bleaching and soap making. Soda occurs in two forms—soda ash and in crystals; the first is the crude soda before crystallization. To make soda, oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) is poured, by degrees, on a layer of sea salt, in a sort of funnel connected with a tall chimney; on the addition of the vitriol, copious fumes of the hydrochloric acid are given off; this is the acid formerly called spirit of salt. When the furnace is heated and all the acid driven off, the dried residue is taken out, it is sulphate of soda. It was formerly the custom to allow the hydrochloric acid to pass up a very tall chimney so that it may be dispersed in the air; but such an injurious effect was produced on the surrounding vegetation that this could no longer be allowed; the plan adopted was, to cause the acid to be condensed by filling the chimney with coke, and causing water to trickle through it; the acid vapours, coming into contact with this porous wet surface, is condensed into a liquid, which runs down into a cistern placed to receive it. The sulphate of soda, when taken from the furnace and cooled, is next ground in a mill with rather more than its weight of chalk, and about half its weight of coal. This mixture is placed in a furnace and raised to a sufficient heat to partly fuse it, during which time it is stirred about; the black mass which results is called by the workmen “black ball.” It is taken out and put into a cistern; water is then poured over it, and after stirring, it is drained off and evaporated to a dry mass; this is impure soda. It is mixed with coal-dust, again burnt, again washed and evaporated, by this second process the soda ash is produced, which, being dissolved, filtered and evaporated, produces large crystals of soda. The large quantity of hydrochloric acid produced in the first part of the process, is used in the of making chloric of lime. A few years back, soda was got from the ashes of the plant called “salsola soda,” and sold in the form of an impure carbonate called “barilla.”
(‡ Soda Furnace.)
The Soda of commerce is a carbonate of soda, and it is made from sea salt. It is used in large quantities for the general purposes of washing and cleansing, and very extensively in bleaching and soap making. Soda occurs in two forms—soda ash and in crystals; the first is the crude soda before crystallization. To make soda, oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) is poured, by degrees, on a layer of sea salt, in a sort of funnel connected with a tall chimney; on the addition of the vitriol, copious fumes of the hydrochloric acid are given off; this is the acid formerly called spirit of salt. When the furnace is heated and all the acid driven off, the dried residue is taken out, it is sulphate of soda. It was formerly the custom to allow the hydrochloric acid to pass up a very tall chimney so that it may be dispersed in the air; but such an injurious effect was produced on the surrounding vegetation that this could no longer be allowed; the plan adopted was, to cause the acid to be condensed by filling the chimney with coke, and causing water to trickle through it; the acid vapours, coming into contact with this porous wet surface, is condensed into a liquid, which runs down into a cistern placed to receive it. The sulphate of soda, when taken from the furnace and cooled, is next ground in a mill with rather more than its weight of chalk, and about half its weight of coal. This mixture is placed in a furnace and raised to a sufficient heat to partly fuse it, during which time it is stirred about; the black mass which results is called by the workmen “black ball.” It is taken out and put into a cistern; water is then poured over it, and after stirring, it is drained off and evaporated to a dry mass; this is impure soda. It is mixed with coal-dust, again burnt, again washed and evaporated, by this second process the soda ash is produced, which, being dissolved, filtered and evaporated, produces large crystals of soda. The large quantity of hydrochloric acid produced in the first part of the process, is used in the of making chloric of lime. A few years back, soda was got from the ashes of the plant called “salsola soda,” and sold in the form of an impure carbonate called “barilla.”
WINES.WINE MAKING.Wine is made from the juice of grapes. When the grapes are ripe, they are gathered and at once put into a press, by which all the juice is squeezed out, and the skins, stalks, and seeds left in the press. This juice, which is called “must,” is allowed to ferment, which it does of its own accord, in the countries where grapes most abound, and at the season of the year when they are gathered, without the addition of yeast or other ferment; in a few days nearly all the sugary matter contained in the “must” becomes converted into spirit, and it has now the pungent taste of wine; (if the wine is allowed to ferment too long, it is very apt to become sour), the wine is now put into casks and kept for a time, during which a slow fermentation goes on, and that substance, which is called “tartar,” is deposited in the form of a thick crust of an acidulus taste and brown color; when purified till it is quite white, it forms the cream of tartar of the druggists’ shop. The color of wine depends upon the color of the grapes used, whether white or black.Wine, at a general average, contains about 20 per cent. of spirit or alcohol; when port wine is put into bottles, a slow fermentation continues to go on, and a crust of tartar is deposited similar to that described above, and it is the separation of this tartar which causes port wine to improve by age.What are called British wines, are liquids mostly made by fermenting the juice of the fruits whose name they bear, as currant wine, gooseberry wine, &c.; but as the climate of this country is not favorable to the growth of grapes, or the spontaneous fermentation of their juice, the grape wine of England is very inferior to the foreign. The juice of any fruit required to make wine of, has to be fermented artificially; this is generally done by making it slightly warm, and floating on the surface a piece of bread soaked with yeast; the wines thus produced are very apt to become sour, and it is generally necessary to add brandy to preserve them. Many of the British wines sold in London are made of an impure weak spirit called “faints,” sweetened and flavored with various substances, as ginger, orange-peel, &c. and sell for ginger or orange wine.
WINE MAKING.
WINE MAKING.
