The pigeon will never desert its nest, unless it is either widower or widow. They manifest a great degree of affection for their offspring. When the female is sitting, the male renders her every attention that can in any way tend to her solace and comfort. The first thing that they do is to eject from the throat some saltish earth, which they have digested, into the mouths of the young ones, in order to prepare them in due time to receive their nutriment. It is a peculiarity of the pigeon and of the turtle-dove, not to throw back the neck when drinking, but to take in the water at a long draught, just as beasts of burden do.
We read in some authors that the ring-dove lives as long as thirty years, and sometimes forty, without any other inconvenience than the extreme length of the claws, which with them is the chief mark of old age; they can be cut, however, without any danger. The voice of all these birds is similar, being composed of three notes, succeeded by a mournful noise at the end. In winter they are silent, recovering their voice with coming of the spring. Nigidius expresses the opinion that the ring-dove will abandon the place, if she hears her name mentioned under the roof where she is sitting on her eggs: they hatch their young at the summer solstice. Pigeons and turtle-doves live eight years. The sparrow, on the other hand, is short-lived in the extreme. Pigeons appear to have a certain appreciation of glory. They are well aware of the colors of their plumage, and the various shades which it presents, and even in their very mode of flying they court our applause, as they cleave the air in every direction. Through this spirit of ostentation they are handed over, fast bound as it were, to the hawk; for from the flapping of theirwings, their long feathers become twisted and disordered; while if they can fly without any impediment, they are far swifter in their movements than the hawk. The robber, lurking amid the dense foliage, keeps on the look-out for them, and seizes them at the very moment that they are indulging their vain-glorious self-complaisance.
For this reason it is necessary to keep along with the pigeons the bird that is known as the “tinnunculus;” as it protects them, and by its natural superiority scares away the hawk. The hawk will vanish at the very sight of it, or the instant it hears its voice. Pigeons have a special regard for this bird; and, it is said, if one of these birds is buried at each of the four corners of the pigeon-house in pots that have been newly glazed, the pigeons will not change their abode—a result which has been obtained by some keepers of pigeons, by cutting a joint of their wings with an instrument of gold; for if any other were used, the wounds would be attended with danger.—The pigeon in general may be looked upon as a bird fond of change; they have the art, too, among themselves of gaining one another over, and so proselyting companions: we frequently find them returning to the cote attended by others which they have enticed away.
Pigeons have frequently acted as messengers in affairs of importance. During the siege of Mutina, Decimus Brutus, who was in the town, sent despatches to the camp of the consuls fastened to pigeons’ feet. Of what use to Antony then were his intrenchments, and all the vigilance of the besieging army? or his nets, which he had spread in the river, while the messenger of the besieged was cleaving the air?
Many persons have a mania for pigeons—building towns for them on the top of their roofs, and taking a pleasure in relating the pedigree and noble origin of each. Of this there is an ancient instance which is very remarkable; Lucius Axius, a Roman of the equestrian order, shortly before the Civil War of Pompey, sold a single pair for four hundred denarii,so Marcus Varro tells us. Countries even have gained renown for their pigeons; it is thought that those of Campania attain the largest size.
Mentioning the flight of the pigeon leads me to consider that of other birds. All other animals have one determinate mode of progression, which in every kind is always the same; birds alone have two modes of moving—on the ground, and in the air. Some of them walk, such as the crow, for instance; some hop, as the sparrow and the blackbird; some run, as the partridge and the woodhen; while others throw one foot before the other, like the stork and the crane. Then again, in their flight, some birds expand their wings, and poising themselves in the air, only move them from time to time; others move them more frequently, but then only at the extremities; while others expand them so as to expose the whole of the side. On the other hand, some fly with the greater part of the wings kept close to the side; and some, after striking the air once, others twice, make their way through it, as though pressing upon it enclosed beneath their wings; other birds dart aloft in a vertical direction, others horizontally, and others come falling straight downwards. You would almost think that some had been hurled upwards with a violent effort, and that others had fallen straight down from aloft; while others still are seen to spring forward in their flight. Ducks alone, and the other birds of that kind, in an instant raise themselves aloft, taking a spring from the spot where they stand straight upwards towards the heavens; and this they can do directly from the water. They are theonly birds that can make their escape from the pitfalls which we employ for the capture of wild beasts.
The vulture and the heavier wild birds can only fly after taking a run, or else by commencing their flight from an elevated spot. They use the tail by way of rudder. There are some birds that are able to see all around them; others have to turn the neck to do so. Some of them eat what they have seized, holding it in their feet. Many, as they fly, utter some cry, while others are always silent. Some fly with the breast half upright, others with it held downwards, others fly obliquely, or side-ways, and others follow the direction of the bill. The fact is, that if we were to see several kinds at the same moment, we should not suppose that they were adapted to the same element.
