HOW THE NERVES RUN INTO THE SPINAL CORD ON THE WAY TO THE BRAINThe lower drawing shows how the spinal cord rests in the backbone, and how the nerves pass in and out, those of sensation passing into the spinal cord, as shown in the magnified section above.THE AREAS OF THE TONGUE IN WHICH THE CELLS OF TASTE ARE DISTRIBUTEDThe tongue is covered with various types of taste-bulbs, most of the distinct types that appreciate the sweet, the acid, and the bitter being found in the areas marked on the diagram.
HOW THE NERVES RUN INTO THE SPINAL CORD ON THE WAY TO THE BRAINThe lower drawing shows how the spinal cord rests in the backbone, and how the nerves pass in and out, those of sensation passing into the spinal cord, as shown in the magnified section above.
HOW THE NERVES RUN INTO THE SPINAL CORD ON THE WAY TO THE BRAIN
The lower drawing shows how the spinal cord rests in the backbone, and how the nerves pass in and out, those of sensation passing into the spinal cord, as shown in the magnified section above.
THE AREAS OF THE TONGUE IN WHICH THE CELLS OF TASTE ARE DISTRIBUTEDThe tongue is covered with various types of taste-bulbs, most of the distinct types that appreciate the sweet, the acid, and the bitter being found in the areas marked on the diagram.
THE AREAS OF THE TONGUE IN WHICH THE CELLS OF TASTE ARE DISTRIBUTED
The tongue is covered with various types of taste-bulbs, most of the distinct types that appreciate the sweet, the acid, and the bitter being found in the areas marked on the diagram.
THE OUTER SIDE OF THE NOSE, SHOWING THE NERVES OF SMELL AND FEELINGTHE INNER PART OF THE NOSE, SHOWING THE FIBRES FROM THE OLFACTORY BULB
THE OUTER SIDE OF THE NOSE, SHOWING THE NERVES OF SMELL AND FEELING
THE OUTER SIDE OF THE NOSE, SHOWING THE NERVES OF SMELL AND FEELING
THE INNER PART OF THE NOSE, SHOWING THE FIBRES FROM THE OLFACTORY BULB
THE INNER PART OF THE NOSE, SHOWING THE FIBRES FROM THE OLFACTORY BULB
The nose is composed partly of bone and partly of cartilage, the cartilages being firmly attached to the bones and to one another by fibrous tissue.
The bridge consists of the two nasal bones which are projections of the frontal bone of the forehead. From these are continued the nasal cartilages which form one-half to two-thirds of the external nose.
The interior is a large and complicated chamber divided into the right and left nares, or nostrils, by the partition called theseptum. This, like the external part, consists of cartilage in front, attached to bone at the back.
The Nostrils, opening on the face in front, run backward for about two inches and open into the pharynx behind. But the single canal is divided into three separate passages some distance inward. This division is effected by the turbinated bones which jut out into the nostril and thus form the upper, middle, and lower air-channels. In this way the warm surface with which cold inhaled air comes in contact is greatly enlarged.
From the mouth cavity the nose is separated by the hard palate. On the external nose, scattered near the tip, are numerous hairs, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. These glands are very liable to get blocked, giving rise to inflamed spots, and when hairs are pulled out small abscesses are apt to form.
Membrane.—The whole of the interior surface is lined with mucous membrane, and as this has a large area, and is very well supplied with blood, it raises the temperature of inspired air. The mucous membrane of the nose is continuous with that of the pharynx. Any inflammation, such as that which constitutes a “cold in the head,” is therefore extremely liable to extend backward and finally reach the bronchial tubes and lungs.
Over this membrane spread a multitude of small threads or nerves resembling the twigs of a branch; there are many such branches within the nostril, and they join together so as to form larger branches, which may be compared to the boughs of a tree. These finally terminate in a number of stems, or trunks, several for each nostril, which pass upward through apertures provided for them in the roof of the arched cavity, and terminate in the brain.
We have thus, as it were, a leafless nerve-tree whose roots are in the brain, and whose boughs, branches, and twigs spread over the lining membrane of the nostril. This nerve is termed theOlfactory.
When we wish to smell anything—for example, a flower—we close our lips and draw in our breath, and the air which is thus made to enter the nose carries with it the odorous matter, and brings it in contact with the ramifications of the nerve of smell. Every inspiration of air, whether the mouth is closed or not, causes any odorous substance present in that air to touch the expanded filaments of the nerve.
In virtue of this contact or touching of the nerve and the volatile scent, the mind becomes conscious of odor, though how it does so we know as little as how the mind sees or hears; we are quite certain, however, that if the olfactory nerve be destroyed, the sense of smell is lost.