Wine is made from the juice of grapes. When the grapes are ripe, they are gathered and at once put into a press, by which all the juice is squeezed out, and the skins, stalks, and seeds left in the press. This juice, which is called “must,” is allowed to ferment, which it does of its own accord, in the countries where grapes most abound, and at the season of the year when they are gathered, without the addition of yeast or other ferment; in a few days nearly all the sugary matter contained in the “must” becomes converted into spirit, and it has now the pungent taste of wine; (if the wine is allowed to ferment too long, it is very apt to become sour), the wine is now put into casks and kept for a time, during which a slow fermentation goes on, and that substance, which is called “tartar,” is deposited in the form of a thick crust of an acidulus taste and brown color; when purified till it is quite white, it forms the cream of tartar of the druggists’ shop. The color of wine depends upon the color of the grapes used, whether white or black.
Wine, at a general average, contains about 20 per cent. of spirit or alcohol; when port wine is put into bottles, a slow fermentation continues to go on, and a crust of tartar is deposited similar to that described above, and it is the separation of this tartar which causes port wine to improve by age.
What are called British wines, are liquids mostly made by fermenting the juice of the fruits whose name they bear, as currant wine, gooseberry wine, &c.; but as the climate of this country is not favorable to the growth of grapes, or the spontaneous fermentation of their juice, the grape wine of England is very inferior to the foreign. The juice of any fruit required to make wine of, has to be fermented artificially; this is generally done by making it slightly warm, and floating on the surface a piece of bread soaked with yeast; the wines thus produced are very apt to become sour, and it is generally necessary to add brandy to preserve them. Many of the British wines sold in London are made of an impure weak spirit called “faints,” sweetened and flavored with various substances, as ginger, orange-peel, &c. and sell for ginger or orange wine.
VINEGAR.(‡ Vinegar Fermentation Yard.)Vinegar is produced by fermenting and exposing to the air any liquor which contains sugar, such as wine, infusion of malt, cyder, &c.; by the addition of yeast, this sets up a fermentation, by means of which the sugar in any of these liquors is converted, first into spirit, and afterwards into vinegar; this contains a certain quantity of acetic acid, which makes the vinegar sour. In warm countries, vinegar is made by simply exposing the poorer kinds of wine to the sun’s rays, when they ferment and become sour. In England, all the vinegar produced is made by fermenting wort made of malt, this is fermented for three or four days, and is then put into casks, with the bunghole left open for several weeks, or until it is thoroughly sour. In ordinary vinegar, there is about five or six parts only in the hundred of real acetic acid, but this acid, when pure, is so strong as to blister the skin when dropped on it; it is often extracted from vinegar for chemical purposes, and to smell too; for when scented, it constitutes aromatic vinegar. Vinegar, besides acid and water, contains a little unchanged spirit, much coloring matter, and some mucilage.BOILER OR COPPER.COOLING APPARATUS.Vinegar is chiefly used as a condiment, and for making pickles, and has considerable powers of preserving vegetable or animal substances; if common vinegar be distilled, a weak colorless acid comes over, commonly known as white or distilled vinegar. It is a common thing to sprinkle a sick room with vinegar, under the impression that it has disinfecting properties, but this is an error; although the odour is very refreshing. Vinegar has, of late, been made by means of the vinegar plant, which is a fungus, causing a species of slow fermentation, and converting the sugar or treacle used into acetic acid.FILLING CASKS.Theheadingof this section gives a good idea of the large scale on which vinegar is made; being an accurate representation of the extensive works of Messrs. Beaufoy & Co. at Lambeth.
(‡ Vinegar Fermentation Yard.)
Vinegar is produced by fermenting and exposing to the air any liquor which contains sugar, such as wine, infusion of malt, cyder, &c.; by the addition of yeast, this sets up a fermentation, by means of which the sugar in any of these liquors is converted, first into spirit, and afterwards into vinegar; this contains a certain quantity of acetic acid, which makes the vinegar sour. In warm countries, vinegar is made by simply exposing the poorer kinds of wine to the sun’s rays, when they ferment and become sour. In England, all the vinegar produced is made by fermenting wort made of malt, this is fermented for three or four days, and is then put into casks, with the bunghole left open for several weeks, or until it is thoroughly sour. In ordinary vinegar, there is about five or six parts only in the hundred of real acetic acid, but this acid, when pure, is so strong as to blister the skin when dropped on it; it is often extracted from vinegar for chemical purposes, and to smell too; for when scented, it constitutes aromatic vinegar. Vinegar, besides acid and water, contains a little unchanged spirit, much coloring matter, and some mucilage.
BOILER OR COPPER.COOLING APPARATUS.
BOILER OR COPPER.
BOILER OR COPPER.
COOLING APPARATUS.
COOLING APPARATUS.
Vinegar is chiefly used as a condiment, and for making pickles, and has considerable powers of preserving vegetable or animal substances; if common vinegar be distilled, a weak colorless acid comes over, commonly known as white or distilled vinegar. It is a common thing to sprinkle a sick room with vinegar, under the impression that it has disinfecting properties, but this is an error; although the odour is very refreshing. Vinegar has, of late, been made by means of the vinegar plant, which is a fungus, causing a species of slow fermentation, and converting the sugar or treacle used into acetic acid.
FILLING CASKS.
FILLING CASKS.
Theheadingof this section gives a good idea of the large scale on which vinegar is made; being an accurate representation of the extensive works of Messrs. Beaufoy & Co. at Lambeth.