Those birds which are known as “apodes”[178]fly the most of all, because they are deprived of the use of their feet. They are a species of swallow which build their nests in the rocks, and are the same birds that are to be seen everywhere at sea. However far a ship may go, however long its voyage, and however great the distance from land, the apodes never cease to hover around it. Other birds settle and rest, but these know no repose save in the nest; they are always either on the wing or asleep.
The instincts of birds are no less varied in relation to their food. The “Caprimulgus,” or goat-milker, is the name of a bird, which is to all appearance a large blackbird; it thievesby night, as it cannot see during the day. It enters the folds of the shepherds, and makes straight for the udder of the she-goat, to suck the milk. Through the injury thus inflicted the udder shrivels away, and the goat that has been thus deprived of its milk, is afflicted with incipient blindness.
“Platea,” or spoon-bill, is the name of another, which pounces upon other birds when they have dived in the sea, and, seizing the head with its bill, makes them let go their prey. This bird will swallow and fill itself with shell-fish, shells and all, and after the natural heat of its crop has softened them, it will bring them up again, pick out the shells from the rest, and choose the parts that are fit for food.
SPOTTED KING FISHER.—Céryle Guttáta.
SPOTTED KING FISHER.—Céryle Guttáta.
The farm-yard fowls have a certain notion of religion; upon laying an egg they shudder all over, and then shake their feathers; after which they turn round and purify[179]themselves, or else hallow[180]themselves and their eggs with some stalk or other. The carduelis, which is the very smallest bird of any, will do what it is bid, not only with the voice but with the feet as well, and with the beak, which serves it instead of hands. There is one small bird, found in the territory of Arelate, that imitates the lowing of oxen, from which circumstance it has received the name of “taurus.” Another, called the anthus, imitates the neighing of the horse; upon being driven from the pasture bythe approach of the horses, it will mimic their voices—taking this method of revenging itself.
But remarkable as it may seem, there are some birds that can imitate the human voice; the parrot, for instance, can even converse. India sends us this bird, which it calls by the name of “sittaces;” the body is green all over, except a ring of red around the neck. It will formally salute an emperor, and pronounce the words it has heard spoken; it is rendered especially frolicsome under the influence of wine. Its head is as hard as its beak; and this, when it is being taught to talk, is beaten with a rod of iron, for otherwise it is quite insensible to blows. When it lights on the ground it falls upon its beak, and by resting upon it makes itself all the lighter for its feet, which are naturally weak.
RHINOCEROS HORNBILL.—Búceros Rhinoceros.
RHINOCEROS HORNBILL.—Búceros Rhinoceros.
The magpie is much less famous for its talking qualities than the parrot, because it does not come from a distance, and yet it can speak with much more distinctness. These birds love to hear words spoken which they can utter; and not only do they learn them, but are pleased at the task; and as they con them over to themselves with the greatest care and attention, make no secret of the interest they feel. It is a well-known fact, that a magpie has died before now, when it has found itself mastered by a difficult word that it could not pronounce.Their memory, however, will fail them if they do not from time to time hear the same word repeated; and while they are trying to recollect it, they will show the most extravagant joy, if they happen to hear it. Their appearance, although there is nothing remarkable in it, is by no means plain; but they have quite enough in the way of attractions in their singular ability to imitate human speech.
Only that kind of pie[181]which feeds upon acorns can be taught to speak; and among these, those which have five toes on each foot[182]can be taught with the greatest facility; but even in their case only during the first two years of their life. The magpie has a broad tongue, as do all the birds that can imitate the human voice; although some individuals of almost every kind have the faculty of doing so.
Agrippina, the wife of Claudius Cæsar, had a thrush that could imitate human speech, a thing that was never known before. At the moment that I am writing this, the young Cæsars[183]have a starling and some nightingales that are being taught to talk in Greek and Latin; besides which, they are studying their task the whole day, continually repeating the new words that they have learnt, and giving utterance to phrases of considerable length. Birds are taught to talk in a retired spot, where no other voice can be heard, so as to interfere with their lesson; a person sits by them, and continually repeats the words he wishes them to learn, while at the same time he encourages them by giving them food.