Besides its endowment by the olfactory nerve, or nerve proper of smell, the nostril, especially at its lower part, is covered by branches of another nerve (known to anatomists as the fifth), of the same nature as those which are found endowing every part of the body with the susceptibility of heat, cold, smoothness, roughness, pleasure, and pain. It is on this nerve that pungent vapors, such as those of smelling-salts, strong vinegar, mustard, and the like, make the sharp impression with which all are familiar.
Can the Sense of Smell be Educated?—The extent to which the sense of smell may be educated far exceeds what most imagine can be realized from this sense. There are probably as many odors as there are colors or sounds; and the compass of one nostril in reference to the first, likely differs as widely from that of another, as the compass of the eye or the ear does in reference to the last two. The wine merchant, the distiller of perfumes, the manufacturer of drugs, the grower of scented plants, the epicure in things savory, the tobacco dealer, and many others, have by long training educated themselves to distinguish differences of odor which escape an uneducated and unpracticed nostril, however acute by natural endowment.
Perfumes.—Much importance attaches to the use of perfumes by both ancient and modern civilized nations. But all the ancient nations who had attained to civilization, were addicted to the use of perfumes to an extent to which no modern people at the present day affords any parallel. Not merely as contributing to the luxury of the body were perfumes so prized. They were used at every sacred ceremonial; lavishly expended at the public religious services; and largely employed at the solemn rites which were celebrated at the burial of the dead.
The organ of taste is generally held to be synonymous with the tongue, but, in reality, the throat and the nostril are as much concerned as the tongue in the perception of taste. The power of these portions of the body to distinguish savors mainly depends, as in the case of the eye and the ear, upon their connection with the brain through those fine white nerves which have been already referred to. The tongue and the auxiliary organs of taste are largely supplied with nerves, and through them those sensations are experienced which we connect with the words taste, savor, sapidity; sweet, salt, sour, bitter, and the like.
Membrane of the Tongue.—At certain points the membrane of the tongue forms distinct folds, containing fibrous or muscular tissue, which act to a certain extent as ligaments to the tongue. The most considerable of these folds is termed thefrœnum(or bridle) of the tongue, and connects its anterior free extremity with the lower jaw. Other folds of mucous membrane pass from the base of the tongue to the epiglottis; while from the sides of the base, passing to the soft palate, are seen two folds on either side, the “pillars of the fauces.”
The upper surface of the tongue is divided into two parts by a long furrow, commencing at the tip, and extending back about two-thirds of the tongue’s length.
Muscles of the Tongue.—The muscles of the tongue are usually divided into two groups—viz.: theextrinsicmuscles, which attach the tongue to certain fixed points external to it, and move it on them; and theintrinsicmuscles, which pass from one part of the tongue to another, constitute its chief bulk, and move it on itself. These intrinsic muscular fibers run vertically, transversely, and longitudinally, and are so interlaced as mutually to support one another, and to act with the greatest advantage.
The Bulbs of Taste.—The mucous membrane is invested by stratified cells, which, over the surface of the tongue, cover little vascular projections termed, papillæ. At the back of the tongue are some eight or ten papillæ of quite a different nature, called “circumvallate.” They are arranged to form a V with its angle pointing backward. In the epithelium lining the trenches between the papillæ, curious little bodies called taste-bulbs are lodged. Each taste-bulb looks like a flask-shaped barrel or box, the walls of which are composed of flat elongated cells fitted side by side like the staves of a cask. The taste-bulbs open each by a little pore into the trench, and into the deeper part a nerve enters. The impressions are carried by the nerve directly to the brain in either the fifth or the ninth cranial nerves.
Before the substance can stimulate the terminals it is necessary for its aromatic principles to be in solution. This is generally effected through the agency of the saliva.
Four distinct gustatory qualities are appreciated by the sense of taste—sweetness, bitterness, acidity, and salinity. The intensity of the sensation of taste varies with (1) the area of the surface stimulated, (2) the concentration of the stimulant, (3) the length of the period of application, and (4) the temperature of the substance tasted. Tractile impressions, such as harshness, coolness, and astringency, are erroneously attributed to taste.
Mis-Educated and Educated Taste.—Of all the organs of the senses, that of taste is probably the one which receives the worst usage at our hands. The eye, the ear, and the nose are not educated at all, or their education is left to chance, but the tongue is deliberately mis-educated, perverted, and led astray. We eat what we should not eat; drink what we should not drink: eat too much of what we may eat, and drink too much of what we may drink. And the result is, that we ruin our health, enfeeble our bodies, dull our intellects, brutalize our feelings, and harden our hearts.