Let us do justice to the raven, whose merits have been attested not only by the kindlier sentiments of the Roman people, but also by the strong expression of their indignation. In the reign of Tiberius, one of a brood of ravens that had bred on the top of the temple of Castor, happened to fly intoa shoemaker’s shop that stood opposite: upon which, from a feeling of religious veneration, it was looked upon as doubly recommended by the owner of the place. The bird, having been taught to speak at an early age, used every morning to fly to the Rostra, which look towards the Forum; here, addressing each by his name, it would salute Tiberius, and then the Cæsars[184]Germanicus and Drusus, after which it would proceed to greet the Roman populace as they passed, and then return to the shop: for several years it was remarkable for the constancy of its attendance. The owner of another shoemaker’s shop in the neighborhood, in a sudden fit of anger killed the bird, enraged, as he would have had it appear, because it had soiled some shoes of his. Upon this, such rage was manifested by the multitude, that he was at once driven from that part of the city, and soon after put to death. The funeral, too, of the bird was celebrated with almost endless obsequies; the body was placed upon a litter carried upon the shoulders of two Æthiopians, preceded by a piper, and borne to the pile with garlands of every size and description. The pile was erected on the right-hand side of the Appian Way, at the second milestone from the City, in the field generally known as the “field of Rediculus.”[185]Thus did the rare talent of a bird appear a sufficient ground to the Roman people for honoring it with funeral obsequies, as well as for inflicting punishment on a Roman citizen. No such crowds ever escorted the funeral of any one out of the whole number of its distinguished men.
At the present day, there is in the city of Rome a crow which belongs to a Roman of equestrian rank, and was brought from Bætica. It is remarkable for its color, which is of the deepest black, and is able to pronounce several connectedwords, while repeatedly learning fresh ones. Recently, too, there has been a story told about Craterus of Erizena in Asia, who was in the habit of hunting with the assistance of ravens, and used to carry them into the woods, perched on the tuft of his helmet and on his shoulders. The birds used to keep on the watch for game, and raise it; and by training he had brought this art to such a pitch of perfection, that even the wild ravens would attend him in a similar manner when he went out. Some authors have thought the following circumstance deserving of remembrance:—A crow that was thirsty was seen heaping stones into the urn on a monument, in which there was some rain-water which it could not reach: by thus accumulating the stones, it raised the level of the water till it came within its reach.
I must not pass by the birds of Diomedes in silence. Juba calls them “cataractæ,” and says that they have teeth and eyes of a fiery color, while the rest of the body is white: they always have two chiefs, the one to lead the main body, the other to take charge of the rear, they excavate holes with their bills, and then cover them with hurdles, which they cover again with the earth that has been thus thrown up; in these places they hatch their young; each of these holes has two outlets—one of them looking towards the east, by which they go forth to feed, returning by the one which looks towards the west. In one only spot throughout the whole earth are these birds to be seen—in the island which is famous for the tomb and shrine of Diomedes, lying over against the coast of Apulia: they bear a strong resemblance to the coot. When strangers who are barbarians arrive on that island, they pursue them with loud and clamorous cries, and only show courtesy to Greeks by birth; seeming thereby, with a wonderful discernment, to pay respect to them as the fellow-countrymen of Diomedes. Every day they fill their throats, and cover their feathers, with water, and so wash and purify the temple there. From this circumstance arises the fablethat the companions of Diomedes were metamorphosed into these birds.
We ought not to omit, while we are speaking of instincts, that among birds the swallow[186]is quite incapable of being taught, and among land animals the mouse; while on the other hand, the elephant does what it is ordered, the lion submits to the yoke, and the sea-calf and many kinds of fishes are capable of being tamed.
Birds drink by suction; those which have a long neck taking their drink in a succession of draughts, and throwing the head back, as though they were pouring the water down the throat. The porphyrio is the only bird that seems to bite at the water as it drinks. The same bird has also other peculiarities of its own; for it will every now and then dip its food in the water, and then lift it with its foot to its bill, using it as a hand. Those that are the most esteemed are found in Commagene. They have beaks and very long red legs.
KING PENGUIN.—Aptenodytes Pennantii.
KING PENGUIN.—Aptenodytes Pennantii.
All the heavy birds are frugivorous; while those with ahigher flight feed upon flesh only. Among the aquatic birds, the divers are in the habit of devouring what the other birds have disgorged.
The pelican is similar in appearance to the swan, and nobody would imagine there was any difference between them, were it not for the fact that under the throat there is a sort of second crop. In this the ever-insatiate animal stows everything away, till the capacity of this pouch is quite astonishing. Having finished its search for prey, it discharges bit by bit what it has thus stowed away, and reconveys it by a sort of ruminating process into its real stomach. The part of Gallia that lies nearest to the Northern Ocean produces this bird.
We hear of a singular kind of bird in the Hercynian Forest, in Germany, the feathers of which shine at night like fire; the other birds there have nothing remarkable beyond the celebrity which generally attaches to objects situated at a distance.
During the civil wars that took place at Bebriacum, beyond the river Padus, the “new birds” were introduced into Italy—for by that name they are still known. They resemble the thrush in appearance, are a little smaller than the pigeon in size, and of an agreeable flavor. The Balearic islands also send us a porphyrio or flamingo, as well as the buteo, a kind of hawk, held in high esteem for the table, and the vipio, the name given to a small kind of crane.
I look upon the birds as fabulous which are called “pegasi,” and are said to have a horse’s head; as also the griffons, with long ears and a hooked beak. The same is my opinion, also, as to the tragopan; many writers, however, assert that it is larger than the eagle, has curved horns on the temples, and a plumage of iron color, with the exception of the head, which is purple. Nor do the sirens obtain any greater credit with me, although Dinon, the father of Clearchus, a celebrated writer, asserts that they exist in India, and that they charm men by their song, and, having first lulled them to sleep, tearthem to pieces. The person, however, who may think fit to believe in these tales, may probably not refuse to believe also that dragons licked the ears of Melampodes, and bestowed upon him the power of understanding the language of birds; or what Democritus says, when he gives the names of certain birds, by the mixture of whose blood a serpent is produced, the person who eats of which will be able to understand the language of birds; as well as the statements which the same writer makes relative to one bird in particular, known as the “galerita,” or crested lark—indeed, the science of augury is already too much involved in embarrassing questions, without these fanciful reveries.
The people of Delos were the first to cram poultry, and to originate that abominable mania for devouring fattened birds, larded with the grease of their own bodies. I find in the ancient sumptuary regulations as to banquets, that this was forbidden for the first time by a law of the consul Caius Fannius, eleven years before the Third Punic War; by which it was ordered that no bird should be served at table beyond a single pullet, and that not fattened; an article which has since made its appearance in all the sumptuary laws. A method, however, has been devised of evading it, by feeding poultry upon food that has been soaked in milk: prepared in this fashion, they are considered still more delicate. Not all pullets are looked upon as equally good for the purposes of fattening, but only those are selected which have a fatty skin about the neck. Then come all the arts and affectations of the kitchen—that the thighs may have a nice plump appearance, that the bird may be properly divided down the back,and that poultry may be brought to such a size that a single leg shall fill a whole platter. The Parthians have taught their fashions to our cooks; yet after all, in spite of their refinements in luxury, no article is found to please equally in every part, for in one it is the thigh, and in another the breast that is esteemed.
The first person who invented aviaries for the reception of all kinds of birds was Marcus Lænius Strabo, a member of the equestrian order, who resided at Brundisium. In his time we thus began to imprison animals to which Nature had assigned the heavens as their element.
But more remarkable than anything else in this respect, is the story of the dish of Clodius Æsopus, the tragic actor, which was valued at one hundred thousand sesterces, and in which were served up nothing but birds that had been remarkable for their song, or their imitation of the human voice, and he purchased each of them at the price of six thousand sesterces, being induced to this folly by no other pleasure than that in these he might eat the closest imitators of man; never for a moment reflecting that his own immense fortune had been acquired by the advantages of his voice; a parent right worthy of the son of whom we have already made mention as swallowing pearls. It would not be very easy to decide which of the two was guilty of the greatest baseness, unless, indeed, we admit that it was less unseemly to banquet upon the most costly of all the productions of Nature, than to devour tongues which had given utterance to the language of man.
The salamander, an animal like a lizard in shape, and with a body starred all over, never comes out except during heavy showers, and disappears the moment it becomes fine. This animal is so intensely cold as to extinguish fire by its contact, in the same way as ice does. It spits forth a milky matter from its mouth; and from whatever part of the human body is touched with this, all the hair falls off, and the part assumes the appearance of leprosy.
GIGANTIC SALAMANDER—Sieboldia Maxima.
GIGANTIC SALAMANDER—Sieboldia Maxima.
Man excels most in his sense of touch, and next in that sense of taste. In other respects, he is surpassed by many of the animals. Eagles can see more clearly than any other animals, while vultures have the better smell; moles hear more distinctly than others, although buried in the earth, so dense and sluggish an element as it is; and though every sound has a tendency upwards, they can hear the words that are spoken; and, it is said, that if you talk about them, they will take to flight immediately. Among men, a person who has not enjoyed the sense of hearing in his infancy, is deprived of the powers of speech as well. Among the marine animals, it is not probable that oysters enjoy the sense of hearing, but it is said that the instant a noise is made the solen will sink to thebottom; for this reason silence is observed by persons while fishing at sea.