Yet assuredly taste has its legitimate domain, and it is as unworthy of man’s true dignity that he should be content to live upon the husks that the swine do eat, as that he should be miserable if he do not fare sumptuously every day. All the other senses have a direct interest in the practical decisions of the sense of taste. Drunkenness and dyspepsia dim the eye, dull the ear, blunt the nostril, and make the hand tremble.
A Victim to the Other Senses.—The sense of taste, in truth, is at the mercy of the other senses; and though it can revenge itself for their neglect or misuse of it, it is a sufferer by its own revenge.
Helpless, selfish, and exacting, the dependent of the other senses, and the servant of the body rather than of the soul, it frequently links us more with the lower animals than with higher existences, and has no element of ethereality about it.
A feast, indeed, may furnish pleasure to every sense, but it is usually not till hunger is appeased that the higher senses are ministered to. But the tongue, as the organ of taste, is the commissary-general, without whose supplies the other senses can achieve no conquests, and it is entitled to its share in the honors assigned to the united five; but its own sword is seldom drawn, and its aspect is not heroic.
The last of the bodily senses isTouch. It has the widest gateway, and largest apparatus of them all; for though we are in the habit of speaking of it as localized in the fingers, it reigns throughout the body, and is the token of life in every part. The nearest approach to death which can occur in a living body, is the condition of paralysis or palsy, a death in life, marked in one of its forms by the loss of that sense of touch which is so marked an endowment of every active, healthy creature.
The tactile susceptibilities of the skin depend, as do the peculiar endowment of the other organs of the senses, on its plentiful supply with those wondrous living nerves, which place in vital communication with each other all the organs of the body, on the one hand; and that, mysterious living center, the brain (and its adjuncts), on the other.
Our simplest conception of an organ of sense is supplied by the finger, which whether it touches or is touched, equally realizes that contact has been made with it, and enables the mind to draw conclusions regarding the qualities of the bodies which impress it. Now, after all, every one of the organs of the senses is but a clothed living nerve conscious of touch, and they differ from each other only in reference to the kind of touch which they can exercise or feel. Keeping in view that to touch and to be touched is in reality the same thing, so far as the impression of a foreign body is concerned, we can justly affirm that the tongue is but a kind of finger, which touches and is touched by savors; that the nostril is touched by odors; the ear by sounds; and the eye by light.
TheHandis emphatically the organ of touch, not merely because the tips of the fingers, besides being richly endowed with those nerves which confer sensitiveness upon the skin of the whole body, possess in addition an unusual supply of certain minute auxiliary bodies, called “tactile corpuscles,” but because the arrangement of the thumb and fingers, and the motions of the wrist, elbow, and arm, give the hand a power of accommodating itself spontaneously to surfaces, which no other part of the body possesses. Moreover, when we speak of the hand as the organ of touch, we do not refer merely to the sensitiveness of the skin of the fingers, but also to that consciousness of pressure upon them in different directions, by means of which we largely judge of form.
When a blind man, for example, plays a musical instrument he is guided in placing hisfingers, not merely by the impression made upon the skin of them, but also by impressions conveyed through the skin to these little bundles of flesh called muscles, which move the fingers.
In many respects the organ of touch, as embodied in the hand, is the most wonderful of the senses. The organs of the other senses are passive, the organ of touch alone is active. The eye, the ear, and the nostril stand simply open: light, sound, and fragrance enter, and we are compelled to see, to hear and to smell; but the hand selects what it shall touch, and touches what it pleases. It puts away from it the things which it hates, and beckons toward it the things which it desires; unlike the eye, which must often gaze transfixed at horrible sights from which it cannot turn; and the ear, which cannot escape from the torture of discordant sounds; and the nostril, which cannot protect itself from hateful odors.
Moreover, the hand cares not only for its own wants, but, when the other organs of the senses are rendered useless, takes their duties upon it. The hand of the blind man goes with him as an eye through the streets, and safely threads for him all the devious ways; it looks for him at the faces of his friends, and tells him whose kindly features are gazing on him; it peruses books for him, and quickens the long hours by its silent readings.
It ministers as willingly to the deaf; and when the tongue is dumb and the ear stopped, its fingers speak eloquently to the eye, and enable it to discharge the unwonted office of a listener.
The organs of all the other senses, also, even in their greatest perfection, are beholden to the hand for the enhancement and the exaltation of their powers.
It constructs for the eye a copy of itself, and thus gives it a telescope with which to range among the stars; and by another copy on a slightly different plan, furnishes it with a microscope, and introduces it into a new world of wonders.
It constructs for the ear the instruments by which it is educated, and sounds them in its hearing till its powers are trained to the full.