Fish have neither organs of hearing, nor the exterior orifice. And yet, it is quite certain that they do hear; for it is a well-known fact, that in some fish-ponds they are in the habit of being assembled to be fed by the clapping of the hands. In the fish-ponds, too, that belong to the Emperor, the fish are in the habit of coming, each kind as it hears its name. So the mullet, the wolf-fish, the salpa, and the chromis, have a very exquisite sense of hearing, and for this reason they frequent shallow water.
HEMIGALE—Hemigale Hardwickii.
HEMIGALE—Hemigale Hardwickii.
It is quite manifest that fish have also the sense of smell; for they are not all to be taken with the same bait, and are seen to smell at it before they seize it. Some, too, that are concealed in the bottom of holes, are driven out by the fisherman, by the aid of the smell of salted fish; with this he rubs the entrance of their retreat in the rock, immediately upon which they take to flight from the spot, as though they had recognized the dead carcasses of those of their kind. Then they will rise to the surface at the smell of certain odors, such, for instance, as roasted sæpia and polypus; these baits are placed in the osier kipes used for taking fish. They immediately take to flight upon smelling the bilge water in a ship’s hold, and especially upon scenting the blood of fish.
The polypus cannot possibly be torn away from the rock to which it clings; but, apply the herb cunila, and the instant it smells it the fish quits its hold. Purples also are taken by means of fetid substances. As to the other kinds of animals, who is there that can feel any doubt that they possess thesense of smell? Serpents are driven away by the smell of harts’ horns, and ants are killed by the odors of origanum, lime, or sulphur. Gnats are attracted by acids, but not by anything sweet.
All animals have the sense of touch, even those which have no other sense; in the oyster and the worm, this sense is found.
I am strongly inclined to believe, too, that the sense of taste exists in all animals; for why else should one seek one kind of food, and another another? In this is to be seen the wondrous power of Nature, the framer of all things. Some animals seize their prey with their teeth, others with their claws; some tear it to pieces with their hooked beak; others, that have a broad bill, wabble in their food; others, with a sharp nib, work holes into it; others suck at their food, lick it, sup it in, chew it, or bolt it whole. And no less a diversity is there in the uses they make of their feet, for the purpose of carrying, tearing asunder, holding, squeezing, suspending their bodies, or incessantly scratching the ground.
Serpents will feed on eggs, and the address displayed by the dragon is quite remarkable. For it will either swallow the egg whole, if its jaws will allow of it, and roll over and over so as to break it within, and then by coughing eject the shells: or else, if it is too young to be able to do so, it will gradually encircle the egg with its coils, and hold it so tight as to break it at the end, just, in fact, as though a piece had been cut out with a knife; then holding the remaining part in its folds, it will suck the contents.
Scorpions live on earth. Serpents, when an opportunity presents itself, show an especial liking for wine, although in other respects they need but very little drink. These animals, when kept shut up, require but little aliment, hardly any at all, in fact. The same is the case also with spiders, which at other times live by suction. No venomous animal will die of hunger or thirst. The sphingium and the satyr stow away food in the pouches of their cheeks, after which they will take it out piece by piece with their hands and eat it; thus they do for a day or an hour what the ant usually does for the whole year.
GROUP OF RODENT ANIMALS.
GROUP OF RODENT ANIMALS.
The only animal with toes upon the feet that feeds upon grass is the hare, and he will eat corn as well; while the solid-hoofed animals, and the swine among the cloven-footed ones, will eat all kinds of food, as well as roots. To roll over and over is a peculiarity of the animals with a solid hoof. All those which have serrated teeth are carnivorous. Bears live also upon corn, leaves, grapes, fruit, bees, crabs and ants; wolves will eat earth even when they are famishing. Cattle grow fat by drinking; hence salt agrees with them well. All animals ruminate lying in preference to standing, and more in winter than in summer. The Pontic mouse also ruminates in a similar manner.
THE CAT—Felis Doméstica.
THE CAT—Felis Doméstica.
In drinking, those animals which have serrated or canine teeth, lap; and common mice do the same, although they belong to another class. Those which have the teeth continuous, horses and oxen, for instance, sup; bears do neither the one nor the other, but seem to bite at the water, and so devour it. In Africa, the greater part of the wild beasts do not drink in summer, through the want of rain; the mice of Libya, when caught, will die if they drink. The ever-thirsting plains of Africa produce the oryx, an animal which, in consequence of the nature of its native locality, never drinks, and which, in a remarkable manner, affords a remedy against drought: forthe Gætulian bandits by its aid fortify themselves against thirst, by finding in its body certain vesicles filled with a most wholesome liquid. In this same Africa, also, the pards conceal themselves in the thick foliage of the trees, and then spring down from the branches on any creature that may happen to be passing by, thus occupying what are ordinarily the haunts of the birds. With what silent stealthiness, with what light steps do the cats creep towards a bird! How slily they will sit and watch, and then dart out upon a mouse!
We shall now proceed to a description of insects, a subject replete with endless difficulties. Insects are numerous, and form many species, and their mode of life is like that of the terrestrial animals and the birds. Some, like bees, are furnished with wings; others are divided into those kinds which have wings, and those which are without them, such as ants; while others, again, are destitute of both wings and feet. All these animals have been very properly called “insects,” from the incisures or divisions which separate the body, sometimes at the neck, and sometimes at the corselet, and so divide it into members or segments, only united to each other by a slender tube. In some insects, however, this division is not complete, as it is surrounded by wrinkled folds; and the flexible vertebrae of the creature, whether situate at the abdomen, or whether only at the upper part of the body, are protected by layers, overlapping each other; indeed, in no one of her works has Nature more fully displayed her exhaustless ingenuity.
In large animals, on the other hand, or, at all events, in the very largest among them, she found her task easy and her materials ready and pliable; but in these minute creatures, so nearly akin as they are to nonentity, how surpassing the intelligence, how vast the resources, and how ineffable the perfection which she has displayed. Where is it that she hasunited so many senses as in the gnat?—not to speak of creatures that might be mentioned of still smaller size—Where, I say, has she found room to place in it the organs of sight? Where has she centred the sense of taste? Where has she inserted the power of smell? And where, too, has she implanted that sharp shrill voice of the creature, so utterly disproportioned to the smallness of its body? With what astonishing subtlety has she united the wings to the trunk, elongated the joints of the legs, framed that long craving concavity for a belly, and then inflamed the animal with an insatiate thirst for blood, that of man especially! What ingenuity has she displayed in providing it with a sting,[187]so well adapted for piercing the skin! And then too, just as though she had had the most extensive field for the exercise of her skill, although the weapon is so minute that it can hardly be seen, she has formed it with a twofold mechanism, providing it with a point for the purpose of piercing, and at the same moment making it hollow, to adapt it for suction.
What teeth, too, has she inserted in the teredo, to adapt it for piercing even oak with a sound which fully attests their destructive power! while at the same time she has made wood its principal nutriment. We willingly yield our admiration to the shoulders of the elephant as they support the turret, to the stalwart neck of the bull, and the might with which it hurls aloft whatever comes in its way, to the onslaught of the tiger, or to the mane of the lion; while at the same time, Nature is nowhere to be seen to greater perfection than in the very smallest of her works. For this reason then, I must beg of my readers, notwithstanding the contempt they feel for many of these objects, not to feel a similar disdain for the information I am about to give relative thereto, seeing that, in the study of Nature, there are none of her works that are unworthy of our consideration.
Many authors deny that insects breathe, upon the ground that in their viscera there is no respiratory organ[188]to be found. They assert that insects have the same kind of life as plants and trees, there being a very great difference between respiring and merely having life. On similar grounds also, they assert that insects have no blood, a thing which cannot exist, they say, in any animal that is destitute of heart and liver; just as, according to them, those creatures cannot breathe which have no lungs. Upon these points, however, a vast number of questions will naturally arise; for the same writers do not hesitate to deny that these creatures are destitute also of voice,[189]and this, notwithstanding the humming of bees, the chirping of grasshoppers, and the sounds emitted by numerous other insects which will be considered in their respective places. For my part, whenever I have considered the subject, I have ever felt persuaded that there is nothing impossible to Nature, nor do I see why creatures should be less able to live and yet not inhale, than to respire without being possessed of viscera, a doctrine which I have already maintained, when speaking of the marine animals; and that, notwithstanding the density and the vast depth of the water which would appear to impede all breathing. But what person could very easily believe that there can be any creatures that fly to and fro, and live in the very midst of the element of respiration, while, at the same time, they themselves are devoid of that respiration; that they can be possessed of the requisiteinstincts for nourishment, working, and making provision even for time to come, in the enjoyment too of the powers of hearing, smelling, and tasting, as well as those other precious gifts of Nature, address, courage, and skilfulness? That these creatures have no blood I am ready to admit, just as all the terrestrial animals are not possessed of it; but they have something similar, by way of equivalent.[190]
Insects, so far as I find myself able to ascertain, seem to have neither sinews,[191]bones, spines, cartilages, fat, nor flesh; nor yet so much as a frail shell, like some of the marine animals, nor even anything that can with any propriety be termed skin; but they have a body which is of a kind of intermediate nature between all these, of an arid substance, softer than muscle, and in other respects of a nature that may, in strictness, be rather pronounced yielding, than hard. Such, then, is all that they are, and nothing more: in the inside of their bodies there is nothing, except in a few, which have an intestine arranged in folds. Hence, even when cut asunder, they are remarkable for their tenacity of life, and the palpitations which are to be seen in each of their parts. For every portion of them is possessed of its own vital principle, which is centred in no limb in particular, but in every part of the body; least of all, however, in the head, which alone is subject to no movements unless torn off together with the corselet. No kind of animal has more feet than the insects have, and those which have the most, live the longest when cut asunder, as we see in the case of the scolopendra. They have eyes, as well the senses of touch and taste; some of them have also the sense of smelling, and a few that of hearing.