It plucks for the nostril the flower which it longs to smell, and distills for it the fragrance which it covets.
As for the tongue, if it had not the hand to serve it, it might abdicate its throne as the “Lord of Taste.” In short, the organ of touch is the minister of its sister senses, and, without any play of words, is the handmaid of them all.
And if the hand thus munificently serves the body, not less amply does it give expression to the genius and the wit, the courage and the affection, the will and the power of man. Put a sword into it, and it will fight for him; put a plow into it, and it will till for him; put a harp into it, and it will play for him; put a pencil into it, and it will paint for him; put a pen into it, and it will speak for him, plead for him, pray for him.
What will it not do? What has it not done? A steam engine is but a larger hand, made to extend its powers by the little hand of man! An electric telegraph is but a long pen for that little hand to write with! All our huge cannon and other weapons of war, with which we so effectually slay our brethern, are only Cain’s hand made bigger, and stronger, and bloodier!
What, moreover, is a ship, a railway, a lighthouse, or a palace—what, indeed, is a whole city, a whole continent of cities, all the cities of the globe, nay, the very globe itself, in so far as man has changed it, but the work of that giant hand, with which the human race, acting as one mighty man, has executed its will!
What an instrument for good it is! What an instrument for evil! and all the day long it never is idle. There is no implement which it cannot wield, and it should never in working hours be without one. It is the one universal craftsman. For the queen’s hand there is the scepter, and for the soldier’s hand the sword; for the carpenter’s hand the saw, and for the smith’s hand the hammer; for the farmer’s hand the plow; for the miner’s hand the pick; for the sailor’s hand the oar; for the painter’s hand the brush; for the sculptor’s hand the chisel; for the poet’s hand the pen; and for the woman’s hand the needle.
For each willing man and woman there is a tool they may learn to handle; for all there is the command, “Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with all thy might.”
Such are the five entrance-ways of knowledge, which John Bunyan quaintly styles Eye-gate, Ear-gate, Nose-gate, Mouth-gate, and Feel-gate.
(Biographical Chart only included in Single Volume Edition.)
THE WORLD’S IMMORTALS AND MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT IN RELIGION, GOVERNMENT, LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY—TABULATED BY CENTURIES AND CLASSIFIED
NOTE—The names of the world’sgreatestmasters are set out in CAPITALS in the respective columns. In general the names are placed in the centuries associated with the greatest achievements of each individual.
CenturiesReligion and Moral ReformFounders of Systems, Great Leaders, Heads of Religious Bodies, Moral and Humane ReformersGovernmentRulers, Military Leaders, Statesmen, Publicists, Diplomats, JuristsLiteraturePoets, Dramatists, Historians, Orators, Essayists, NovelistsFine ArtsArchitects, Sculptors, Painters, MusiciansPhilosophy and EducationPhilosophers, Educators, Psychologists, Moralists, LogiciansScience and IndustryInventors, Discoverers, Engineers, Naturalists, Physicists, Mathematicians, Chemists, Physicians, Biologists4000 B. C. to 1000 B. C.Abraham, Heb. patriarch.MOSES, Heb. lawgiver and leader.Samuel, Heb. judge and leader.ZOROASTER, Persian religious leader and reformer.Menes, Egyptian king.Lugulzaggisi, Babylonian ruler.Sargon I., Babylonian king.Hammurabi, Babylonian ruler and lawgiver.Khufu (Cheops), Egyptian king.Thothmes I., Egyptian king.Thothmes III., Egyptian king and reformer.Rameses II. (Sesostris), Egyptian king.Amenhotep IV., Egyptian king.Literature existed in mere fragments until the time of Homer.HOMER, Greek poet.Ptah-hot-ep, Egypt, moralist.Early architecture, sculpture and painting made notable advances under Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians and Hindus; but no great individual names were connected with it until the time of the Greeks.Philosophy had its rise among the Egyptians and Hindus, followed by the Greeks.Astronomy was the first science cultivated in the world. It was known to the Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks and Chinese.1000 B. C. to 700 B. C.Isaiah, Hebrew prophet (8th century B. C.)David, Hebrew king and poet (10th century B. C.)Solomon, Hebrew king (10th century B. C.)