But among them all, the first rank, and our special admiration, ought, in justice, to be accorded to bees, which alone, of all the insects, appear to have been created for the benefit of man. They extract honey and collect it, a juicy substance remarkable for its extreme sweetness, lightness, and wholesomeness. They form their combs and collect wax, an article that is useful for a thousand purposes of life; they are patient of fatigue, toil at their labors, form themselves into political communities, hold councils together in private, elect chiefs in common, and, a thing that is the most remarkable of all, have their own code of morals. In addition to this, being as they are neither tame nor wild, so all-powerful is Nature, that, from a creature so minute as to be nothing more hardly than the shadow of an animal, she has created a marvel beyond all comparison. What muscular power, what exertion of strength are we to put in comparison with such vast energy and industry as theirs? What display of human genius, in a word, shall we compare with the reasoning powers manifested by them? In this they have, at all events, the advantage of us—they know of nothing but what is for the common benefit of all. Away, then, with all questions whether they breathe or no, and let us be ready to agree on the question of their blood.—And now let us form some idea of the instinct they display.
Bees keep within the hive during the winter—for whence are they to derive the strength requisite to withstand frosts and snows, and the northern blasts? The same, in fact, is done by all insects, but not to so late a period; as those which conceal themselves in the walls of our houses are much sooner sensible of the returning warmth. With reference tobees, either seasons and climates have considerably changed, or else former writers have been greatly mistaken. They retire for the winter at the setting of the Vergiliæ, and remain shut up till after the rising of that constellation, well past the beginning of spring. They do not come forth to ply their labors until the bean blossoms; but then not a day do they lose in inactivity, while the weather is favorable for their pursuits.
First of all, they set about constructing their combs, and forming the wax, or, in other words, making their dwellings and cells; after this they produce their eggs and then make honey and wax from flowers, and extract bee-glue from the tears of those trees which distil glutinous substances, the juices, gums, and resins, namely, of the willow, the elm, and the reed. With these substances, as well as others of a more bitter nature, they first line the whole inside of the hive, as a sort of protection against the greedy propensities of other small insects, as they are well aware that they are about to form that which will prove an object of attraction to them. Having done this, they employ similar substances in narrowing the entrance to the hive, if otherwise too wide.
The bees also form collections of “bee-bread” to serve as the food of the bees while they are at work, and is often found stowed away in the cavities of the cells, being of a bitter flavor. It is produced from the spring dews and the gummy juices of trees, being less abundant while the south-west wind is blowing, and blackened by the prevalence of a south wind. Sometimes it is of a reddish color and becomes improved by the north-east wind; it is found in the greatest abundance upon the nut trees in Greece.
Bees form wax from the blossoms of almost all trees and plants. Where olives are in the greatest abundance, the swarms of bees are the most numerous. Bees are not injurious to fruit of any kind; they will never settle on a dead flower, much less a dead carcass. They pursue their laborswithin three-score paces of their hives; and when the flowers in their vicinity are exhausted, they send out scouts from time to time, to discover places for forage at a greater distance. When overtaken by night in their expeditions, they watch till the morning, lying on their backs, in order to protect their wings from the action of the dew.
It is not surprising that there have been persons who have made bees their exclusive study; Aristomachus of Soli, for instance, who for a period of fifty-eight years did nothing else; Philiscus of Thasos, also, surnamed Agrius, who passed his life in desert spots, tending swarms of bees. Both of these have written works on this subject.