............7th Cent. B. C.700 B. C. to 600 B. C.Jeremiah, Hebrew prophet.Daniel, Hebrew prophet.Josiah, king of Judah.Cyaxeres, king of Media.Draco, Greek legislator.Sappho, Greek poetess..........6th Cent. B. C.600 B. C. to 500 B. C.Ezekiel, Hebrew prophet.CONFUCIUS, Chinese moralist.BUDDHA, founder of Buddhism.Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylonia.Solon, Greek lawgiver.Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens.Croesus, king of Lydia.Cyrus the Great, Persian king.Darius I., king of Persia.Æesop, Greek fabulist.Anacreon, Greek poet.ÆSCHYLUS, Greek poet....Thales, Greek philosopher.Pythagoras, Greek philosopher....5th Cent. B. C.500 B. C. to 400 B. C....Xerxes, king of Persia.Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse.Artaxerxes I., king of Persia.Artaxerxes II., king of Persia.Miltiades, Greek general.PERICLES, Greek statesman.Cimon, Greek commander.Themistocles, Greek statesman.Pindar, Greek poet.Xenophon, Greek historian.HERODOTUS, Greek historian.Euripides, Greek poet.SOPHOCLES, Greek poet.Thucydides, Greek historian.Aristophanes, Greek humorist.Zeuxis, Greek painter.PHIDIAS, Greek sculptor.Ictinus, Greek architect.Polycletus, Greek sculptor and architect.SOCRATES, Greek philosopher.Hippocrates, Greek physician.4th Cent. B. C.400 B. C. to 300 B. C....Philip, king of Macedon.ALEXANDER THE GREAT, Greek conqueror.Ptolemy Soter, governor of Egypt.Seleucus Nicator, king of Syria.Epiminondas, Greek statesman and general.Phocion, Greek general.DEMOSTHENES, Greek orator.Æschines, Greek orator.Menander, Greek comic poet.Apelles, Greek painter.Praxiteles.PLATO, Greek philosopher.ARISTOTLE, Greek philosopher.EUCLID, Greek geometer.3rd Cent. B. C.300 B. C. to 200 B. C....Pyrrhus, Greek king of Epirus.Ptolemy (Phil), king of Egypt.Antiochus Soter, king of Syria.Ptolemy (Ever.), king of Egypt.Antiochus the Great, king of Syria.Scipio Africanus, Roman general.Fabius Maximus, Roman general.Philopœmen, Greek general.HANNIBAL, Carthaginian general.Plautus, Roman comic poet.Ennius, Roman poet.Manetho, Egyptian historian.Bion, Greek poet....Epicurus, Greek philosopher.Zeno, Greek Stoic philosopher.Archimedes, Greek mechanician.2nd Cent. B. C.200 B. C. to 100 B. C....Judas Maccabæus, Jewish leader.Marius, Roman general.Sulla, Roman general, dictator.Cato, Roman censor.Mummius, Roman general.Cato, Roman historian.Terence, Roman comic writer.Polybius, Greek historian..........1st Cent. B. C.100 B. C. to 1 A. D.JESUS CHRIST, born 4 B. C.Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus.Cleopatra, queen of Egypt.Herod the Great, king of Judæa.Tigranes I., king of Armenia.Augustus, first Roman emperor.JULIUS CÆSAR, Roman general.Pompey, Roman general.CICERO, Roman orator.Cæsar, Roman historian.Lucretius, Roman poet-philosopher.Catullus, Roman lyric poet.Sallust, Roman historian.VIRGIL, Roman epic poet.Horace, Roman lyric poet.Livy, Roman historian.......STRABO, Greek geographer.1st Cent. A. D.1 A. D. to 100 A. D.Saint Peter, apostle (?-66).SAINT PAUL, apostle of the Gentiles (10?-65?).Augustus Cæsar, first emperor of Rome (B. C. 63-A. D. 14).LIVY (Titus Livius), Roman historian (59 B. C.-17 A. D.).Caius Cornelius Tacitus, Roman historian (55?-after 117?).PLUTARCH, Greek biographer and moralist (49?-120?)....Epictetus, Roman Stoic philosopher (60-120?).Pliny (Plinius), the elder, Roman naturalist (A. D. 23-79).2nd Cent. A. D.100 A. D. to 200 A. D....Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Roman emperor and philosopher (121-180).Lucian, Greek author (120?-200)...Marcus AureliusAntoninus, Roman emperor, philosopher (121-180).Claudius Ptolemy, Græco-Egyptian astronomer, geographer (2d C. A. D.).Claudius Galen, Roman physician and medical author (130-200?).3rd Cent. A. D.200 A. D. to 300 A. D....ConstantineI., the Great, emperor of Rome (272-337).............4th Cent. A. D.300 A. D. to 400 A. D.Sophronius Eusebius Jerome, Latin father (345?-420).SAINT AUGUSTINE, Numidian bishop of Hippo (354-430)................5th Cent. A. D.400 A. D. to 500 A. D....JustinianI., Byzantine emperor (482?-565).............6th Cent. A. D.500 A. D. to 600 A. D.MOHAMMED, founder of Mohammedanism (571?-632)................7th Cent. A. D.600 A. D. to 700 A. D....Heraclius, Byzantine emperor (reigned 610-641).Abu-Bekr, first caliph of Mecca (571?-635).............8th Cent. A. D.700 A. D. to 800 A. D....Haroun al-Rashid, caliph of Bagdad (reigned 786-809).CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles I., emperor of the West and king of France (742-814).Pepin, Le Bref (the Short), king of the Franks (714?-768).Charles Martel, duke of Austrasia (694-741).Bede, the Venerable, English monk and ecclesiastical historian (672?-735?).Flaccus Albinus Alcuin, English theologian (725?-804)..........9th Cent. A. D.800 A. D. to 900 A. D....ALFRED THE GREAT, king of the West Saxons (849?-901).Al-Mamun, or Al-Mamoun, caliph of Bagdad, philosopher and astronomer (786-833).............10th Cent. A. D.900 A. D. to 1000 A. D....Hugh Capet, king of France (940?-996).OthoI.,the Great, emperor of Germany (912-973).Firdusi, Persian poet (died 1020)....Avicenna, Mohammedan physician and philosopher (980-1037)....11th Cent. A. D.1000 A. D. to 1100 A. D.GREGORY VII., pope (1018?-1085).WilliamI.,the Conqueror, king of England (1027-1087).............12th Cent. A. D.1100 A. D. to 1200 A. D.Saint Bernard, French ecclesiastic (1091-1153).Thomas à Becket, archbishop of Canterbury (1117-1170).Peter Lombard, Italian theologian (1100?-1160?).Richard I., Cœur de Lion, king of England (1157-1199).Frederick I., Barbarossa, emperor of Germany (1121-1190).William of Malmesbury, English historian (1095?-1143)....Pierre Abelard, French scholastic and logician (1079-1142).Averroës, Arabian philosopher and physician (1149?-1198)....13th Cent. A. D.1200 A. D. to 1300 A. D.SAINT FRANCIS OF ASSISI, Italian friar (1182-1226).Saint Dominic, or Domingo de Gusman, Spanish founder of the order of Dominicans (1170-1221).Genghis Khan, Mogul conqueror (1163-1227).Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester (1200?-1265).LouisIX., Saint Louis, king of France (1215-1270).DEGLI ALIGHIERI DANTE, Italian poet (1265-1321).Giovanni Cimabue, father of modern painting, Florentine painter (1240?-1302?).Nicola Pisano, Italian sculptor (1200?-1278).Albertus Magnus, Bavarian philosopher and schoolman (1193?-1280).John Duns Scotus, Scotch scholastic theologian (1265?-1308).SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, Italian scholastic philosopher (1225-1274).Roger Bacon, English monk and scientist (1214-1294).
CenturiesReligion and Moral ReformFounders of Systems, Great Leaders, Heads of Religious Bodies, Moral and Humane ReformersGovernmentRulers, Military Leaders, Statesmen, Publicists, Diplomats, JuristsLiteraturePoets, Dramatists, Historians, Orators, Essayists, Novelists4000 B. C. to 1000 B. C.Abraham, Heb. patriarch.MOSES, Heb. lawgiver and leader.Samuel, Heb. judge and leader.ZOROASTER, Persian religious leader and reformer.Menes, Egyptian king.Lugulzaggisi, Babylonian ruler.Sargon I., Babylonian king.Hammurabi, Babylonian ruler and lawgiver.Khufu (Cheops), Egyptian king.Thothmes I., Egyptian king.Thothmes III., Egyptian king and reformer.Rameses II. (Sesostris), Egyptian king.Amenhotep IV., Egyptian king.Literature existed in mere fragments until the time of Homer.HOMER, Greek poet.Ptah-hot-ep, Egypt, moralist.1000 B. C. to 700 B. C.Isaiah, Hebrew prophet (8th century B. C.)David, Hebrew king and poet (10th century B. C.)Solomon, Hebrew king (10th century B. C.)