The manner in which bees carry on their work is as follows. In the day time a guard is stationed at the entrance of the hive, like the sentries in a camp. At night they take their rest until one of them awakes the others in the morning with a humming noise, repeated twice or thrice, just as though it were sounding a trumpet. They then take their flight in a body, if the day is likely to turn out fine; for they have the gift of foreknowing wind and rain, and in such case will keep close within their dwellings. On the other hand, in fine weather the swarm issues forth, and at once applies itself to its work, some loading their legs from the flowers, while others fill their mouths with water, and charge the downy surface of their bodies with drops of liquid. Those among them that are young go forth to their labors, and collect the materials already mentioned, while those that are more aged stay within the hives and work. The bees whose businessit is to carry the flowers use their fore feet to load their thighs, which Nature has made rough for the purpose, and with their trunks load their fore feet: bending beneath their load, they then return to the hive, where there are three or four bees ready to receive them and aid in discharging their burdens. For, within the hive as well, they have their allotted duties to perform: some are engaged in building, others in smoothing the combs, while others again are occupied in passing on the materials, and others in preparing food from the provision which has been brought; that there may be no unequal division, either in their labor, their food, or the distribution of their time, they do not even feed separately.
Commencing at the vaulted roof of the hive, they begin the construction of their cells, and, just as we do in the manufacture of a web, they construct their cells from top to bottom, taking care to leave two passages around each compartment, for the entrance of some and the exit of others. The combs, which are fastened to the hive in the upper part, and in a slight degree also at the sides, adhere to each other, and are thus suspended altogether. They do not touch the floor of the hive, and are either angular or round, according to its shape; sometimes, in fact, they are both angular and round at once, when two swarms are living in unison, but have dissimilar modes of operation. They prop up the combs that are likely to fall, by means of arched pillars, at intervals springing from the floor, so as to leave them a passage for the purpose of effecting repairs. The first three ranks of their cells are generally left empty when constructed; and the last ones, especially, are filled with honey: hence the combs are always taken out at the back of the hive.
The bees that are employed in carrying look out for a favorable breeze, and if a gale should happen to spring up, they poise themselves in the air with little stones, by way of ballast; some writers say that they place them upon their shoulders. When the wind is contrary, they fly close to theground, taking care, however, to keep clear of the brambles. It is wonderful what strict watch is kept upon their work: all instances of idleness are carefully remarked, the offenders are chastised, and on a repetition of the fault, punished with death. Their sense of cleanliness, too, is quite extraordinary; everything is removed that might be in the way, and the rubbish and waste bits made by those that are at work within, is all collected into one spot, and on stormy days, when they are obliged to cease their ordinary labors, they employ themselves in carrying it out. Towards evening, the buzzing in the hive becomes gradually less and less, until at last one of their number is to be seen flying about the hive with the same loud humming noise with which they were aroused in the morning, thereby giving the signal, as it were, to retire to rest: in this, too, they imitate the usage of the camp. The moment the signal is heard, all is silent.
They first construct the dwellings of the commonalty, then those of the king-bee. If they have reason to expect an abundant[192]season, they add abodes also for the drones: these are cells of a smaller size, though the drones themselves are larger than the bees.
The drones have no sting, and would seem to be a kind of imperfect bee, formed the very last of all; a late and tardy offspring, and doomed, in a measure, to be the slaves of the genuine bees. The others exercise over them a rigorous authority, compel them to take the foremost rank in their labors, and if they show any sluggishness, punish them[193]without mercy. When the honey is beginning to come to maturity, the bees drive away the drones, and setting upon each in great numbers, put them all to death. It is only in the spring that the drones are ever to be seen. If youdeprive a drone of its wings, and then replace it in the hive, it will pull off the wings of the other drones.
In the lower part of the hive they construct for their future sovereign a palatial abode, spacious and grand, separated from the rest, and surmounted by a sort of dome: if this prominence should happen to be flattened, all hopes of progeny are lost. All the cells are hexagonal. No part of this work is done at any stated time, as the bees seize every opportunity for the performance of their task when the days are fine; in one or two days, at most, they fill their cells with honey.
The honey is always best in those countries where it is to be found deposited in the calix of the most exquisite flowers, such, for instance, as the districts of Hymettus in Attica, and Hybla in Sicily, and after them the island of Calydna. At first, honey is thin, like water, after which it effervesces for some days, and purifies itself like must. On the twentieth day it begins to thicken, and soon after becomes covered with a thin membrane, which gradually increases through the scum which is thrown up by the heat. The honey of the very finest flavor, and the least tainted by the leaves of trees, is that gathered from the foliage of the oak and the linden, and from reeds.
In some countries we find the honey-comb remarkable for the goodness of the wax, as in Sicily and the country of the Peligni; in other places the honey itself is found in greater abundance, as in Crete, Cyprus, and Africa; and in others, again, the comb is remarkable for its size; in Germany a comb has been known to be as much as eight feet in length.
In taking the combs the greatest care is always requisite, for the bees become desperate when stinted for food, and either pine to death, or wing their flight to other places: on the other hand, over-abundance will entail idleness, and they will feed upon the honey, and not the bee bread. The most careful breeders take care to leave the bees a fifteenth part of this gathering.