...7th Cent. B. C.700 B. C. to 600 B. C.Jeremiah, Hebrew prophet.Daniel, Hebrew prophet.Josiah, king of Judah.Cyaxeres, king of Media.Draco, Greek legislator.Sappho, Greek poetess.6th Cent. B. C.600 B. C. to 500 B. C.Ezekiel, Hebrew prophet.CONFUCIUS, Chinese moralist.BUDDHA, founder of Buddhism.Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylonia.Solon, Greek lawgiver.Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens.Croesus, king of Lydia.Cyrus the Great, Persian king.Darius I., king of Persia.Æesop, Greek fabulist.Anacreon, Greek poet.ÆSCHYLUS, Greek poet.5th Cent. B. C.500 B. C. to 400 B. C....Xerxes, king of Persia.Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse.Artaxerxes I., king of Persia.Artaxerxes II., king of Persia.Miltiades, Greek general.PERICLES, Greek statesman.Cimon, Greek commander.Themistocles, Greek statesman.Pindar, Greek poet.Xenophon, Greek historian.HERODOTUS, Greek historian.Euripides, Greek poet.SOPHOCLES, Greek poet.Thucydides, Greek historian.Aristophanes, Greek humorist.4th Cent. B. C.400 B. C. to 300 B. C....Philip, king of Macedon.ALEXANDER THE GREAT, Greek conqueror.Ptolemy Soter, governor of Egypt.Seleucus Nicator, king of Syria.Epiminondas, Greek statesman and general.Phocion, Greek general.DEMOSTHENES, Greek orator.Æschines, Greek orator.Menander, Greek comic poet.3rd Cent. B. C.300 B. C. to 200 B. C....Pyrrhus, Greek king of Epirus.Ptolemy (Phil), king of Egypt.Antiochus Soter, king of Syria.Ptolemy (Ever.), king of Egypt.Antiochus the Great, king of Syria.Scipio Africanus, Roman general.Fabius Maximus, Roman general.Philopœmen, Greek general.HANNIBAL, Carthaginian general.Plautus, Roman comic poet.Ennius, Roman poet.Manetho, Egyptian historian.Bion, Greek poet.2nd Cent. B. C.200 B. C. to 100 B. C....Judas Maccabæus, Jewish leader.Marius, Roman general.Sulla, Roman general, dictator.Cato, Roman censor.Mummius, Roman general.Cato, Roman historian.Terence, Roman comic writer.Polybius, Greek historian.1st Cent. B. C.100 B. C. to 1 A. D.JESUS CHRIST, born 4 B. C.Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus.Cleopatra, queen of Egypt.Herod the Great, king of Judæa.Tigranes I., king of Armenia.Augustus, first Roman emperor.JULIUS CÆSAR, Roman general.Pompey, Roman general.CICERO, Roman orator.Cæsar, Roman historian.Lucretius, Roman poet-philosopher.Catullus, Roman lyric poet.Sallust, Roman historian.VIRGIL, Roman epic poet.Horace, Roman lyric poet.Livy, Roman historian.1st Cent. A. D.1 A. D. to 100 A. D.Saint Peter, apostle (?-66).SAINT PAUL, apostle of the Gentiles (10?-65?).Augustus Cæsar, first emperor of Rome (B. C. 63-A. D. 14).LIVY (Titus Livius), Roman historian (59 B. C.-17 A. D.).Caius Cornelius Tacitus, Roman historian (55?-after 117?).PLUTARCH, Greek biographer and moralist (49?-120?).2nd Cent. A. D.100 A. D. to 200 A. D....Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Roman emperor and philosopher (121-180).Lucian, Greek author (120?-200)3rd Cent. A. D.200 A. D. to 300 A. D....ConstantineI., the Great, emperor of Rome (272-337)....4th Cent. A. D.300 A. D. to 400 A. D.Sophronius Eusebius Jerome, Latin father (345?-420).SAINT AUGUSTINE, Numidian bishop of Hippo (354-430).......5th Cent. A. D.400 A. D. to 500 A. D....JustinianI., Byzantine emperor (482?-565)....6th Cent. A. D.500 A. D. to 600 A. D.MOHAMMED, founder of Mohammedanism (571?-632).......7th Cent. A. D.600 A. D. to 700 A. D....Heraclius, Byzantine emperor (reigned 610-641).Abu-Bekr, first caliph of Mecca (571?-635)....8th Cent. A. D.700 A. D. to 800 A. D....Haroun al-Rashid, caliph of Bagdad (reigned 786-809).CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles I., emperor of the West and king of France (742-814).Pepin, Le Bref (the Short), king of the Franks (714?-768).Charles Martel, duke of Austrasia (694-741).Bede, the Venerable, English monk and ecclesiastical historian (672?-735?).Flaccus Albinus Alcuin, English theologian (725?-804).9th Cent. A. D.800 A. D. to 900 A. D....ALFRED THE GREAT, king of the West Saxons (849?-901).Al-Mamun, or Al-Mamoun, caliph of Bagdad, philosopher and astronomer (786-833)....10th Cent. A. D.900 A. D. to 1000 A. D....Hugh Capet, king of France (940?-996).OthoI.,the Great, emperor of Germany (912-973).Firdusi, Persian poet (died 1020).11th Cent. A. D.1000 A. D. to 1100 A. D.GREGORY VII., pope (1018?-1085).WilliamI.,the Conqueror, king of England (1027-1087)....12th Cent. A. D.1100 A. D. to 1200 A. D.Saint Bernard, French ecclesiastic (1091-1153).Thomas à Becket, archbishop of Canterbury (1117-1170).Peter Lombard, Italian theologian (1100?-1160?).Richard I., Cœur de Lion, king of England (1157-1199).Frederick I., Barbarossa, emperor of Germany (1121-1190).William of Malmesbury, English historian (1095?-1143).13th Cent. A. D.1200 A. D. to 1300 A. D.SAINT FRANCIS OF ASSISI, Italian friar (1182-1226).Saint Dominic, or Domingo de Gusman, Spanish founder of the order of Dominicans (1170-1221).Genghis Khan, Mogul conqueror (1163-1227).Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester (1200?-1265).LouisIX., Saint Louis, king of France (1215-1270).DEGLI ALIGHIERI DANTE, Italian poet (1265-1321).CenturiesFine ArtsArchitects, Sculptors, Painters, MusiciansPhilosophy and EducationPhilosophers, Educators, Psychologists, Moralists, LogiciansScience and IndustryInventors, Discoverers, Engineers, Naturalists, Physicists, Mathematicians, Chemists, Physicians, Biologists4000 B. C. to 1000 B. C.Early architecture, sculpture and painting made notable advances under Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians and Hindus; but no great individual names were connected with it until the time of the Greeks.Philosophy had its rise among the Egyptians and Hindus, followed by the Greeks.Astronomy was the first science cultivated in the world. It was known to the Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks and Chinese.1000 B. C. to 700 B. C..........7th Cent. B. C.700 B. C. to 600 B. C..........6th Cent. B. C.600 B. C. to 500 B. C....Thales, Greek philosopher.Pythagoras, Greek philosopher....5th Cent. B. C.500 B. C. to 400 B. C.Zeuxis, Greek painter.PHIDIAS, Greek sculptor.Ictinus, Greek architect.Polycletus, Greek sculptor and architect.SOCRATES, Greek philosopher.Hippocrates, Greek physician.4th Cent. B. C.400 B. C. to 300 B. C.Apelles, Greek painter.Praxiteles.PLATO, Greek philosopher.ARISTOTLE, Greek philosopher.EUCLID, Greek geometer.3rd Cent. B. C.300 B. C. to 200 B. C....Epicurus, Greek philosopher.Zeno, Greek Stoic philosopher.Archimedes, Greek mechanician.2nd Cent. B. C.200 B. C. to 100 B. C..........1st Cent. B. C.100 B. C. to 1 A. D.......STRABO, Greek geographer.1st Cent. A. D.1 A. D. to 100 A. D....Epictetus, Roman Stoic philosopher (60-120?).Pliny (Plinius), the elder, Roman naturalist (A. D. 23-79).2nd Cent. A. D.100 A. D. to 200 A. D....Marcus AureliusAntoninus, Roman emperor, philosopher (121-180).Claudius Ptolemy, Græco-Egyptian astronomer, geographer (2d C. A. D.).Claudius Galen, Roman physician and medical author (130-200?).3rd Cent. A. D.200 A. D. to 300 A. D..........4th Cent. A. D.300 A. D. to 400 A. D..........5th Cent. A. D.400 A. D. to 500 A. D..........6th Cent. A. D.500 A. D. to 600 A. D..........7th Cent. A. D.600 A. D. to 700 A. D..........8th Cent. A. D.700 A. D. to 800 A. D..........9th Cent. A. D.800 A. D. to 900 A. D..........10th Cent. A. D.900 A. D. to 1000 A. D....Avicenna, Mohammedan physician and philosopher (980-1037)....11th Cent. A. D.1000 A. D. to 1100 A. D..........12th Cent. A. D.1100 A. D. to 1200 A. D....Pierre Abelard, French scholastic and logician (1079-1142).Averroës, Arabian philosopher and physician (1149?-1198)....13th Cent. A. D.1200 A. D. to 1300 A. D.Giovanni Cimabue, father of modern painting, Florentine painter (1240?-1302?).Nicola Pisano, Italian sculptor (1200?-1278).Albertus Magnus, Bavarian philosopher and schoolman (1193?-1280).John Duns Scotus, Scotch scholastic theologian (1265?-1308).SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, Italian scholastic philosopher (1225-1274).Roger Bacon, English monk and scientist (1214-1294).
THE WORLD’S IMMORTALS AND MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT IN RELIGION, GOVERNMENT, LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY—TABULATED BY CENTURIES